A Voltage source is a two terminal device which can maintain a fixed voltage.

[1] An ideal voltage source

can maintain the fixed voltage independent of the load resistance or the output current. However, a realworld voltage source cannot supply unlimited current. A voltage source is the dual of a current source.
Real-world sources of electrical energy, such as batteries, generators, and power systems, can be
modeled for analysis purposes as a combination of an ideal voltage source and additional combinations
of impedance elements.

Added/subtracted in series; must be same in parallel

A current source is an electronic circuit that delivers or absorbs an electric current which is independent
of the voltage across it.
A current source is the dual of a voltage source. The term constant-current 'sink' is sometimes used for
sources fed from a negative voltage supply. Figure 1 shows the schematic symbol for an ideal current
source, driving a resistor load. There are two types - an independent current source (or sink) delivers a
constant current. A dependent current source delivers a current which is proportional to some other
voltage or current in the circuit.

Added/subtracted in parallel; must be same in series

Electromotive force, also called emf[1] (denoted and measured in volts), is the voltage developed by
any source of electrical energy such as a battery or dynamo.[2]
The word "force" in this case is not used to mean mechanical force, measured in newtons, but a potential,
or energy per unit of charge, measured in volts.
In electromagnetic induction, emf can be defined around a closed loop as the electromagnetic work that
would be transferred to a unit of charge if it travels once around that loop.[3] (While the charge travels
around the loop, it can simultaneously lose the energy via resistance into thermal energy.) For a timevarying magnetic flux impinging a loop, the electric potential scalar field is not defined due to circulating

electric vector field, but nevertheless an emf does work that can be measured as a virtual electric
potential around that loop.[4]

The electrical resistance of an electrical conductor is the opposition to the passage of an electric
current through that conductor; the inverse quantity is electrical conductance, the ease at which an
electric current passes. Electrical resistance shares some conceptual parallels with the mechanical notion
of friction. The SI unit of electrical resistance is the ohm (), while electrical conductance is measured
in siemens (S).
In electronics or EET, a voltage divider (also known as a potential divider) is a linear circuit that
produces an output voltage (Vout) that is a fraction of its input voltage (Vin). Voltage division refers to the
partitioning of a voltage among the components of the divider.
An example of a voltage divider consists of two resistors in series or a potentiometer. It is commonly used
to create a reference voltage, or to get a low voltage signal proportional to the voltage to be measured,
and may also be used as a signal attenuator at low frequencies. For direct current and relatively low
frequencies, a voltage divider may be sufficiently accurate if made only of resistors; where frequency
response over a wide range is required (such as in an oscilloscope probe), the voltage divider may have
capacitive elements added to allow compensation for load capacitance. In electric power transmission, a
capacitive voltage divider is used for measurement of high voltage.

UNITS:

C : coulomb (named for Charles Augustin de Coulomb, who formulated his

namesake law calculating force on a particle due to charge), charge
F: farad (named for Michael Faraday, who established the basis for the concept of the
electromagnetic field in physics, discovered that magnets could affect rays of light, the principles
of electromagnetic induction and diamagnetism, and electrolysis laws; induction namesake law
predicts how a magnetic field will interact with an electric circuit to produce an electromotive
force), capacitance
A: ampere (named for Andre-Marie Ampere, who developed Ampres law, which
states that the mutual action of two lengths of current-carrying wire is proportional to their lengths
and to the intensities of their currents), current (BASE), 1 A = 1 C / 1 s

V: volt (named for Alessandro Volta, inventor of the battery), voltage

: ohm (named for Georg Ohm, formulator of Ohms law (I=V/R)), resistance

Series circuit:
1) Christmas Light strings - the little bulbs are in series.
2) Batteries in the remote - they are in series, say 4 pieces X 1.5V = 6Volt
3) A Voltage Divider - 2 resistors in series, across one of them you get a desired voltage (which is
smaller than the total voltage).
Parallel circuits:
1) A Chandelier - all the light bulbs are in parallel.
2) Everything in your house - all appliances are in parallel to the mains supply.
3) A Power divider - 2 resistors in parallel, which share the power dissipation (heat).
In electronics, impedance matching is the practice of designing the input impedance of an electrical
load (or the output impedance of its corresponding signal source) to maximize the power transfer or
minimize reflections from the load.
Impedance matching is a technique of electric circuit design in which one component provides
power to another, and the output circuit of the first component has the same impedance as the input
circuit of the second component. Maximum power transfer is achieved when the impedances in both
circuits are exactly the same. Impedance matching is important wherever power needs to be
transmitted efficiently, as in the design of power lines, transformers, and signal-processing devices
such as audio and computer circuits.

The term impedance matching is rather straightforward. Its simply defined as the process
of making one impedance look like another. Frequently, it becomes necessary to match a
load impedance to the source or internal impedance of a driving source.
A wide variety of components and circuits can be used for impedance matching. This series
summarizes the most common impedance-matching techniques.
Rationale And Concept
The maximum power-transfer theorem says that to transfer the maximum amount of power
from a source to a load, the load impedance should match the source impedance. In the
basic circuit, a source may be dc or ac, and its internal resistance (R i) or generator output
impedance (Zg) drives a load resistance (RL) or impedance (ZL) (Fig. 1):
RL = Ri or ZL = Zg

Fig 1. Maximum power is transferred from a source to a load when the load resistance
equals the internal resistance of the source.

The key function of an ideal diode is to control the direction of current-flow. Current passing
through a diode can only go in one direction, called the forward direction. Current trying to flow
the reverse direction is blocked. Theyre like the one-way valve of electronics.
If the voltage across a diode is negative, no current can flow*, and the ideal diode looks like an open
circuit. In such a situation, the diode is said to be off or reverse biased.
As long as the voltage across the diode isnt negative, itll turn on and conduct current. Ideally* a
diode would act like a short circuit (0V across it) if it was conducting current. When a diode is
conducting current its forward biased (electronics jargon for on).

The electronic color code is used to indicate the values or ratings of electronic components, very
commonly for resistors, but also for capacitors, inductors, and others. A separate code, the25-pair color
code, is used to identify wires in some telecommunications cables.
The electronic color code was developed in the early 1920s by the Radio Manufacturers Association (now
part of Electronic Industries Alliance[1] (EIA)), and was published as EIA-RS-279. The current international
standard is IEC 60062.[2]
Colorbands were commonly used (especially on resistors) because they were easily printed on tiny
components, decreasing construction costs. However, there were drawbacks, especially forcolor
blind people. Overheating of a component, or dirt accumulation, may make it impossible to distinguish
brown from red from orange. Advances in printing technology have made printed numbers practical for
small components, which are often found in modern electronics.

A Wheatstone bridge is an electrical circuit used to measure an unknown electrical resistance by

balancing two legs of a bridge circuit, one leg of which includes the unknown component. Its
operation is similar to the original potentiometer. It was invented by Samuel Hunter Christie in 1833
and improved and popularized by Sir Charles Wheatstone in 1843. One of the Wheatstone bridge's
initial uses was for the purpose of soils analysis and comparison. [1]

In the figure,
is the unknown resistance to be measured;
,
and
are resistors of known
resistance and the resistance of
is adjustable. If the ratio of the two resistances in the known
leg
is equal to the ratio of the two in the unknown leg
, then the voltage between the
two midpoints (B and D) will be zero and no current will flow through the galvanometer . If the bridge is
unbalanced, the direction of the current indicates whether
is too high or too low.
is varied until
there is no current through the galvanometer, which then reads zero.
Detecting zero current with a galvanometer can be done to extremely high accuracy. Therefore, if
,
and
are known to high precision, then
can be measured to high precision. Very small changes
in
disrupt the balance and are readily detected.
At the point of balance, the ratio of

Alternatively, if
,
, and
are known, but
is not adjustable, the voltage difference across or
current flow through the meter can be used to calculate the value of
, using Kirchhoff's circuit
laws (also known as Kirchhoff's rules). This setup is frequently used in strain gauge and resistance
thermometer measurements, as it is usually faster to read a voltage level off a meter than to adjust a
resistance to zero the voltage.

RC Circuits: capacitor acts as short circuit when first connected (uncharged),

acts as open circuit when charged