Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
voltage sag/swell which is not feasible. It also has low dynamic performance
because the dc-link capacitor voltage is not regulated.
This paper presents a new unified power-quality
conditioning system (MC-UPQC), capable of simultaneous compensation for
voltage and current in multi-bus/multi-feeder systems. In this configuration, one
shunt voltage-source converter (shunt VSC) and two or more series VSCs exist.
The system can be applied to adjacent feeders to compensate for supply-voltage
and load current imperfections on the main feeder and full compensation of supply
voltage imperfections on the other feeders. In the proposed configuration, all
converters are connected back to back on the dc side and share a common dc-link
capacitor. Therefore, power can be transferred from one feeder to adjacent feeders
to compensate for sag/swell and interruption. The proposed topology can be used
for simultaneous compensation of voltage and current imperfections in both
feeders by sharing power compensation capabilities between two adjacent feeders
which are not connected. The system is also capable of compensating for
interruptions without the need for a battery storage system and consequently
without storage capacity limitations. The performance of the MC-UPQC as well as
the adopted control algorithm is illustrated by simulation.
I. INTRODUCTION
2
multilines or a subnetwork rather than control the power flow of a single line by,
for instance, a UPFC.
When the power flows of two lines starting in one substation need to be
controlled, an interline power flow controller (IPFC) can be used. An IPFC
consists of two series VSCs whose dc capacitors are coupled. This allows active
power to circulate between the VSCs. With this configuration, two lines can be
controlled simultaneously to optimize the network utilization. The GUPFC
combines three or more shunt and series converters. It extends the concept of
voltage and power-flow control beyond what is achievable with the known twoconverter UPFC. The simplest GUPFC consists of three convertersone
connected in shunt and the other two in series with two transmission lines in a
substation. The basic GUPFC can control total five power system quantities, such
as a bus voltage and independent active and reactive power flows of two lines. The
concept of GUPFC can be extended for more lines if necessary. The device may be
installed in some central substations to manage power flows of multilines or a
group of lines and provide voltage support as well. By using GUPFC devices, the
transfer capability of transmission lines can be increased significantly.
Furthermore, by using the multiline-management capability of the GUPFC,
active power flow on lines cannot only be increased, but also be decreased with
respect to operating and market transaction requirements. In general, the GUPFC
can be used to increase the transfer capability and relieve congestions in a flexible
way. This concept can be extended to design multiconverter configurations for PQ
improvement in adjacent feeders. For example, the interline unified power-quality
conditioner (IUPQC), which is the extension of the IPFC concept at the
distribution level, has been proposed in [11]. The IUPQC consists of one series and
one shunt converter. It is connected between two feeders to regulate the bus
voltage of one of the feeders, while regulating the voltage across a sensitive load in
4
the other feeder. In this configuration, the voltage regulation in one of the feeders
is performed by the shunt-VSC. However, since the source impedance is very low,
a high amount of current would be needed to boost the bus voltage in case of a
voltage sag/swell which is not feasible. It also has low dynamic performance
because the dc-link capacitor voltage is not regulated.
In this paper, a new configuration of a UPQC called the multiconverter
unified power-quality conditioner (MC-UPQC) is presented. The system is
extended by adding a series-VSC in an adjacent feeder. The proposed topology can
be used for simultaneous compensation of voltage and current imperfections in
both feeders by sharing power compensation capabilities between two adjacent
feeders which are not connected. The system is also capable of compensating for
interruptions without the need for a battery storage system and consequently
without storage capacity limitations.
POWER QUALITY
The contemporary container crane industry, like many other industry
segments, is often enamored by the bells and whistles, colorful diagnostic displays,
high speed performance, and levels of automation that can be achieved. Although
these features and their indirectly related computer based enhancements are key
5
issues to an efficient terminal operation, we must not forget the foundation upon
which we are building. Power quality is the mortar which bonds the foundation
blocks. Power quality also affects terminal operating economics, crane reliability,
our environment, and initial investment in power distribution systems to support
new crane installations. To quote the utility company newsletter which
accompanied the last monthly issue of my home utility billing: Using electricity
wisely is a good environmental and business practice which saves you money,
reduces emissions from generating plants, and conserves our natural resources. As
we are all aware, container crane performance requirements continue to increase at
an astounding rate. Next generation container cranes, already in the bidding
process, will require average power demands of 1500 to 2000 kW almost double
the total average demand three years ago. The rapid increase in power demand
levels, an increase in container crane population, SCR converter crane drive
retrofits and the large AC and DC drives needed to power and control these cranes
will increase awareness of the power quality issue in the very near future.
When applied to the container crane industry, the power issues which degrade
power quality include:
Power Factor
Harmonic Distortion
Voltage Transients
Voltage Sags or Dips
Voltage Swells
The AC and DC variable speed drives utilized on board container cranes are
significant contributors to total harmonic current and voltage distortion. Whereas
SCR phase control creates the desirable average power factor, DC SCR drives
operate at less than this. In addition, line notching occurs when SCRs commutate,
creating transient peak recovery voltages that can be 3 to 4 times the nominal line
voltage depending upon the system impedance and the size of the drives. The
frequency and severity of these power system disturbances varies with the speed of
the drive. Harmonic current injection by AC and DC drives will be highest when
the drives are operating at slow speeds. Power factor will be lowest when DC
drives are operating at slow speeds or during initial acceleration and deceleration
periods, increasing to its maximum value when the SCRs are phased on to
produce rated or base speed. Above base speed, the power factor essentially
remains constant. Unfortunately, container cranes can spend considerable time at
low speeds as the operator attempts to spot and land containers. Poor power factor
places a greater kVA demand burden on the utility or engine-alternator power
source. Low power factor loads can also affect the voltage stability which can
ultimately result in detrimental effects on the
life of sensitive electronic equipment or even intermittent malfunction. Voltage
transients created by DC drive SCR line notching, AC drive voltage chopping, and
7
high frequency harmonic voltages and currents are all significant sources of noise
and disturbance to sensitive electronic equipment
It has been our experience that end users often do not associate power
quality problems with Container cranes, either because they are totally unaware of
such issues or there was no economic Consequence if power quality was not
addressed. Before the advent of solid-state power supplies, Power factor was
reasonable, and harmonic current injection was minimal. Not until the crane
Population multiplied, power demands per crane increased, and static power
conversion became the way of life, did power quality issues begin to emerge. Even
as harmonic distortion and power Factor issues surfaced, no one was really
prepared. Even today, crane builders and electrical drive System vendors avoid the
issue during competitive bidding for new cranes. Rather than focus on Awareness
and understanding of the potential issues, the power quality issue is intentionally or
unintentionally ignored. Power quality problem solutions are available. Although
the solutions are not free, in most cases, they do represent a good return on
investment. However,
consumers served by the same utility service. Each of these concerns is explored in
the following paragraphs.
1. Economic Impact
The economic impact of power quality is the foremost incentive to container
terminal operators. Economic impact can be significant and manifest itself in
several ways:
a. Power Factor Penalties
Many utility companies invoke penalties for low power factor on monthly
billings. There is no industry standard followed by utility companies. Methods of
metering and calculating power factor penalties vary from one utility company to
the next. Some utility companies actually meter kVAR usage and establish a fixed
rate times the number of kVAR-hours consumed. Other utility companies monitor
kVAR demands and calculate power factor. If the power factor falls below a fixed
limit value over a demand period, a penalty is billed in the form of an adjustment
to the peak demand charges. A number of utility companies servicing container
terminal equipment do not yet invoke power factor penalties. However, their
service contract with the Port may still require that a minimum power factor over a
defined demand period be met. The utility company may not continuously monitor
power factor or kVAR usage and reflect them in the monthly utility billings;
however, they do reserve the right to monitor the Port service at any time. If the
power factor criteria set forth in the service contract are not met, the user may be
penalized, or required to take corrective actions at the users expense. One utility
company, which supplies power service to several east coast container terminals in
the USA, does not reflect power factor penalties in their monthly billings, however,
their service contract with the terminal reads as follows:
10
b. System Losses
Harmonic currents and low power factor created by nonlinear loads, not only
result in possible power factor penalties, but also increase the power losses in the
distribution system. These losses are not visible as a separate item on your monthly
utility billing, but you pay for them each month. Container cranes are significant
contributors to harmonic currents and low power factor. Based on the typical
demands of todays high speed container cranes, correction of power factor
11
alone on a typical state of the art quay crane can result in a reduction of system
losses that converts to a 6 to 10% reduction in the monthly utility billing. For most
of the larger terminals, this is a significant annual saving in the cost of operation.
c. Power Service Initial Capital Investments
The power distribution system design and installation for new terminals, as
well as modification of systems for terminal capacity upgrades, involves high cost,
specialized, high and medium voltage equipment. Transformers, switchgear, feeder
cables, cable reel trailing cables, collector bars, etc. must be sized based on the
kVA demand. Thus cost of the equipment is directly related to the total kVA
demand. As the relationship above indicates, kVA demand is inversely proportional
to the overall power factor, i.e. a lower power factor demands higher kVA for the
same kW load. Container cranes are one of the most significant users of power in
the terminal. Since container cranes with DC, 6 pulse, SCR drives operate at
relatively low power factor, the total kVA demand is significantly larger than
would be the case if power factor correction equipment were supplied on board
each crane or at some common bus location in the terminal. In the absence of
power quality corrective equipment, transformers are larger, switchgear current
ratings must be higher, feeder cable copper sizes are larger, collector system and
cable reel cables must be larger, etc. Consequently, the cost of the initial power
distribution system equipment for a system which does not address power quality
will most likely be higher than the same system which includes power quality
equipment.
2. Equipment Reliability
Poor power quality can affect machine or equipment reliability and reduce
the life of components. Harmonics, voltage transients, and voltage system sags
12
and swells are all power quality problems and are all interdependent. Harmonics
affect power factor, voltage transients can induce harmonics, the same phenomena
which create harmonic current injection in DC SCR
variable speed drives are responsible for poor power factor, and dynamically
varying power factor of the same drives can create voltage sags and swells. The
effects of harmonic distortion, harmonic currents, and line notch ringing can be
mitigated using specially designed filters.
3. Power System Adequacy
When considering the installation of additional cranes to an existing power
distribution system, a power system analysis should be completed to determine the
adequacy of the system to support additional crane loads. Power quality corrective
actions may be dictated due to inadequacy of existing power distribution systems
to which new or relocated cranes are to be connected. In other words, addition of
power quality equipment may render a workable scenario on an existing power
distribution system, which would otherwise be inadequate to support additional
cranes without high risk of problems.
4. Environment
No issue might be as important as the effect of power quality on our
environment. Reduction in system losses and lower demands equate to a reduction
in the consumption of our natural nm resources and reduction in power plant
emissions. It is our responsibility as occupants
UNIFIED POWER QUALITY CONDITIONER
The provision of both DSTATCOM and DVR can control the power quality
of the source current and the load bus voltage. In addition, if the DVR and
13
STATCOM are connected on the DC side, the DC bus voltage can be regulated by
the shunt connected DSTATCOM while the DVR supplies the required energy to
the load in case of the transient disturbances in source voltage. The configuration
of such a device (termed as Unified Power Quality Conditioner (UPQC)) is shown
in Fig. This is a versatile device similar to a UPFC. However, the control
objectives of a UPQC are quite different from that of a UPFC.
Operation of UPQC
The operation of a UPQC can be explained from the analysis of the idealized
equivalent circuit shown in Fig. 14.16. Here, the series converter is represented by
a voltage source VC and the shunt converter is represented by a current source IC.
15
Note that all the currents and voltages are 3 dimensional vectors with phase
coordinates. Unlike in the case of a UPFC (discussed in chapter 8), the voltages
and currents may contain negative and zero sequence components in addition to
harmonics. Neglecting losses in the converters, we get the relation
Let the load current IL and the source voltage VS be decomposed into two
Components given by
This implies that hIrL ; VLi = 0. Thus, the fundamental frequency, positive
sequence component in IrL does not contribute to the active power in the load. To
meet the control objectives, the desired load voltages and source currents must
contain only positive sequence, fundamental frequency components and
16
where V L and IS are the reference quantities for the load bus voltage and the
source current respectively. l is the power factor angle at the load bus while s is
the power factor angle at the source bus (input port of UPQC). Note that V L(t)
and IS (t) are sinusoidal and balanced. If the reference current (IC ) of the shunt
converter and the reference voltage (V C) of the series converter are chosen as
Note that the constraint (14.30) implies that V 1p C is the reactive voltage in
quadrature with the desired source current, IS . It is easy to derive that
The above equation shows that for the operating
conditions assumed, a UPQC can be viewed as a inaction of a DVR and a
STATCOM with no active power ow through the DC link. However, if the
magnitude of V L is to be controlled, it may not be feasible to achieve this by
injecting only reactive voltage. The situation gets complicated if V 1p S is not
constant, but changes due to
system disturbances or fault. To ensure the regulation of the load bus voltage it
may be necessary to inject variable active voltage (in phase with the source
current). If we express
17
This implies that both VC and IC are perturbations involving positive sequence,
fundamental frequency quantities (say, resulting from symmetric voltage sags). the
power balance on the DC side of the shunt and series converter. The perturbation in
VC is initiated to ensure that
Thus, the objective of the voltage regulation at the load bus may require exchange
of power between the shunt and series converters.
Remarks:
1. The unbalance and harmonics in the source voltage can arise due to
uncompensated nonlinear and unbalanced loads in the upstream of the UPQC.
2. The injection of capacitive reactive voltage by the series converter has the
advantage of raising the source voltage magnitude.
18
accomplish this task, the dc link voltage is measured and compared with a
reference VREF. The error signal generated from this comparison is used to switch
the six valves of the rectifier ON and OFF. In this way, power can come or return
to the ac source according to dc link voltage requirements. Voltage VD is measured
at capacitor CD. When the current ID is positive (rectifier operation), the capacitor
CD is discharged, and the error signal ask the Control Block for more power from
the ac supply. The
Control Block takes the power from the supply by generating the appropriate
PWM signals for the six valves. In this way, more current flows from the ac to the
dc side, and the capacitor voltage is recovered. Inversely, when ID becomes
negative (inverter operation), the capacitor CD is overcharged, and the error signal
asks the control to discharge the capacitor and return power to the ac mains. The
PWM control not only can manage the active power, but also reactive power,
allowing this type of rectifier to correct power factor. In addition, the ac current
waveforms can be maintained as almost sinusoidal, which reduces harmonic
contamination to the mains supply. Pulsewidth-modulation consists of switching
the valves ON and OFF, following a pre-established template. This template could
be a sinusoidal waveform of voltage or current. For example, the modulation of
one phase could be as the one shown in Fig. 12.37. This PWM pattern is a
periodical waveform whose fundamental is a voltage with the same frequency
of the template. The amplitude of this fundamental, called VMOD in Fig. 12.37, is
also proportional to the amplitude of the template.
To make the rectifier work properly, the PWM pattern must generate a fundamental
VMOD with the same frequency as the power source. Changing the amplitude of
this fundamental
20
FIGURE A PWM pattern and its fundamental VMOD. and its phase-shift with
respect to the mains, the rectifier can be controlled to operate in the four quadrants:
leading power factor rectifier, lagging power factor rectifier, leading power factor
inverter, and lagging power factor inverter. Changing the pattern of modulation, as
shown in Fig. 12.38, modifies the magnitude of VMOD. Displacing the PWM
pattern changes the phase-shift. The interaction between VMOD and V (source
voltage) can be seen through a phasor diagram. This interaction permits
understanding of the four-quadrant capability of this rectifier. In Fig. 12.39, the
following operations are displayed: (a) rectifier at unity power factor; (b) inverter
at unity power factor; (c) capacitor (zero power factor); and (d) inductor (zero
power factor). In Fig. 12.39 Is is the rms value of the source current is . This
current flows through the semiconductors in the same way as shown in Fig. 12.40.
During the positive half cycle, the transistor TN connected at the negative side of
the dc link is switched ON, and the current is begins to flow through TN .iTn.. The
current returns to the mains and comes back to the valves, closing a loop with
21
another phase, and passing through a diode connected at the same negative
terminal of the dc link. The current can also go to the dc load (inversion) and return
through another transistor located at the positive terminal of the dc link. When the
transistor TN is switched OFF, the current path is interrupted, and the current
begins to flow through diode DP, connected at the positive terminal of the dc link.
This current, called iDp in Fig, goes directly to the dc link, helping in the
generation of the current idc . The current idc charges the capacitor CD and permits
the rectifier to produce dc power. The inductances LS are very important in this
process, because they generate an induced voltage that allows conduction of the
diode DP. A similar operation occurs during the negative half cycle, but with TP
and DN
22
Four-quadrant operation of the force-commutatedrectifier: (a) the PWM forcecommutated rectifier; (b) rectifier operation at unity power factor; (c) inverter
operation at unity power factor; (d) capacitor operation at zero power factor; and
(e) inductor operation at zero power factor.
Under inverter operation, the current paths are different because the currents
flowing through the transistors come mainly from the dc capacitor CD. Under
rectifier operation, the circuit works like a Boost converter, and under inverter
operation it works as a Buck converter. To have full control of the operation of the
rectifier, their six diodes must be polarized negatively at all values of instantaneous
ac voltage supply. Otherwise, the diodes will conduct, and the PWM rectifier will
behave like a common diode rectifier bridge. The way to keep the diodes blocked
is to ensure a dc link voltage higher than the peak dc voltage generated by the
23
diodes alone, as shown in Fig. 12.41. In this way, the diodes remain polarized
negatively, and they will conduct only when at least one transistor is switched ON,
and favorable instantaneous ac voltage conditions are given. In Fig. 12.41 VD
represents the capacitor dc voltage, which is kept higher than the normal diodebridge rectification value nBRIDGE. To maintain this condition, the rectifier must
have a control loop like the one displayed in Fig.
Current waveforms through the mains, the valves, and the dc link.
VOLTAGE SOURCE INVERTER
Single-phase voltage source inverter can be found as half-bridge and fullbridge topologies. Although the power range they cover is the low one, they are
widely used in power supplies, single-phase UPSs, and currently to form elaborate
high-power static power topologies, such as for instance, the multi cell
24
configurations that are reviewed The main features of both approaches are
reviewed and presented in the following.
Types of VSI:
Half-Bridge VSI:
The power topology of a half-bridge VSI, where two large capacitors are
required to provide a neutral point N, such that each capacitor maintains a constant
voltage=2. Because the current harmonics injected by the operation of the inverter
are low-order harmonics, a set of large capacitors (C. and C) is required. It is clear
that both switches S. and S cannot be on simultaneously because short circuit
across the dc link voltage source vi would be produced. There are two defined
(states 1 and 2) and one undefined (state 3) switch state as shown in Table. In order
to avoid the short circuit across the dc bus and the undefined ac output voltage
condition, the modulating technique should always ensure that at any instant either
the top or the bottom switch of the inverter leg is on.
25
shows the ideal waveforms associated with the half-bridge inverter shown in Fig.
14.2. The states for the switches S. and S are defined by the modulating
technique, which in this case is a carrier-based PWM.
The Carrier-Based Pulse width Modulation (PWM) Technique: As
mentioned earlier, it is desired that the ac output voltage. Va N follow a given
waveform (e.g., sinusoidal) on a continuous basis by properly switching the power
valves. The carrier-based PWM technique fulfils such a requirement as it defines
the on and off states of the switches of one leg of a VSI by comparing a
modulating signal vc (desired ac output voltage) and a triangular waveform vD
(carrier signal). In practice, when vc > vD the switch S. is on and the switch is off;
similarly, when vc < vD the switch S. is off and the switch S is on. A special case
is when the modulating signal vc is a sinusoidal at frequency fc and amplitude
^vc , and the triangular signal vD is at frequency fD and amplitude ^vD. This is the
sinusoidal PWM (SPWM) scheme. In this case, the modulation index ma (also
known as the amplitude-modulation ratio) is defined as
27
will be discussed later); (b) for odd values of the normalized carrier frequency mf
the harmonics in the ac output voltage appear at normalized frequencies fh
centered around mf and its multiples, specifically,
29
symmetry;
per-phase voltage waveform (vo . vaN), should be chopped N times per half-cycle
in order to adjust the fundamental and eliminate N 1 harmonics in the ac output
voltage waveform. For instance, to eliminate the third and fifth harmonics and to
perform fundamental magnitude control (N. 3), the equations to be solved are the
following:
where the angles a1, a2, and a3 are defined as shown. The angles are found by
means of iterative algorithms as no analytical solutions can be derived. The angles
a1, a2, and
31
where a1, a2; . . . ; aN should satisfy a1 < a2 < _ _ _ < aN <p=2. Similarly, to
eliminate an odd number of harmonics, for instance, the third, fifth and seventh,
and to perform
32
where the angles a1; a2; a3, and a4 are defined as shown in Fig.b. The angles a1;
a2, a3 and a4 are plotted for different values of
33
Full-Bridge VSI:
The power topology of a full-bridge VSI. This inverter is similar to the halfbridge inverter; however, a second leg provides the neutral point to the load. As
expected, both switches S1. and S1 (or S2. and S2) cannot be on simultaneously
because a short circuit across the dc link voltage source vi would be produced.
There are four defined and one undefined
The undefined condition should be avoided so as to be always capable of
defining the ac output voltage. In order to avoid the short circuit across the dc bus
and the undefined ac output voltage condition, the modulating technique should
ensure that either the top or the bottom switch of each leg is on at any instant. It
can be observed that the ac output voltage can take values up to the dc link value vi
, which is twice that obtained with half-bridge VSI topologies. Several modulating
techniques have been developed that are applicable to full-bridge VSIs. Among
them are the PWM (bipolar and unipolar) techniques.
34
States 1 and 2 (Table) are used to generate the ac output voltage in this
approach. Thus, the ac output voltage waveform features only two values, which
are vi and vi. To generate the states, a carrier-based technique can be used a sine
half-bridge configurations where only one sinusoidal modulating signal has been
used. It should be noted that the on state in switch S. in the half-bridge corresponds
to both switches S1. and S2 being in the on state in the full-bridge configuration.
Similarly, S in the on state in the half-bridge corresponds to both switches
S1 andS2. being in the on state in the full-bridge configuration. This is called
bipolar carrier-based SPWM. The ac output voltage waveform in a full-bridge VSI
is basically a sinusoidal waveform that features a fundamental component of
amplitude ^vo1that satisfies the expression
In the linear region of the modulating technique (ma _ 1),which is twice that
obtained in the half-bridge VSI. Identical conclusions can be drawn for the
frequencies and amplitudes of the harmonics in the ac output voltage and dc link
current, and for operations at smaller and larger values of odd mf(including the
over modulation region (ma > 1)), than in half bridge VSIs, but considering that
the maximum ac output voltage is the dc link voltage vi . Thus, in the over
modulation region the fundamental component of amplitude ^vo1 satisfies the
expression
In contrast to the bipolar approach, the unipolar PWM technique uses the
states 1, 2, 3, and to generate the ac output voltage. Thus, the ac output voltage
waveform can instantaneously take one of three values, namely
35
The signal
other hand,
thus
.On the
This is called
unipolar carrier-basedPWM.
Identical conclusions can be drawn for the amplitude of the fundamental
component and harmonics in the ac output voltage and dc link current, and for
operations at smaller and larger values of mf , (including the over modulation
region (ma > 1)), than in full-bridge VSIs modulated by the bipolar SPWM.
However, because the phase voltages
pulses per half-cycle in order to adjust the fundamental component and eliminate N
1 harmonics. For instance, to eliminate the third, fifth and seventh harmonics and
to perform fundamental magnitude control (N . 4), the equations to be solved are:
number of
Shows a special case where only the fundamental ac output voltage is controlled.
This is known as output control by voltage cancellation, which derives from the
fact that its implementation is easily attainable by using two phase-shifted squarewave switching signals as shown in
37
38
39
Fig. Chopping angles for SHE and fundamental voltage control in half-bridge
VSIs: (a) fundamental control and third, fifth, and seventh harmonic elimination;
(b) fundamental control.
Thus, the amplitude of the fundamental component and harmonics in the ac
output voltage are given by
40
It can also be observed in Fig. 14.12c that for a1 . 0 square wave operation is
iCsh is the leakage capacitor current of the shunt low-pass interfacing filter.
represent the switching voltages across the series and the shunt
VSI outputs of the UPQC respectively.
The injected voltage of the series active filter is denoted by vinj, while the
injected current of the shunt active filter is denoted by iinj. Both u1 and u2 treated
as manipulated variables and take continuous values between -1 and +1. The
voltage
is the desired voltage level of each capacitor unit for the UPQC.
42
where the state-variables are is (the supply current), ise (the current flowing
through the inductance Lse), iinj (the injected current), vinj (the injected voltage)
and vch (the voltage across the capacitance Csh, which is the same as the load
voltage vL). In this state-space model, the supply voltage vs and the load current iL
are considered as exogenous inputs to the plant,
which act like disturbances, while the load voltage vL and the supply current is are
considered as outputs of the plant. The variables u1 and u2 are regarded as the
manipulated control inputs to the plant. The control objective is to regulate vL and
is to sine waves of 50Hz without any harmonics, even though harmonics exist in vs
and iL.
43
44
and
Bus voltages
are distorted
46
are connected to
prevent the flow of switching harmonics into the power supply. As shown in Fig,
all converters are supplied from a common dc-link capacitor and connected to the
distribution system through a transformer. Secondary (distribution) sides of the
series-connected transformers are directly connected in series with BUS1 and
BUS2, and the secondary (distribution)side of the shunt-connected transformer is
connected in parallel with load L1. The aims of the MC-UPQC shown in Fig are:
1) to regulate the load voltage
In order to achieve these goals, series VSCs (i.e., VSC1 and VSC3) operate as
voltage controllers while the shunt VSC (i.e., VSC2) operates as a current
controller.
C. Control Strategy
As shown in Fig., the MC-UPQC consists of two series VSCs and one shunt VSC
which are controlled independently. The switching control strategy for series VSCs
47
and the shunt VSC are selected to be sinusoidal pulse width-modulation (SPWM)
voltage control and hysteresis current control, respectively. Details of the control
algorithm, which are based on the dq method [12], will be discussed later. ShuntVSC: Functions of the shunt-VSC are:
1) to compensate for the reactive component of load L1 current;
2) to compensate for the harmonic components of load L1 current;
3) to regulate the voltage of the common dc-link capacitor.
Fig. shows the control block diagram for the shunt VSC.
The measured load current
where the transformation matrix is shown in (2), at the bottom of the page.
By this transform, the fundamental positive-sequence component, which is
transformed into dc quantities in the d and q axes, can be easily extracted by lowpass filters (LPFs). Also, all harmonic components are transformed into ac
quantities with a fundamental frequency shift
where
.
If
This means that there are no harmonic and reactive components in the feeder
current. Switching losses cause the dc-link capacitor voltage to decrease. Other
disturbances, such as the sudden variation of load, can also affect the dc link. In
order to regulate the dc-link capacitor voltage, a proportionalintegral (PI)
controller is used as shown in Fig. The input of the PI controller is the error
between the actual capacitor voltage
of the PI controller
. The output
As shown in Fig., the reference current in (9) is then transformed back into
the abc reference frame. By using PWM hysteresis current control, the outputcompensating currents in each phase are obtained
The control block diagram of each series VSC is shown in Fig. The bus voltage
is detected and then transformed into the synchronous dq0 reference frame
using
Where
According to control objectives of the MC-UPQC, the load voltage should be kept
sinusoidal with a constant amplitude even if the bus voltage is disturbed.
Therefore, the expected load voltage in the synchronous dq0 reference frame
only has one value.
is
This means
51
Fig. Phasor diagram of quadrature compensation. (a) Without voltage sag. (b) With
voltage sag.
, the series-injected
load current
compensates for not only the reactive component, but also the harmonic
components of the load current
quadrature series voltage injection is needed as shown in Fig. (b). The shunt VSC
injects
in such a way that the active power requirement of the load is only drawn
regardless of bus voltages variation, and the load currents in both feeders are
53
, respectively)
can be found as
From Fig., the voltage injected by the series VSC in Feeder1 and thus the power
rating of this converter
can be calculated as
54
where
is calculated. This part of the shunt VSC current only exchanges reactive
where
. Therefore
contains the
contains
the fifthorder harmonic with a value of 35%. The BUS1 voltage contains 25% sag
between
. The BUS2
and 30% swell between
55
Fig. BUS1 voltage, series compensating voltage, and load voltage in Feeder1.
In all figures, only the phase a waveform is shown for simplicity. Similarly, the
BUS2 voltage, the corresponding compensation voltage injected by VSC3, and
finally, the load L2 voltageare shown in Fig.
56
Fig. BUS2 voltage, series compensating voltage, and load voltage in Feeder2.
As shown in these figures, distorted voltages of BUS1 and BUS2 are satisfactorily
compensated for across the loads L1 and L2 with very good dynamic response. The
nonlinear load current, its corresponding compensation current injected by VSC2,
compensated Feeder1 current, and,
finally, the dc-link capacitor voltage are shown in Fig.
57
Fig. Nonlinear load current, compensating current, Feeder1 current, and capacitor
voltage.
The distorted nonlinear load current is compensated very well, and the total
harmonic distortion (THD) of the feeder current is reduced from 28.5% to less than
5%. Also, the dc voltage regulation loop has functioned properly under all
disturbances, such as sag/swell in both feeders.
B. Upstream Fault on Feeder2
When a fault occurs in Feeder2 (in any form of L-G, L-L-G, and L-L-L-G faults),
the voltage
such that total power transfer is possible. This may increase the cost of the device,
but the benefit that may be obtained can offset the expense. In the proposed
configuration, the sensitive/critical load on Feeder2 is fully protected against
distortion, sag/swell, and interruption. Furthermore, the regulated voltage across
the sensitive load on Feeder1 can supply several customers who are also protected
against distortion, sag/swell, and momentary interruption. Therefore, the cost of the
MC-UPQC must be balanced against the cost of interruption, based on reliability
indices, such as the customer average interruption duration index (CAIDI) and
customer average interruption frequency index (CAIFI). It is expected that the
MC-UPQC cost can be recovered in a few years by charging higher tariffs for the
protected lines. The performance of the MC-UPQC under a fault condition on
Feeder2 is tested by applying a three-phase fault to ground on Feeder2 between
0.3s<t<0.4 s. Simulation results are shown in Fig.
59
C. Load Change
To evaluate the system behavior during a load change, the nonlinear load L1 is
doubled by reducing its resistance to half at t=0.5 s. The other load, however, is
kept unchanged. The system response is shown in Fig.
60
Fig. Simulation results for load change: nonlinear load current, Feeder1 current,
load L1 voltage, load L2 voltage, and dc-link capacitor voltage.
It can be seen that as load L1 changes, the load voltages
remain
undisturbed, the dc bus voltage is regulated, and the nonlinear load current is
compensated.
D. Unbalance Voltage
The control strategies for shunt and series VSCs, which are introduced in Section
II, are based on the dq method. They are capable of compensating for the
61
unbalanced source voltage and unbalanced load current. To evaluate the control
system capability for unbalanced voltage compensation, a new simulation is
performed. In this new simulation, the BUS2 voltage and the harmonic
components of BUS1 voltage are similar to those given in Section IV. However,
the fundamental component of the BUS1 voltage
three-phase voltage with an unbalance factor
is an unbalanced
of 40%. This unbalance
voltage is given by
The simulation results for the three-phase BUS1 voltage series compensation
voltage, and load voltage in feeder 1 are shown in Fig.
Fig. BUS1 voltage, series compensating voltage, and load voltage in Feeder1 under
unbalanced source voltage.
The simulation results show that the harmonic components and unbalance of BUS1
voltage are compensated for by injecting the proper series voltage. In this figure,
the load voltage is a three-phase sinusoidal balance voltage with regulated
amplitude.
62
V. CONCLUSION
In this paper, a new configuration for simultaneous compensation of voltage and
current in adjacent feeders has been proposed. The new configuration is named
multi-converter unified power-quality conditioner (MC-UPQC). Compared to a
conventional UPQC, the proposed topology is capable of fully protecting critical
and sensitive loads against distortions, sags/swell, and interruption in two-feeder
systems. The idea can be theoretically extended to multibus/multifeeder systems by
adding more series VSCs. The performance of the MC-UPQC is evaluated under
various disturbance conditions and it is shown that the proposed MC-UPQC offers
the following advantages:
1) power transfer between two adjacent feeders for sag/swell and interruption
compensation;
2) compensation for interruptions without the need for a battery storage system
and, consequently, without storage capacity limitation;
3) sharing power compensation capabilities between two adjacent feeders which
are not connected.
63
INTRODUCTION TO MATLAB
64
This is a huge nicheone way to tell is to look at the number of MATLABrelated books on mathworks.com. Even for supercomputer users, MATLAB can be
a valuable environment in which to explore and fine-tune algorithms before more
laborious coding in another language.
Most successful computing languages and environments acquire a distinctive
character or culture.
In MATLAB, that culture contains several elements: an experimental and graphical
bias, resulting from the interactive environment and compression of the writecompile-link-execute analyze cycle; an emphasis on syntax that is compact and
friendly to the interactive mode, rather than tightly constrained and verbose; a
kitchen-sink mentality for providing functionality; and a high degree of openness
and transparency (though not to the extent of being open source software).
When you start MATLAB, you get a multi paneled desktop. The layout and
behavior of the desktop and its components are highly customizable (and may in
fact already be customized for your site).
The component that is the heart of MATLAB is called the Command
Window, located on the 1Here and elsewhere I am thinking of the old
66
Right by default. Here you can give MATLAB commands typed at the
prompt, >>. Unlike FORTRAN and other compiled computer languages,
MATLAB is an interpreted environmentyou give a command, and MATLAB
tries to execute it right away before asking for another.
At the top left you can see the Current Directory. In general MATLAB is
aware only of files in the current directory (folder) and on its path, which can be
customized. Commands for working with the directory and path include cd, what,
add path, and edit path (or you can choose File/Set path. . . from the menus).
You can add files to a directory on the path and thereby add commands to
MATLAB; we will return to this subject in section 3.
Next to the Current Directory tab is the Workspace tab. The workspace shows you
what variable names are currently defined and some information about their
contents. (At start-up it is, naturally, empty.) This represents another break from
compiled environments: variables created in the workspace persist for you to
examine and modify, even after code execution stops. Below the Command
Window/Workspace window is the Command History window. As you enter
commands, they are recorded here. This record persists across different MATLAB
sessions, and commands or blocks of commands can be copied from here or saved
to files.
67
As you explore MATLAB, you will soon encounter some toolboxes. These
are individually packaged sets of capabilities that provide in-depth expertise on
particular subject areas. There is no need to load them explicitlyonce installed,
they are always available transparently. You may also encounter Simulink, which
is a semi-independent graphical control-engineering package not covered in this
document.
Graphical versus command-line usage
68
Getting Started
69
To start a Simulink session, you'd need to bring up Matlab program first. From
Matlab command window, enter:
>> simulink
Alternately, you may click on the Simulink icon located on the toolbar as shown
70
To see the content of the blockset, click on the "+" sign at the beginning of each
toolbox.
To start a model click on the NEW FILE ICON as shown in the screenshot
above.
71
To become familiarized with the structure and the environment of Simulink, you
are encouraged to explore the toolboxes and scan their contents.
You may not know what they are all about but perhaps you could catch on
the organization of these toolboxes according to the category. For instant, you may
see Control System Toolbox to consist of the Linear Time Invariant (LTI) system
72
library and the MATLAB functions can be found under Function and Tables of the
Simulink main toolbox. A good way to learn Simulink (or any computer program
in general) is to practice and explore. Making mistakes is a part of the learning
curve. So, fear not, you should be.
73
A set of blocks will appear in the BLOCKSET group. Click on the Sine
Wave blockand drag it to the workspace window (also known as model window)
74
75
NOTE: If you wish to locate a block knowing its name, you may enter the name in
the SEARCH WINDOW (at Find prompt) and Simulink will bring up the specified
block.
76
You may remove (delete) a block by simply clicking on it once to turn on the
"select mode" (with four corner boxes) and use the DEL key or keys combination
CTRL-X.
77
A sine signal is generated by the Sine Wave block (a source) and is displayed
by the scope. The integrated sine signal is sent to scope for display along with the
original signal from the source via the Mux, whose function is to multiplex signals
in form of scalar, vector, or matrix into a bus.
You now can run the simulation of the simple system above by clicking on
the play button (alternatively, you may use key sequence CTRL+T, or choose Start
submenu under Simulation menu).
78
INTRODUCTION
Simulink, see the Simulink documentation. Or, if you apply Simulink to signal
processing and communications tasks (as opposed to control system design tasks),
see the Signal Processing Block set documentation.
What Is SimPowerSystems
80
SIMPOWERSYSTEMS LIBRARIES
You can rapidly put SimPowerSystems to work. The libraries contain models
of typical power equipment such as transformers, lines, machines, and power
electronics. These models are proven ones coming from textbooks, and their
validity is based on the experience of the Power Systems Testing and Simulation
Laboratory of Hydro-Qubec, a large North American utility located in Canada,
81
NONLINEAR
SIMULINK
BLOCKS
FOR
SIMPOWERSYSTEMS
MODELS
The nonlinear Simulink blocks of the power lib library are stored in a
special\block library named powerlib_models. These masked Simulink models are
used by SimPowerSystems to build the equivalent Simulink model of your circuit.
See Chapter 3, Improving Simulation Performance for a description of the
powerlib_models library
Simulink
REFERENCES
[1] D. D. Sabin and A. Sundaram, Quality enhances reliability, IEEE Spectr., vol.
33, no. 2, pp. 3441, Feb. 1996.
[2] M. Rastogi, R. Naik, and N. Mohan, A comparative evaluation of harmonic
reduction techniques in three-phase utility interface of power electronic loads,
IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl., vol. 30, no. 5, pp. 11491155, Sep./Oct. 1994.
[3] F. Z. Peng, Application issues of active power filters, IEEE Ind. Appl. Mag.,
vol. 4, no. 5, pp. 2130, Sep../Oct. 1998.
[4] H. Akagi, New trends in active filters for power conditioning, IEEE Trans.
Ind. Appl., vol. 32, no. 6, pp. 13121322, Nov./Dec. 1996.
[5] L. Gyugyi, C. D. Schauder, S. L. Williams, T. R. Rietman, D. R. Torjerson, and
A. Edris, The unified power flow controller: A new approach to power
transmission control, IEEE Trans. Power Del., vol. 10, no. 2, pp. 10851097, Apr.
1995.
[6] H. Fujita and H. Akagi, The unified power quality conditioner: The integration
of series and shunt active filters, IEEE Trans. Power Electron., vol. 13, no. 2, pp.
315322, Mar. 1998.
[7] A. Ghosh and G. Ledwich, A unified power quality conditioner (UPQC) for
simultaneous voltage and current compensation, Elect. Power Syst. Res., pp. 55
63, 2001.
[8] M. Aredes, K. Heumann, and E. H. Watanabe, An universal active power line
conditioner, IEEE Trans. Power Del., vol. 13, no. 2, pp. 545551, Apr. 1998.
83
84