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Produced Water
Treatment
Part of the
Petroleum Processing Technology Series
OPITO
THE OIL & GAS ACADEMY
Designed, Produced and Published by OPITO Ltd., Petroleum Open Learning, Minerva House, Bruntland Road, Portlethen, Aberdeen AB12 4QL
Printed by Astute Print & Design, 44-46 Brechin Road, Forfar, Angus DD8 3JX www.astute.uk.com
ISBN 1 872041 85 X
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval or information storage system, transmitted in any form or by any means, mechanical,
photocopying, recording or otherwise without the prior permission in writing of the publishers.
Contents
Page
Training Targets
Introduction
Primary Separation
Gravity Separation
Coalescence
Short Distance Gravity Separation
Gas Flotation
Centrifugal Force Separation
Chemical Treatment
Visual Cues
15
Contents (contd)
*
API Separators
Plate Interceptors (or Separators)
Oil / Water Filters Coalescers
Gas Flotation Units
Hydrocyclones
Use of Chemical Additives
Page
23
36
Visual Cues
47
Training Targets
When you have completed this unit on Produced Water Treatment you will be able to :
List the sources of produced water
Describe the mechanics of water production
Explain what problems can arise from the production of water
Explain the basic principles which govern the separation of oil from produced water
Describe the construction and operation of 5 types of oily water clean up facility
Explain the requirement for chemical injection in a produced water treatment system
Describe the flow of water and separated oil through a typical produced water treatment facility
Tick the box when you have met each target.
Introduction
You can see that the oil lies above the aquifer and the
well is taking oil which is not contaminated with water.
The point at which the oil and water touch each other
is called the oil water contact.
The oil is able to flow through the reservoir rock
towards the well because the rock is porous and
permeable. These are probably the two most
important properties of reservoir rocks.
POROSITY
Porostiy is the property of the rock which enables it
to hold fluids within itself. The oil, gas and water are
contained in tiny holes in the rock called pores.
Sandstone is a common reservoir rock. It is made up
of grains of sand which are cemented together at the
points where they touch. Between the sand grains are
void spaces - the pores.
The ratio of the volume of the pores to total rock
volume expressed as a percentage is the rocks
porosity.
This means that, if you have a sandstone reservoir
with a porosity of 25%, for every 4m3 of reservoir rock,
1m3 consists of holes and 3m3 solid sand grains.
Another common reservoir rock is limestone. This is
a rather brittle rock which contains lots of tiny cracks
and fissures. These tiny cracks give the limestone its
porosity.
PERMEABILITY
Permeability is a measure of the ability of a fluid to
flow through the rock from one pore to another. In
order for it to be able to do this, the pores must be
interconnected.
Permeability is measured in darcys- named after
a French engineer who studied the flow of liquids
through filters. He found that the flow increased in
proportion to the pressure increase. However he also
discovered that the flow was affected by the thickness,
or viscosity, of the fluid.
Test Yourself 1
As oil is removed from the reservoir what
will happen to the position of the oil water
contact ?
Test Yourself 2
a)
b)
c)
10
Corrosion Problems
We said earlier that the aquifer water can be very
salty. Injection water, being in the main sea water, is
salty as well. It follows then that the produced water
will be salty also. In fact the saltiness, or salinity,
of produced water is usually considerably more than
that of normal sea water. To put it in perspective:
fresh water from streams, lakes etc. usually
contains less than 0.2 % salt
sea water has an average salt content
of 3.5%
produced water can contain up to 15% salt
Pure water in itself is not particularly corrosive.
However, up to a point, the more saline it becomes
the more corrosive it is.
If the produced water is allowed to pass through all
the surface processing equipment to the oil
transportation system, it could cause considerable
corrosion damage to pipes, vessels and other
equipment.
In fact, corrosion costs the petroleum industry
millions of pounds annually. It makes sense to try to
reduce this expense.
Scale Problems
Salts are initially dissolved in the water present in a
reservoir. As conditions change when this water is
produced, the salts may be precipitated as solids
and deposit as scale.
This can reduce pipe diameters, plug vessels and
equipment which in turn can lead to lost production.
Once again, removal and disposal of produced water
can help prevent the problems of scaling.
Transportation Problems
The produced oil may have to be transported from an
offshore location to a shore based refinery or tanker
terminal. There are two ways of doing this. If the field
is large and the economics justify it, the best way is by
pipeline to shore. However, some fields are too small
to justify the expense of a pipeline or are too far from
shore. In this case the oil is loaded into a tanker at
the point of production via a tanker loading facility.
Either way, water in the oil to be transported can
cause problems:
The obvious one we have looked at already,
that of corrosion. Salt water in pipelines or
tanker loading units can corrode facilities
rapidly. I dont think I need to elaborate on that
at this time.
If the oil is going down a pipeline, excess water
reduces the efficiency of the line, leaving less
space for oil.
Water being sent to a refinery with the oil can
cause serious upsets in the distillation process.
Refinery operators usually limit the amount of
salt and water which they will accept.
When loading oil to a tanker there are laid
down limits of water in oil which it is permitted
to take. If more than, say, 0.5 % of the cargo
loaded is water, then the producing company
can face severe penalties.
11
Disposal Problems
When trying to decide how to get rid of the water we
must consider first of all the location of the
production facility.
Think for a moment and try to decide how you
would dispose of 1590m3 per day of produced water
from a site on land.
You may have come up with one of the following:
Dump the water into lakes or rivers
Dump the water into sewers
Both of these solutions would be totally
unacceptable.
In the first case, pollution of the fresh water by the
Salts in the produced water would cause damage to
the environment and could destroy wildlife. Drops of
oil in the water would also cause considerable
environmental pollution.
12
Test Yourself 3
Are the following statements true or false?
a)
Permeability is a measure of the ability of a rock to
allow fluids to pass through it.
b)
c)
d)
e)
True
False
13
Summary of Section 1
During this section I have tried to introduce you to
the problems arising from the production of water
with oil.
We started by looking at the sources of produced
water and you saw that it can be from the aquifer,
formation water or the injection water which is
used to maintain reservoir pressure.
We then looked at the mechanics of water
production and considered the rock properties of
porosity and permeability which allow fluids to flow
through a rock.
You saw that the relatively high pressured water
underlying the oil pushes the oil towards the
wellbores. However the water may eventually
start to finger through the oil and be produced in
ever increasing quantities. You discovered that
very large quantities of water may be produced
and I defined the ratios of oil and water production
as the water cut.
14
Primary Separation
The total production from an oil field flows from the
wells to the primary separation system. The function
of this system is to separate the production into its
individual phases of oil, gas and water. The process
is carried out in large vessels - the separators. A
typical 3-phase separator is shown in Figure 4.
15
Test Yourself 4
16
Gravity Separation
The primary separation we have just looked at is an
example of gravity separation. Oil and water
separate because of the difference in their density or
specific gravity. Most crude oils are less dense than
water so they tend to float on top of water.
Even where the amount of oil in the water is
minimal, given sufficient time and under the right
conditions, the crude oil will float to the surface of the
water where it can be removed.
There is, however, a theoretical lower limit to the
size of crude oil droplets which will rise freely
through the water. Oil droplets which have a
diameter of less than, say, 5 microns will not rise
through the water, but will stay in suspension
indefinitely. A micron is one millionth of a metre.
In practical terms, the limiting droplet size in an oil/
water gravity separator is much higher, and in the
range of 50 to 150 microns. This is because of such
factors as turbulence, limited retention time, and
so on.
Coalescence
To coalesce simply means to join together or unite.
Entrained oil droplets in the water which are too
small to rise rapidly by gravity, can be coalesced in a
number of ways. One way is to pass the oily water
through a specially developed cartridge. This is
made of a porous plastic medium such as
polypropylene or polyurethane foam. When in use
the oily water flows to the centre of the cartridge and
out through the walls, where coalescence takes
place.
The larger oil droplets then rise to the surface of the
water by gravity as before,
Figure 5 shows the cartridge coalescer principle.
17
Gas Flotation
18
In a flotation cell, the oil and gas mixture accumulates on the surface of the water
as a layer of oily froth. This is skimmed from the top of the water to a channel which
directs the oil to a recovered oil system. The skimming may be over a simple
adjustable weir. Alternatively a system of paddles may be used to sweep the oily
froth continuously from the surface of the water.
Figure 8 shows a much simplified version of a flotation cell. I will describe this in
much more detail in Section 3.
19
If the two liquids are water and oil, it would be the oil
which would migrate towards the centre of the
container.
Chemical Treatment
20
Test Yourself 5
In the first column of the table below I have listed the following terms: porous medium, plate pack, oil droplets rising,
demulsifier, finely dispersed bubbles, vortex. Each is associated with one or more methods of oil removal from
produced water. Put a tick in the appropriate column (s) to show which one(s).
Gravity
Coalescence
Separation
Short Distance
Gravity
Gas
Separation
Flotation
Centrifugal
Force
Separation
porous medium
plate pack
oil droplets rising
demulsifier
finely dispersed bubbles
vortex
21
Summary of Section 2
In this section we have been looking at some of the basic principles which govern the separation
of oil from water in a water clean up facility.
First of all we considered the primary separation of the water from the main oil stream. You saw
that this was a simple gravity separation process. You also saw that gravity separation is the
basis of most produced water treatment facilities.
However, in order to speed up the process or make it more efficient you saw that other types of
treatment could be undertaken.
We considered:
coalescence
short distance gravity separation
gas flotation
centrifugal force separation
You also saw that chemicals may have to be injected into the produced water to assist in
separation, particularly if an oil-in-water emulsion has formed.
22
Filter Coalescers
Hydrocyclones
The simplest of the above pieces of equipment is the
first on the list so let us start with this.
API Separators
As we have seen, the most common way of
separating oil and water is by the use of gravity
acting on the density difference between the two
liquids.
Time is also required for this process to work
effectively. Each separator is designed to retain the
liquid mixture within it until separation has been
accomplished. This time is known as the residence
time or retention time.
23
24
25
26
27
Test Yourself 6
In an A.P.I. separator the produced water enters the unit and hits a small ................... .......................
which distributes the incoming liquids.
b)
c)
The outlet ..................... controls the height of the liquids in the unit.
d)
e)
f)
The oily water flows radially outwards through the ..................... where the oil droplets .......................
28
29
If the level rises the valve will open and allow water
to leave the system. If the level falls, the valve will
close and retain water in the system.
The bulk of the water (up to 70% of the design
throughput) is recirculated back to the two flotation
cells.
As the water enters each cell it passes through a
venturi. This is a device which uses the flow of
water to create a low pressure area. Gas, from the
area above the water, is sucked into the venturi and
mixes with the water. The gas and water mixture is
then discharged at the outlet at the bottom of each
cell.
The gas drawn into the venturi results in millions of
tiny bubbles being released at the bottom of the
flotation cell. These bubbles attach themselves to oil
droplets in the water, and carry them to the surface.
30
In general:
In some large units there maybe as many as
ten flotation cells
Test Yourself 7
a)
b)
Water flows under the middle (internal) baffle, in a two cell unit
c)
d)
e)
Gas from the area above the water is sucked into a venturi and mixed with the oil.
f)
In the launder, oil and water separate and the oil level is controlled by a level controller.
31
Hydrocyclones
The most important development in oil / water treatment in recent years is the
hydrocyclone. This is a unit which uses centrifugal force to separate oil and water.
Figure 16 is an illustration of a hydrocyclone.
32
33
Summary of Section 3
In this section we have looked at different types of oil/water
separators which may be found on an oil production facility.
We have looked at the construction and operation of :
API separators
hydrocyclones
We have also taken a brief look at chemicals which may be used in a Produced Water System.
In the final section of this unit we will consider a typical produced water handling system.
Before you move on to that however have a go at the following Test Yourself question.
34
Test Yourself 8
State whether the components listed on the right are part of :
a)
An A.P.I. separator
List of components
b)
1. swirl chamber
c)
d)
A flotation unit
3. baffle
e)
A hydrocyclone
4. weir
5. cartridge
6. level controller
7. sludge trap
8. cone shaped liner
9. venturi
35
36
37
38
Test Yourself 9
a)
b)
c)
d)
39
The oil from the float re-cycle pumps is fed into the
produced water line downstream of the chemical
injection point and downstream of the sample point.
If it was fed into the line upstream of :
the chemical injection point - it would get a
second dose of chemicals
the sample point - it would affect the amount
of oil being measured as entering the system
for treatment
Neither of these conditions are desirable.
The exit chamber of the flotation unit is fitted with a
level gauge (LG-04) to allow the operator to check
the level of water in the exit chamber. Connected to
the level gauge is :
a Level Switch High (LSH-04)
a Level Switch Low (LSL-04)
If LSH-04 is activated it will :
sound an alarm in the Control Room via Level
Alarm High (LAH-04)
will cause a level 3 shutdown
A level 3 shutdown generated by LSH-04 would shut
down the flow of produced water which is leaving the
primary separation system.
40
Test Yourself 10
Which of the following components are not part of the flotation unit.
skimmer motor
float recycle pumps
plate pack
launder
pump running light
filter cartridge
hydraulic circulation pumps
level gauge
discharge pressure relief valve
exit chamber level switch low
chemical injection point
inner liner
You will find the answers to Test Yourself 10 on Page 50
41
In normal operation:
the electrical signal to the solenoid of XY-01
is live
the air flows through XY-01 and maintains
pressure on the actuator of XV-01
the valve stays closed
limit switch ZSL-01 is activated and the
signal valve closed is indicated in the
Control Room.
If the low fuel gas pressure condition is activated
then the electrical signal to the solenoid is made
dead.
When this occurs:
XY-01 changes position
the air supply to XV-01 is cut off
the air supply to XY-01 is vented to
atmosphere
The result of these actions is that XV-01 will open.
When this occurs the movement of the valve will
activate ZSH-01 which will signal to the control room
that the valve has opened.
42
43
44
Test Yourself 11
With reference to the system you
have been following in Section 4, answer the
following questions,
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
45
Summary of Section 4
In this section we have looked at how a typical produced water system operates,
I have described a system which includes:
tilting plate separators
flotation unit
chemical dosing
produced water caisson
and which combine to treat produced water for dumping to the sea.
As you worked through the section you followed the main flow lines and
traced the path of the water and oil. I pointed out the points where chemical
is injected into the system and where sampling takes place.
You also discovered the function and operation of the instrumentation
associated with such a system and the safety features involved.
Now go back to the training targets for this unit and make sure that you
have met those targets,
46
Check Yourself 3
Check Yourself 1
The water underlying the oil pushes the oil towards the
producing wells. The aquifer expands to fill the space left by the
oil which has been removed. The oil water contact therefore will
rise up the reservoir towards the producing well intakes.
Check Yourself 2
a)
total production =
a)
True
b)
False
c)
d)
True
e)
Therefore water cut = 795
4770
100% =
b)
oil production is 80% ( 100 - 20) 875m3/d
Therefore oil production = 875 x
80
100
16.67%
Check Yourself 4
=
c)
water production = 159m3/d (556 - 3971)
Therefore water cut = 159 x
100% =
556
700m3/d
28.6%
47
Check Yourself 5
Your answer should look like the following:
Gravity
Coalescence
Separation
porous medium
Short Distance
Gravity
Gas
Separation
Flotation
Centrifugal
Force
Separation
plate pack
demulsifier
vortex
48
Check Yourself 6
Check Yourself 7
a)
stilling plate
a)
b)
sludge debris
c)
weir
b)
d)
parallel
c)
e)
flat or corrugated
f)
cartridge, coalesce
d)
e)
f)
Check Yourself 8
1.
2.
3.
a-d
4.
a-b-d
5.
6.
c-d
7.
a-b
8.
9.
10.
49
Check Yourself 9
Check Yourself 10
Check Yourself 11
a)
plate pack
a)
b)
inner liner
b)
c)
c)
d)
d)
e)
filter cartridge
50