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Most
are using some combination of mite control agents and being proactive.
The advice from successful beekeepers is that regular monitoring of mite
levels is critical. If you wait until you are seeing mites on your bees,
youre starting too late!
Eric Mussen points out that you should not forget to deal with tracheal
mite and Nosema disease if necessary, since hes seeing a fair share of
colonies damaged by each. If colonies are stressed by mites and disease in
Fall, your Fall colony count may have little relationship to the number of
strong colonies youll have in February! Indeed, many mite-stressed
colonies simply collapse in the orchard the first week of bloom.
Most successful beekeepers in pollination feed their colonies with syrup
and pollen supplement to boost colony strength in late Summer. If you
want big bees in February, you need to go into Winter with a large
cluster of well-fed young bees free of disease (for great info, search Eric
Mussens web
pageshttp://entomology.ucdavis.edu/faculty/mussen/news_index1.html).
2.
The European honey bee has not yet reached a stable relationship with its relatively new
parasite, the varroa mite. In a typical, untreated colony, the mite level is at its lowest point
about Christmas time. The mite population increases through the spring, reproducing
especially in drone brood (a key point to remember). The colony generally tolerates the
mites during this time, since the bees are reproducing faster than the mites, and drone
brood is more expendable than worker brood. Then in late July or August (depending on
your area) three things happen: the bees stop raising drones, they cut back on brood
rearing, and the mite population peaks. At this point in time, there are a large number of
mites relative to the small amount of worker brood to parasitize, and the developing
workers are either killed outright, stressed to the point that they are susceptible to viruses
(especially Deformed Wing Virus), or too weakened to become productive workers.
Unfortunately, this is the generation of workers that must support the colony through winter.
The result is that the Varroa-stressed colony collapses sometime between fall and early
spring. Commonly, the beekeeper observes an active colony in the fall, then some weeks
later, there are absolutely no bees, and an abandoned hive full of honey. To make matters
worse, as the colony collapses, other colonies will rob it out, and in the process carry mites
back to the robbing colonythis is the main mode of dispersal of the mite to new colonies
(Goodwin 2006).
3.
In preparing for our brass-knuckled assault on our enemy, we must know
its weak spots (Ive put them in boldface). Unfortunately, during the
period that mite populations are building, about two thirds of the mites at
any time are safely hidden in sealed brood, protected by the silken bee
pupal cocoon. Only a few volatile miticides can penetrate the cocoon
notably formic acid and thymol. In the process, however, these two
treatments also kill a percentage of the bee brood.
So, other than using a cocoon-penetrating fumigant, we must hit the mite
when it is most vulnerablein the phoretic (hitchhiking) stage. There
are two times to do that: when the colony is broodless (during winter, or
made broodless by manipulation), or when the mite is feeding on adult
bees prior to entering a cell.
Heres the biology: a female foundress mite enters a cell when (or just
before) the bee larva is in the propupal stage, but before it spins its
cocoon. This occurs about day 8-10 after the bee egg is laid. The
foundress mite and any mature daughters emerge with the adult bee on
day 21 (if the bee survives until then). Therefore, the mite is hidden for
only about 10-12 days. The adult female must then spend from 4 to 15
days sucking the blood of adult bees (usually on nurse bees in the brood
nest area) before she is ready to enter a cell and start egg laying. A
female mite can live for 3-4 breeding cycles. Reproductive success
averages roughly 1-2 viable offspring in worker cells, and 2-3 in drone
cells. Because of this low rate, in order for the mite population to
increase, female mites must invade a cell and reproduce more than
once during their lifetimes. Most all methods of beating up the mite focus
on its vulnerability during the phoretic stage.
The varroa life cycle takes about 11-12 days in the cell, then several days
in the phoretic stage on adult bees. Credit needed.
One other aspect of mite biology is of note: the foundress mite is
more attracted to, and successfully rears more offspring in, drone
brood than in worker brood (on its natural host, Apis cerana, the mite
reproduces only on drone pupae), due to the drones larger size and
longer developmental period. We can use this fact against our enemy.
Another biological aspect of varroa worth noting is its amazing ability to
quickly develop genetic resistance to chemical miticides (at least the
synthetic ones that have only one mode of action). Once in a cell, the
foundress mite lays a male egg first, then female eggs thereafter. The
male mite mates with his sisters, and dies when the cell is opened. This
inbreeding locks in successful genetic mutations that might have allowed
a particular foundress mite to survive a chemical treatment.
You may have noted that I have not discussed our allies in this battlethe
bees (who have a vested interest in surviving). I will cover their
contributions further along.
Our Contribution to the Problem
Youre all familiar with selective breeding for better bees. Be aware that
we have also been breeding for better mites. That is, mites that can
survive our repeated Silver Bullet attacks. Specifically, we have been
applying selective pressures to favor mites that:
1. Evolve resistance to miticides
hitting them softly. Only if they are over that level would you consider
hitting them hard with some sort of strong chemical (you want to save
your strong chemicals like a pistol in your back pocket, just in case things
start to get out of hand).
Third, lets make it generally miserable for the mite to survive, reproduce
and disperse; and do all we can to help our bees fight the mite on their
own. These tactics fall under Biotechnical Methods.
One biotechnical method is trapping mites in sacrificial drone brood. Im
inserting a drone trap frame in February in an almond orchard.
Fourth, now that youve done the first three steps, that may be all you
have to do to maintain a truce with varroa! Unfortunately, most of us
will still have to keep fighting. The next step in IPM isSoft Treatments, i.e.,
chemicals that kill a moderate proportion of the mites, are gentle on the
bees, and unlikely to contaminate the combs.
ApiLife Var was one of the first soft treatments. Its main active
ingredient is thymol, along with eucalyptol, menthol, and camphor.
Fifth, if soft treatments still havent done the job, and you need to do
something drastic to keep your colony alive, then pull out a Hard
Treatment. The temptation may be to just go straight to hard treatments
each year, but in the long run that would just put us back on the Silver
Bullet treadmill, since the mites will likely develop resistance to any hard
treatment used yearly. So we will use hard treatments sparingly.
The mites success is based upon four main tactics:
1. It hides in the brood (where its hard for us, or the bee, to hit it).
2. It inbreeds, which lets it quickly lock in miticide-resistance mutations.
3. It reproduces relatively slowly, but exponentially, especially in the
drone brood. (A weakness: this requires female mites to invade cells
multiple times, and thereby expose themselves).
4. It spreads by weakening or killing the colony so that it can hitchhike on
robber bees to infest new colonies.
Since we humor ourselves to be smarter than the mite, lets throw a stick
into the gears of each of its tactics. What we want to do is to punch the
mite from several directions, with each blow coming from a different
brass knuckle that only kills, say half of them, so there is less selective
pressure for the mite to evolve resistance to any one of our methods. The
rationale for this is:
you away from critical beekeeping tasks), is going to need a laboreffective strategy.
4.
5.
Both the mite and bee population are at their lowest just before the first
brood emerges in spring. The bee population climbs at a quicker rate than
the mite population until midsummer, when the bees start to ramp down.
The mites get off to a slower start, and then hit their stride during drone
rearing season in spring and summer. Note how the mite to bee
infestation ratio climbs dramatically in early September. When that occurs,
the bees really feel the impact of varroabrood is stressed or dies,
viruses run rampant, and the generation of bees that will form the winter
cluster is weakened and vulnerable. For a review of the insults that varroa
parasitism visits upon a honeybee colony, see the excellent New Zealand
guide cited at the end of this article.
A key point to remember is that the relative infestation (percent, or mites
per 100 bees) is more important than total mite populationa large colony
can handle more mites than a small one. At much above a 2% infestation
in spring, honey production drops off severely. At much above 5% in fall,
colony winter survival suffers (although the fall economic injury
threshold numbers by various authors range from 1% to 11%) (Currie &
Gatien 2006). We will return to percent infestation, and economic injury
levels in my next article.
Unchecked, varroa can really multiply! A 12-fold increase is typical in a
short season consisting of 128 days of brood rearing (Martin 1998).
However, its population can increase 100- to 300-fold if broodrearing is
continuous! (Martin and Kemp 1997).
There are also major confounding factors. Some years, mite populations
are low across the board (possibly due to hot, dry weather) and no
treatment is required (Harris, et al 2003; and personal observations). In
any apiary, there is usually huge colony-to-colony variation in mite levels,
especially if one is using a variety of queen lines. If there is a reservoir of
collapsing colonies nearby, mite invasion can make your best mite-fighting
efforts moot. Finally, tracheal mites, nosema, viruses, and chemically
contaminated combs can cause even relatively low mite levels to be fatal
to the colony.
6.
Any general would be foolish to commence a battle without first assessing
the strength of his enemy. A beekeeper practicing integrated pest
management against varroa is no different. The problem with varroa is
that by the time you start to notice mites on the bees during normal
colony management, they may have already built up to a damaging
level. That is, varroa are rather inconspicuous due to the fact that about
two thirds of them are hidden in the brood, and the phoretic (hitchhiking)
mites are usually hiding on the undersides of bees, where the beekeeper
cant see them. One must also add the unspoken fact that Joe beekeeper
doesnt really want to see mites, since if he doesnt see any, he can enjoy
the pleasant fantasy that they are under control.
Because of the difficulty of gauging the degree of varroa infestation
during normal colony inspection, the vigilant beekeeper must sample his
colonies for mites in a timely manner in order to determine what efforts he
needs to be making to keep the mite population at a tolerable level. By
tolerable, I mean below the level at which mites are likely to cause, or
are on track to cause, economic injury to the colonyslower buildup, less
honey production, a viral epidemic, poor wintering, or at worst, colony
collapse. That level will vary greatly by time of season, as detailed in my
previous article on mite population dynamics.
from 400 to 800 in June will start to stress the bees. The July mite
population doubles again from 800 to 1600, and now the bees are
definitely stressed, honey production is hurt, and viruses start to
spread. What youre most concerned with, is any further doubling once
the total mite population passes the 1000 mark (a daily sticky count of
around 25, or 4-5 mites in a 300-bee jar sample). Once they pass this
level, they appear to explode. If you reach this level in mid August, just
before the mite population peaks, no problem. But if you reach it in early
July, youd better pull your honey supers and knock em back!
The current level of viruses in bees will often lead to a colony collapse at a
total mite level of only 1000 mites.
Based upon the fact that mite-tolerant races of bees rarely allow varroa to
exceed a 2% infestation, my current recommendation is :
As a general goal, try to keep the mite level below a 1% infestation of
adult bee at any time
24-hr natural sticky fallabout 10 mites
Ether roll or sugar shake of 300 bees about 3 mites
10-min sugar dust dropabout 5-10 mites
7.
Drone Brood Management and Trap Combs
The first punch that were going to hit the mite with is based upon the fact
that varroa reproduces rather poorly in worker brood, but is nearly three
times more successful in drone brood, due to its longer postcapping
period. Its not surprising then, that female mites prefer drone brood by a
factor of roughly 10 to 1 (reported figures range from 4:1 12:1). The
mites, being tiny and blind, apparently recognize nurse bees by odor
(Dillier 2004), and ride around on them until they smell a drone larva of
the right age. Since nurse bees spend much more time feeding drone
larvae than worker larvae (Calderone & Kuenen 2003), the mites have
ample opportunity to come into contact with drone larvae.
A feral colony of bees builds about 17% drone comb (Seely 2002). Rapid
mite reproduction in this amount of drone brood largely accounts for the
decimation of the feral bees by the mite. The stimulus to build drone
combs is good forage (at any time of the year), with a negative feedback
from drone brood already existing (Charriere, et al. 2003). Beekeepers, by
using worker-sized foundation, can typically keep drone cells down to
about 4% if they regularly cull old combs. However, colonies will normally
produce temporary drone cells in the space between the brood chambers
in spring. Indeed, a quick inspection of the exposed drone brood when you
break the brood chambers apart can give you an indication of varroa
infestation level.
The beekeeper practicing varroa IPM can minimize varroa reproduction by
managing the amount of drone comb in his colonies. This is especially
important since hygienic bees remove only infested worker pupae, not
drone pupae. Ive already mentioned the importance of culling old combs
with drone cells. Wilkinson and Smith (2000, 2001) modeled the effects of
drone brood management. They state: At 5% drone brood, as many mites
are emerging from 50-60 drone cells as from 1000 worker cells. This
certainly emphasizes the importance of drone brood in mite population
growth, and the need for beekeepers to prevent large quantities of drone
brood being reared unnecessarily and being left to emerge in the hive.
They suggest regular and ruthless culling of the old combs and the
badly built combs. Their model predicted that reducing drone brood from
4% to 3.2% would reduce the mite population growth rate by 25%! They
suggest that drone brood is more important to mite growth at low mite
levels, since drone brood capacity for mites reaches its limit before that of
worker brood.
Clearly, the beekeeper should cull frames containing drone comb.
However, we can go even a step further, and use drone comb to trap
mites, and then remove those mites from the colony. This process is called
drone comb trapping, and is widely used with great success in other
parts of the world. The concept is simple: insert a frame of drone comb
into a colony at the edge of the brood nest, allow the queen to fill it with
drone eggs, wait while the mites infest the cells, then remove the frame
before the mites emerge. Theoretically (Wilkinson & Smith 2002), trapping
with one deep drone frame once a month for four months will delay the
mite population from reaching a damaging level for 2-4 months; two
frames monthly will delay it for a year.
In his study (Calderone 2005), two combs were replaced monthly from
June through September. Mite levels were kept to about 2.5% (ranging
from 0-7%)up to 10 times less than control colonies! The drone-trapped
colonies also made more honey!
Here are the advantages of this design:
1. It takes only about 15 seconds per colony to open the lid, remove the
comb, cut out the drone comb with your hive tool, replace the frame, and
close the lid. Its so fast that we dont even close the door to the truck
when we hit a yard! No freezing or extra work is required.
2. Since the bees must build comb from scratch, the queen can only lay so
many drone eggs per day. This restraint extends the period that the
combs are actually trapping mites.
3. Since the combs are returned to the same hive, there is no spread of
disease from colony to colony.
Points to remember:
1. A full comb removed monthly will generally keep mite levels below
threshold.
2. Two full combs would be even better.
3. Two combs, alternately removed every other week, would likely be best.
4. Do not forget to remove the combs at 4 weeks, or youll be breeding
mites!
What I realized was that the problem wasnt that sugar dusting didnt
work, but that I was not measuring its efficacy the right way! So I looked
to the literature for measured levels of efficacy of an in-hive sugar
dusting. To my surprise, there werent any. Fakhimzadeh had only
measured the increase in daily mite drop and Aliano and Ellis (2005) had
recorded a 75% mite drop only from caged bees. I contacted every
researcher and beekeeper I could for an in-hive efficacy figure, but no one
had one. So I collected the hard data myself, by dusting three test
colonies (one, two, and three story), measuring the mite drop for the first
hour, and then sacrificing all the bees in the colonies and washing the
mites from them. I will write up a full version of the results when we
complete testing, but in short,about a third of all phoretic mites in a
colony drop in the first hour after dusting!
I set up a simple mite population growth curve based upon a starting
population of 100 mites, and a reasonable 2.4% daily mite growth rate
(Martin 1998). Then I killed 1/6 of the total mite population at each
dusting, based upon killing half of the one-third of the total mite
population that is phoretic at any given time during the treatment period
of March 1 through September 1. This model is very crude, and doesnt
account for amount of drone brood, multiple infestation, or other
variables, and should only be used to give us a rough idea of the
feasibility of the technique. I must admit, the results surprised me in how
closely they reflected field experience! Clearly, powdered sugar dusting as
a mite control measure has proven field efficacy, plus a mathematical
model to support it.
emergence. This makes the mortality of the phoretic mites more important
than their proportion might indicate. Recall from my discussion of mite
population dynamics that that a female mite needs to average 2-3
reproductive cycles for varroa populations to grow at the pace that we see
in the field. If sugar dusting knocks a mite down early in her life, she will
be unable to complete multiple cycles. The surprising effectiveness of
sugar dusting may due to its impact on the average number of
reproductive cycles that a mite can complete.
8.