Journal of Vocational Behavior 80 (2012) 380389

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Journal of Vocational Behavior

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jvb

Spending time: The impact of hours worked on workfamily conict

Cheryl L. Adkins a,, Sonya F. Premeaux b
a
b

Longwood University, College of Business and Economics, 201 High Street, Farmville, VA 23909, USA
University of Arkansas at Little Rock, College of Business, 2801 S. University Avenue, Little Rock, AR 72204, USA

a r t i c l e

i n f o

Article history:
Received 16 July 2011
Available online 1 October 2011
Keywords:
Workfamily conflict
Familywork conflict
Work hours

a b s t r a c t
Scholars have long assumed that as workers spend more time at work fewer hours are available for their non-work lives leading to negative effects in both domains, and most studies
examining the impact of work hours on work and life domains have supported this viewpoint.
However, the majority of these studies have used one-dimensional measures of workfamily
conflict (WFC) and familywork conflict (FWC) on homogenous samples which included primarily married managers and professionals with children. Further, despite calls to examine
non-linear relationships between work hours and WFC and FWC, few studies have done so.
This study uses multi-dimensional measures to examine the linear and non-linear (quadratic)
effects of work hours on WFC and FWC in a heterogeneous sample and examines the moderating effects of several work and family characteristics on these relationships. The findings indicate that whereas work hours have a linear relationship with WFC, the relationship between
work hours and FWC is curvilinear. Managerial support was found to moderate the relationship
between work hours and one dimension of FWC. Number of children moderated the relationships between work hours and WFC and another dimension of FWC.
2011 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Time is a fixed income and, as with any income, the real problem facing most of us is how to live successfully within our
daily allotment.
Margaret B. Johnstone (1960)

As the opening epigraph illustrates, time is a limited quantity and the more time that is expended on work, the less that is
available for home and family. For the most part, many Americans are thought to suffer from a time bind, whereby the hours
that workers spend at work have a negative impact on their non-work lives (Hochschild, 1997). Many researchers have long
held that as the number of hours an individual spends on work increases, conflict between the individual's work and home
lives increases as well, and that these negative effects extend to other work and life outcomes. This is in keeping with the scarcity
hypothesis which suggests that the more roles one occupies, and the more one's time is divided between those roles, the less that
will be available for any specific role (Barnett & Gareis, 2000). Logically, as time spent on work increases and time available for
home and family decreases, workfamily conflict (WFC) will increase. Further, as DiRenzo, Greenhaus, and Weer (2011) noted,
increased working hours may also result in increasing interference between work and family responsibilities, thus resulting in
familywork conflict (FWC).
Previous empirical investigations into the relationship between hours worked and outcomes, including WFC and FWC, have
generally found a positive relationship between hours worked and WFC (e.g. Barnett, 1998; Byron, 2005; Eby, Casper, Lockwood,

Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: adkinscl@longwood.edu (C.L. Adkins), sfpremeaux@ualr.edu (S.F. Premeaux).
0001-8791/$ see front matter 2011 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.jvb.2011.09.003

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381

Bordeaux, & Brinley, 2005; Ganster & Bates, 2003). For example, Major, Klein, and Ehrhart (2002) found that work time was significantly and positively related to WFC and that WFC mediated the relationship between the number of hours spent on work and
psychological distress. Fu and Shaffer (2001) also found that hours spent on paid work amplified WFC. Although previous studies
have examined the relationship between hours worked and WFC, many studies of WFC in general, and by extension, studies of
the relationship between work hours and WFC have often used samples of managerial and professional employees (Byron,
2005; DiRenzo et al., 2011; Eby et al., 2005), thus not examining the effect of long work hours (and other correlates of WFC
and FWC) in samples of hourly workers. Earlier samples also tended to focus primarily on married employees with children,
thus overlooking single employees and single parents. Similarly, a variety of measures of WFC have been used, but many have
been one-dimensional, even including single-item measures. While some studies have also examined the relationship between
hours and FWC, again, one-dimensional measures of FWC have been used. Despite Barnett's (1998) call to examine non-linear
relationships between work hours and WFC/FWC, few studies have done so. Nor have they examined work and non-work variables that are potential moderators of the relationship between hours of work and WFC and FWC.
The purpose of the present paper is to examine the relationship between hours worked and workfamily and dimensions of
familywork conflict, using a heterogeneous sample of employees in seven work organizations. The employees in our sample
worked in jobs ranging from production and clerical to managerial and professional jobs. We examine both linear and nonlinear
relationships between hours worked and WFC and FWC in conjunction with family and job variables which may affect these
relationships. We do this using a sample of workers doing a wide variety of jobs across multiple organizations, who represent a
variety of family structures. We use a more molecular measure of workfamily and familywork conflict so that we can examine
the relationship between hours worked and specific family roles including the roles associated with being a spouse or partner, the
parental role, homecare role and leisure role. This approach to tapping WFC answers the call to examine WFC at a more molecular
level, including the various roles that individuals play in their lives (Kossek & Ozeki, 1998; Lambert, 1990). This method should
help us more fully understand not only if the number of hours worked contributes to WFC and FWC, but also which roles
are affected and how, thus examining predictions consistent with role theory.
Theory and hypotheses
Two theoretical perspectives which may be used to address the relationship between hours worked and outcomes are role
theory and the conservation of resources model. Role theory would suggest that individuals play multiple roles, and since time
is a finite resource, when hours spent in one role increase, there is potential for inter-role conflict due to fewer hours left to allocate to other roles (Kahn, Wolfe, Quinn, Snoek, & Rosenthal, 1964). Fulfilling the demands associated with one role necessarily
reduces the number of hours available to allocate to other roles; thus, according to role theory, fulfillment of one role inevitably
leads to fewer available hours for others, and plausibly results in greater conflict. Even if multiple roles are fulfilled simultaneously, such as by bringing work home to be with one's family, the often inconsistent expectations of the work and family roles would
lead to less energy and attention for each role. Time may in such instances be maximized to accommodate multiple roles; however, conflict would still be likely.
The conservation of resources (COR) model (Hobfoll, 1989) is another theoretical perspective that is useful in studies of WFC
(e.g. Grandey & Cropanzano, 1999). The COR model theorizes that individuals attempt to get and keep resources. Resources are
defined as those objects, personal characteristics, conditions, or energies that are valued by the individual or that serve as a
means for attainment of these objects (Hobfoll, 1989, p. 516). Resources, including social support, autonomy, established
behavior-outcome (i.e., reward) contingencies, and so on (Hobfoll, 1989; Lee & Ashforth, 1996; Wright & Hobfoll, 2004), may
be used in problem solving and coping (Greenhaus & Powell, 2006). Stress may result when an individual perceives a potential
loss of resources, when there is an actual loss of resources, or when an expected resource gain does not materialize.
The COR model suggests that conflict between employees' home and work lives may deplete resources, or fuel perceptions of
depleted resources, and thus lead to negative outcomes which may include workfamily and familywork conflict. Anything that
serves to replenish these resources should lead to lower WFC/FWC and positive outcomes, while factors that serve to deplete
these resources should lead to higher WFC/FWC and negative outcomes.
Valcour (2007), in a study of telephone call center representatives, found that the relationship between work hours and
satisfaction with workfamily balance was moderated by control over work time. There was no relationship between work
hours and satisfaction with workfamily balance for workers with a high degree of control over their work time, and a negative
relationship between work hours and satisfaction with workfamily balance for workers with little control over their work time.
Valcour's measure of satisfaction with workfamily balance incorporates what she refers to as the two most critical personal
resources for meeting work and family demands, time and attention (energy) (Valcour, 2007, p. 1517). She suggests that an
individual's satisfaction with worklife balance is due, in part, to how he/she parcels his/her time and other resources to various
life roles. In other words, affective responses to worklife issues depend on how well the individual utilizes resources. Her
conceptualization of satisfaction with worklife balance is consistent with both role and COR theories, i.e., work and family
role demands compete for an individual's time and other resources leading to conflict potential. How well the individual allocates resources impacts their affective responses to worklife issues. Whereas effective resource use leads to satisfactory
worklife balance, when these resources are depleted or not well allocated, WFC and/or FWC may result. Greenhaus, Bedeian,
and Mossholder (1987), in a study of accountants, found that work hours were associated with WFC. Similarly, Grzywacz and
Marks (2000), using data from the 1995 National Survey of Midlife Development in the United States found a relationship
between hours of work and workfamily spillover. In her meta-analysis of WFC and its antecedents, Byron (2005) found

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that workers who worked longer hours had higher levels of WFC than FWC. Eby et al. (2005) in their literature review of WFC
found a positive relationship between hours worked and WFC. Brett and Stroh (2003) in a study examining why managers work
extreme hours (defined as 61 or more hours per week), found that increased work hours were positively associated with WFC
for male managers, but not for female managers. It should be noted that their sample of male managers was restricted to those
who were currently married with children living at home. Their sample of female managers was not restricted and 75% were
married and 54% had children living at home.
Although multiple studies have found a significant relationship between hours of work and WFC, it is important that we once
again examine this relationship. Thus, consistent with role theory (Kahn et al., 1964), the COR model (Hobfoll, 1989), and previous research (e.g. Byron, 2005; DiRenzo et al., 2011; Eby et al., 2005; Greenhaus et al., 1987; Major et al., 2002) we hypothesize
that:
Hypothesis 1a. Hours of work will be positively associated with WFC.
Consistent with role theory and the COR model, DiRenzo et al. (2011) found that longer work hours were associated with
increased WFC and suggested that longer work hours may also increase FWC simply by making less non-work time available
to employees. Less non-work time may result in employees needing to take care of non-work matters during the extra hours
of work time. Barnett (1998) notes that negative home to work spillover is less likely for those who work part-time, suggesting
that working fewer hours allows more time to care for home and family. Again, the number of hours available for taking care of
family issues potentially impacts affective responses. Thus, we also examine the relationship between hours of work and FWC.
Hypothesis 1b. Hours of work will be positively associated with FWC.
Barnett (1998) noted that there have been weak and inconsistent findings for linear effects of work hours on WFC and other
outcomes and suggested that these relationships may actually be non-linear. Rather than negative effects for the number of hours
worked regardless of the level, work hours may begin to have damaging effects only when an individual spends an inordinate
amount of time on the job. It is also possible that the intensity of the relationship between hours of work and WFC/FWC may
change as the hours of work increases, thus resulting in a non-linear relationship. Barnett (1998) noted that although nonlinear
relationships are possible, few researchers have examined nonlinear relationships between work hours and outcomes. The exceptions are Ganster and Bates (2003) and Ng and Feldman (2008).
Ganster and Bates, using data from the 1997 National Study of the Changing Workforce, examined curvilinear effects of hours
worked on WFC. Although Ganster and Bates (2003) did find curvilinear effects for hours worked on both job stress and WFC, the
effects actually diminished at higher levels. This suggests, contrary to popular belief, that working long hours leads to less, not
more, job stress and WFC. Given that theirs was an early study testing for non-linear effects of hours worked, and that their results
run counter to commonly held views concerning the impact of longer work hours on job outcomes, we elected to investigate nonlinear effects in the current study.
Ng and Feldman (2008) in a meta-analysis using a social identity perspective to examine long work hours conducted an exploratory analysis and found a curvilinear relationship between hours squared and the relationship between work hours and
WFC variables (both WFC and FWC). They found a stronger relationship between hours worked and WFC and FWC respectively
as hours increased; however, they are silent on the direction of that relationship. Thus, consistent with Ng and Feldman (2008)
and Ganster and Bates (2003), we hypothesize that:
Hypothesis 2. Hours worked will have a curvilinear relationship with WFC and FWC.
Potential moderators of the number of hours workedoutcome relationships
Conditions in the employee's work setting and family life may moderate the relationship between hours worked and WFC and
FWC. Barnett (1998) posits that there is no a priori reason to expect long work hours to have the same effects across workers and
conditions, and that instead long work hours should be construed as a risk factor that when combined with other factors may lead
to negative outcomes. She recommended examining the indirect effects of hours worked on various outcomes by incorporating
assorted moderators that address the nature of the job, tradeoffs and benefits associated with working longer hours, and the impact of longer hours on family members. Alternatively, Ganster and Bates (2003) tested a number of moderators and concluded
that the effects of work hours are universally experienced in the same way by different people. Our multi-dimensional measure of
WFC will allow us to better test Barnett's (1998) hypothesis that work hours interact with other factors to influence outcomes and
Ganster and Bates (2003) opposing conclusion. We examined the work variable managerial support, and the family variables
marital status, number of children, and family support as moderators of the relationship between hours worked and WFC and
FWC.
Work variables
We examined managerial support as a workplace moderator of the relationship between hours of work and WFC and FWC.
Managerial support is a dimension of workfamily culture which addresses the extent to which an employee perceives that
his/her manager is supportive of his/her needs to balance their work- and non-work lives (Thompson, Beauvais, & Lyness,

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383

1999). Consistent with COR theory (Hobfoll, 1989) managerial support for worklife balance is a resource that employees may
draw upon to reduce WFC/FWC as work hours increase. Prior research has shown that managerial support negatively influences
WFC (Anderson, Coffey, & Byerly, 2002; Premeaux, Adkins, & Mossholder, 2007). Having a manager who understands the demands of an employees' personal time may facilitate the employees' adjustment to working longer hours. Similarly, managerial
support may lessen perceived FWC by creating a work environment in which the employees' family roles are affirmed, thus reducing the perception that family and home are an intrusion on work. Accordingly, consistent with both COR and role theories,
supportive managers may be a resource who supports the multiple roles of the employee.
Hypothesis 3a. Managerial support will moderate the relationship between hours worked and WFC.
Hypothesis 3b. Managerial support will moderate the relationship between hours worked and FWC.
Family variables
We also examined the family variables presence of a spouse or partner, number of children, and family support as potential
moderators. The presence of a spouse or partner, family support, and children may be conceptualized as resources that allow
the worker to better cope with long work hours. On the other hand, while children may increase psychological resources, they
also are less likely to be understanding and supportive of a parent's long work hours and may be viewed as demanding more resources thus exacerbating the effects of longer work hours.
Consistent with the COR model (Hobfoll, 1989), evidence suggests that family support, either in the form of family members
sharing in duties and responsibilities or providing emotional support, counteracts WFC to some degree. (Adams, King, & King,
1996; Carlson & Perrew, 1999). Similarly, role theory suggests that a spouse or partner may assist the worker by taking-on
some of his or her role-related duties at home (for example, taking on a household task that is normally the responsibility of
the worker). Consistent with role theory, supportive family relationships are also plausibly less demanding resulting in less felt
conflict than non-supportive family relationships. This may be especially true in terms of time spent at work, as family members'
help and understanding should ameliorate to some degree the negative effects of working long hours. Thus we hypothesize that
the presence of a spouse or partner and family support will moderate the relationship between hours of work and WFC and FWC.
Alternatively, the presence of a spouse or partner may simply represent an additional role demand on the employee which depletes resources and thus strengthen the relationship between hours worked and WFC and FWC.
Hypothesis 4. The presence of a spouse or partner will moderate the relationship between hours of work and WFC and FWC.
Hypothesis 5. Family support will moderate the relationship between hours of work and WFC and FWC.
The number of children an employee has may also moderate the relationship between hours worked and WFC and FWC.
Although in the context of the COR model (Hobfoll, 1989), children may serve as a source of support, thus reducing felt conflict,
the COR model also suggests that children may be viewed as a drain on resources, and as the number of children increases, the
relationship between hours worked and WFC and FWC may be stronger. Similarly, role theory (Kahn et al., 1964) would suggest
that children would place the demands of an additional role upon the employee and these demands may increase with the number of children and thus increase WFC and FWC.
Hypothesis 6. The number of children an employee has will moderate the relationship between hours of work and WFC and FWC
such that as the number of children increases the relationship between hours of work and WFC and FWC becomes stronger.
In the next sections we will present the methodology used in the present study, the study results, and a discussion of the study
results.
Methods
Settings and participants
Data were gathered at seven organizations in the southern United States as part of a larger study. A total of 544 participants
provided usable responses. The sites included an insurance company (21 participants), a distribution center (44 participants),
a manufacturing organization (30 participants), a bank (18 participants), a utility company (128 participants), a not-for-profit
service organization (198 participants) and a hospital (105 participants). These sites thus represent both manufacturing and
service sectors of our economy as well as including a not-for-profit organization. Participants included 148 men (27.2%) and
396 women (70.8%). Approximately 52% of the respondents had at least one child under the age of 18, and 69.1% of the respondents
had a spouse or partner. The average age of the participants was 43.12. The jobs of the participants ranged from operations/
production to top management. Participants were contacted through their employing organization and in some cases were
allowed to complete the questionnaire on work time. Participation was voluntary and all participants were assured that
their individual responses would be totally confidential. To reward participation, participants had the opportunity to enter
into a random drawing for cash rewards with one or more rewards offered at each site.

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C.L. Adkins, S.F. Premeaux / Journal of Vocational Behavior 80 (2012) 380389

Measures
Hours worked
Participants were asked to indicate how many hours per week they worked at their job and how many hours per week they
worked on company business at home. An open-ended response was used for both items. The variable hours worked was the sum
of the responses to both items.
Work characteristic
The managerial support dimension of workfamily culture was measured using a scale developed by Thompson et al. (1999).
Eleven items measured managerial support ( = .82) using a 5-point response format (1 = strongly disagree; 5 = strongly
agree).
Family characteristics
Family characteristics measured included demographic variables and perceptions of family support. Participants were asked to
indicate the number of children (age 18 or younger) that they have. Participants were also asked to indicate whether they were
single, married, or cohabiting with a significant other. Responses to this item were coded single = 0, married or cohabiting = 1.
Family support was measured using a scale developed by Carlson and Perrew (1999). The seven-item scale of family support
( = .88) asks participants to indicate the degree to which various features, such as appreciation, feedback from others,
sharing of duties, and sharing of responsibilities are present in their family life. These items were measured on a four-point
scale (1 = not present; 4 = to a great extent).
Outcomes
We measured both WFC and FWC. Our measure of multi-dimensional WFC was adapted from a scale developed by Carlson,
Kacmar, and Williams (2000). The scale includes bi-directional (workfamily, and familywork) measures of time-, strain-, and
behavior-based conflict. We adapted the time- and strain-based scales for the roles of 1) spouse, 2) parent, 3) home care, and 4)
leisure. Conflict between the role demands of work and spouse was measured using four sub-scales of three items each. They
are: time-based workspouse conflict, time-based spousework conflict, strain-based workspouse conflict and strain-based
spousework conflict. Parallel scales measured conflict between the role demands of work and parent, work and home care, and
work and leisure. We conducted a factor analysis of these items and found that a three-factor solution provided the best fit. This
resulted in one scale measuring WFC (24 items, = .97), a scale measuring spouse/parent FWC (12 items, = .93), and a scale
measuring homecare/leisure FWC (12 items, = .95). A sample item for spouse/parent FWC is The time I spend on parental
responsibilities often interferes with my work responsibilities. A sample item for home/leisure FWC is Tension and anxiety
from my household responsibilities often weaken my ability to do my job. All items were measured using a 5-point response
format (1 = strongly disagree; 5 = strongly agree). For factor loadings please see Premeaux et al. (2007).
The scales arising from the factor analysis, spouse/parent FWC and homecare/leisure FWC, are based on the amount of
discretion the worker has in performing the role. The expectations and responsibilities accompanying the familial roles of spouse
and parent are often inflexible. These cannot be postponed for very long if positive relationships with family members are to be
maintained and there is no substitute for a spouse or parent. Although non-family members may provide child care, workers are
bound to day-care center closing times, and must attend immediately to a child who is ill. On the other hand, homecare and
leisure demands often are flexible and can often be delayed indefinitely or can often be omitted altogether. Some household
tasks can be completely outsourced (for example, by hiring a housekeeper or eating meals out). 1
Control variables
Previous research has found a relationship between age and sex and hours worked such that younger workers and males tend
to work longer hours (e.g. Brett & Stroh, 2003); thus, respondents were asked to indicate their age and sex. Age was coded in
years. Sex was coded as male = 0, female = 1.
Results
Table 1 presents means, standard deviations, and correlation coefficients for all study variables. All hypotheses were tested
using hierarchical multiple regression. To maximize usable sample size, mean replacements were used for missing variables.
No mean replacements were used for the variable hours worked.
As Table 1 shows, hours worked were negatively related to gender and age. Men and younger workers tended to work more
hours. Work hours were positively related to marital status participants with a spouse or partner tended to work longer hours.
Work hours were also positively associated with WFC, home/leisure FWC, and spouse/parent FWC, thus lending preliminary
support for our hypotheses.
The first two hypotheses were tested using hierarchical regression analysis. WFC and the two dimensions of FWC were
regressed on the control variables in the first step. The variable hours worked was added in the second step, and hours worked

Thanks to an anonymous reviewer for highlighting the distinction between these scales.

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385

Table 1
Means, standard deviations, and correlations among study variables.

1. Total hours
2. Sex
3. Age
4. Managerial support
5. Marital status
6. Number of children
7. Family support
8. Workfamily conflict
9. Homeleisure FWC
10. Spouseparent FWC

Mean

Std. deviation

40.40
.72
43.12
.29
.69
.85
19.66
58.29
17.61
13.32

8.47
.44
11.94
.45
.46
1.01
4.95
30.72
8.05
9.85

.19
.18

.14

.01
.10
.07
.03
.20
.08
.12

.06
.13
.03
.11
.06
.03
.09

.13
.04
.30
.03
.20
.06
.22

.01
.11
.15
.32
.13
.16

.20
.13
.28

.01
.33

.07
.32

.03
.43

.16
.14
.04

.41
.62

.47

p b .05.
p b .01.

squared was added in the third. As Table 2 shows, hours worked was a significant predictor of WFC above and beyond the control
variables. Hours worked squared was a significant predictor of homeleisure FWC and of spouse/parent FWC. The pattern of the
nonlinear effects for both outcomes was such that the relationship between work hours and FWC was initially positive, and then
became negative. Although the nonlinear relationship is significant, increased work hours are associated with lower levels of
FWC. Thus, Hypotheses 1 is supported with respect to WFC and Hypothesis 2 is partially supported with respect to FWC, in
that there is a significant curvilinear relationship.
Hypotheses 36 were also examined using hierarchical regression analysis. WFC, homeleisure FWC, and spouse/parent FWC
were regressed on the control variables. The appropriate main effects were added in the second step, and the interaction term for
each hypothesis was added in the third. As Table 3 shows there were three significant moderated relationships. Because of space
limitations, only the results in which the interaction was significant are reported.
The relationship between hours worked and homeleisure FWC was moderated by managerial support, thus lending support
to Hypothesis 3b. The relationships between hours worked and WFC and spouse/parent FWC were moderated by the number
of children, thus supporting Hypothesis 6. The patterns of the interactions were examined by plotting the interaction effects on
the dependent variable one standard deviation below and above the mean of the independent variable. As Fig. 1 shows, the levels
of homeleisure FWC were higher for the group with lower managerial support than for those with higher levels of managerial
support at lower levels of hours worked. As hours of work increased, the level of homeleisure FWC declined for those with lower
levels of managerial support, but increased for those with higher levels of managerial support. Perhaps those with higher levels
of managerial support were more able to respond to home care issues or leisure pursuits as hours of work increased, and thus,
perceived some level of conflict.
As Figs. 2 and 3 show, the overall levels of WFC and spouse/parent FWC were higher for employees with more children.
The slope of the relationship for those with fewer children was steeper than for those with more. Neither the presence of a spouse
or partner, nor family support moderated the relationship between hours worked and WFC/FWC. Thus, there is support for
Hypothesis 3b and partial support for Hypothesis 6, but no support for Hypotheses 4 and 5.

Table 2
Results of regressing WFC and WFC on control variables, hours worked, and hours worked squared.
Workfamily conicta

Sex
Age
Equation F
R2
F for R2
Hours worked
Equation F
R2
F for R2
Hours worked squared
Equation F
R2
F for R2
a
Standardized Betas.
p b .05.
p b .01.

Homeleisure familywork
conicta

Spouseparent familywork
conicta

Step 1

Step 2

Step 3

Step 1

Step 2

Step 3

Step 1

Step 2

Step 3

.094
.218
14.61
.051
14.61

.127
.187

.127
.188

.012
.065
1.23
.005
1.23

.000
.054

.000
.058

.065
.230
17.65
.061
17.65

.054
.219

.053
.223

.065
1.55
.004
2.18

.254

.07
12.70
.005
2.69

.243

.194
17.10
.036
21.00

.13

.068
12.86
.000
.238

.333
2.51
.010
5.36

.328
10.98
.009
5.50

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C.L. Adkins, S.F. Premeaux / Journal of Vocational Behavior 80 (2012) 380389

Table 3
Results of regressing WFC and WFC on control variables, hours worked, and moderators.

Sex
Age
Equation F
R2
F for R2
Hours worked
Moderator
Equation F
R2
F for R2
Interaction term
Equation F
R2
F for R2

Homeleisure familywork conicta

(moderator: managerial support)

Workfamily conicta
(moderator: number of children)

Step 1

Step 2

Step 3

Step 1

Step 2

Step 3

Step 1

Step 2

Step 3

.216
.044
1.23
.005
1.23

.232
.026

.308
.021

6.51
.56
14.61
.051
14.61

8.73
2.57

8.87
.22

1.44
.19
17.65
.061
17.65

1.20
.081

1.16
.07

.061
.124
3.11

.058
.127

.018
4.97

.015
3.64
.01
5.65

.691
8.70
25.90
.11
35.55

Spouseparent familywork conicta

(moderator: number of children)

.78
8.85

.24
21.77

.08
3.82
35.36
.147
49.87

.007
4.57

.10
3.87

.08
29.52
.007
5.12

a
Unstandardized Betas; Independent variables centered.
p b .05.
p b .01.

Discussion
In this study we examined the relationship between hours worked, WFC and FWC using a heterogeneous sample of workers
in jobs ranging from operations and clerical to professional and top management, and using a multidimensional measure of
WFC and FWC. We found evidence of a linear relationship between hours worked and WFC, and a curvilinear relationship between hours worked and both homeleisure FWC and spouse/parent FWC. Our findings are consistent with role theory (Kahn
et al., 1964) and with the COR model (Hobfoll, 1989). The finding that hours worked has a linear relationship with WFC is also
consistent with previous research (e.g. Byron, 2005; DiRenzo et al., 2011; Eby et al., 2005; Greenhaus et al., 1987; Major et al.,
2002).
Our findings for a non-linear relationship between hours worked and both dimensions of FWC are consistent with those of
Ganster and Bates (2003). The form of this relationship was such that as hours worked increased, homeleisure FWC and
spouse/parent FWC increased to a point and then declined with additional hours of work indicating an inverted U-shaped

Fig. 1. Managerial support as a moderator of the relationship between hours worked and home/leisure familywork conflict.

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Fig. 2. Number of children as a moderator of the relationship between hours worked and workfamily conflict.

curve. This suggests that once hours of work reach a certain level, employees may make accommodations, such as seeking additional childcare or other assistance to reduce WFC and FWC. Alternatively, those working longer hours may be workers who are
simply less concerned with workfamily balance.
As a post-hoc analysis we examined the relationship between hours worked on company business at home and WFC and FWC,
controlling for total hours worked. Hours worked at home was a significant predictor of spouse/parent FWC above and beyond
the control variables (age and sex) and total hours worked; however, it must be noted that the overall equation regressing
spouse/parent FWC on age, sex, and total hours worked was not statistically significant. Because some respondents reported
working over 40 h a week at the workplace, we also examined the relationship between hours worked over 40 a week (regardless
of location) and WFC/FWC. Hours over 40 a week was significantly related to WFC and both dimensions of FWC above and beyond

Fig. 3. Number of children as a moderator of the relationship between hours worked and spouseparent family work conflict.

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total hours worked. This finding suggests that working hours over what is considered a standard week may lead to higher levels of
felt conflict. 2
We also examined potential moderators of the relationship between hours worked and WFC and FWC consistent with
Barnett's (1998) suggestion that moderators should be examined. The finding that managerial support moderated the relationship between hours worked and homeleisure FWC is consistent with DiRenzo et al. (2011) suggestion that work variables may
need to be examined as antecedents of FWC. The fact that home and leisure FWC is the outcome of interest is of special note.
There is a call for the workfamily literature to be expanded to include the worklife balance of all employees, not just those
with spouses and/or children. This finding suggests that a positive worklife culture may have a positive impact beyond married
employees with children and that caring for home and leisure activities also warrant managers' support. Even single individuals
without children have lives beyond work that need to be accommodated.
The number of children a worker had moderated the relationship between work hours and WFC and spouse/parent FWC.
Workers with more children exhibited higher overall levels of WFC and spouse/parent FWC than did those with fewer children.
For workers with fewer children, the steeper slope of the relationship indicates that additional hours of work had a stronger
relationship with WFC and FWC. This finding is consistent with the COR model (Hobfoll, 1989) which suggests that children
may serve as an additional drain on the resources of the worker and managers need to accommodate employees' childcare
needs as much as possible. The stronger relationship between work hours and WFC and FWC of individuals with fewer children may be explained several ways. One possibility is that those with fewer children had younger children so that childcare
arrangements were more crucial and expensive than for those with more, but older children. School-age children normally
require less child care and beyond a certain age daily child care arrangements are no longer necessary so resource use declines as children get older. Another possibility is that although more children are a greater resource drain, they may, paradoxically, also serve as a resource source by helping care for younger siblings, assisting with household duties, and by
providing emotional support. Another explanation is the emotional and instrumental support that more children can provide
to one another. Parents may feel less guilt and anxiety, and thus less conflict, about working longer hours when they know
that their children have each other.
Consistent with the findings of Ganster and Bates (2003), the percent of variance in the dependent variables explained by
work hours (alone or in interactions with other predictors) was relatively small; however, we believe that these findings are important. The relationship between work hours and work- and family-related outcomes is a phenomenon that, by nature, can only
be studied in the field. As with any field study, there is a myriad of unmeasured variables that may potentially attenuate observed
relationships among study variables. Further, in the present study, the variance of the variable hours worked may have attenuated
observed relationships. The majority (55.9%) of the sample reported working 40 h a week. Of the remainder of the sample, 21.9%
reported working less than 40 h per week (range 639.5), and the remaining 22.2% reported working more than 40 h per week
(range 40.390). The relatively low variance in this critical variable may have attenuated statistical relationships; however,
the sample was representative of a diverse group of workers. Thus, the observed relationships may well under represent the
phenomenon.
To develop this argument, we draw an analogy from Locke's (1986) discussion of generalizing from laboratory to field settings.
He cited Mook's (1983) argument that some lab experiments may be conducted simply to examine whether a phenomenon exists; regardless of whether the findings could be expected to generalize. Locke and Mook's points about the value of the tightly
controlled conditions of the lab are well-taken. We would argue that our results, combined with those of Ganster and Bates
(2003), have demonstrated that, even outside of the tightly controlled conditions of a laboratory, the phenomenon exists. The
small effects in a diverse sample do not eliminate the possibility that for some groups of workers, in some situations, the effects
of long hours worked may be marked. The latter argument is consistent with the discussions of Barnett (1998). Further, we would
posit that the observed effects may be further attenuated by self-selection into jobs with time demands compatible with other life
roles. For example, childless workers may choose jobs that demand long work hours, while workers with young children may select jobs that offer reduced hours and/or flexible work schedules. An anecdotal example of this is the fact that the SAS Institute,
which guarantees workers a 30 h work week (albeit with lower salaries than the industry average) is repeatedly cited as a best
company to work for largely because it allows workers to choose a job compatible with life roles (Levering & Moskowitz, 2003,
January 20). Further, when balancing between work and non-work time demands, workers may choose to emphasize some roles
at the expense of others. For example, a parent facing increased work hours may choose to devote his/her non-work hours to the
parenting role at the expense of the homecare role. Such juggling among non-work roles would also serve to attenuate observed
relationships between work hours and outcomes.
Limitations and future research
As with most studies, our study is not without limitations. The relatively low variance in hours worked, noted above, is a limitation to the present study. Clearly, the relationship between hours worked and the three dimensions of WFC should be examined by comparing samples of workers with different levels of work hours. As noted, however, our sample extends the literature
beyond studies of managerial and professional workers who tend to work longer hours on average. Future studies should also be
expanded to capture more of the complexities of worklife balance for all workers.
2

The authors thank an anonymous reviewer for the suggestion for these post-hoc analyses.

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Another limitation is the cross-sectional nature of the study. Because cross-sectional studies do not allow for a true test of
causality or rule out the possibility of reverse causality, future research should attempt to incorporate the effects of time on
the various types of WFC. It is plausible to expect the natural ebb and flow of workers' lives, including their career stage and
their stage in the family life cycle to cause the different types of interrole conflict to vary over time and for the impact of
hours worked to vary accordingly.
Conclusions
In sum, we have demonstrated that hours worked, in conjunction with job and family variables are related to WFC and FWC.
We argue that although the observed effects were small, they are important. Our findings, together with those of Ganster and
Bates (2003), have shown that the amount of time devoted to a life role, specifically work, does impact other life roles. Future
research should build on these findings to explore the scope and boundary conditions of this phenomenon.
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