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DEPARTMENT OF EEE

CONTROL SYSTEMS

1. TIME RESPONSE OF SECOND ORDER SYSTEM


AIM:
To determine the time response specifications of a second order system and
verifying it by using MATLAB.
G (s)

81
s 4 s 81
2

APPARATUS:
PC with MATLAB software
THEORY:
Second-order state determined systems are described in terms of two state
variables. Physical second-order system models contain two independent energy storage
elements which exchange stored energy, and may contain additional dissipative elements;
such models are often used to represent the exchange of energy between mass and
stiffness elements in mechanical systems; between capacitors and inductors in electrical
systems, and between fluid inheritance and capacitance elements in hydraulic systems. In
addition second-order system models are frequently used to rep- resent the exchange of
energy between two independent energy storage elements in different energy domains
coupled through a two-port element, for example energy may be exchanged between a
mechanical mass and a fluid capacitance (tank) through a piston, or between an electrical
inductance and mechanical inertia as might occur in an electric motor. Engineers often
use second- order system models in the preliminary stages of design in order to establish
the parameters of he energy storage and dissipation elements required to achieve a
satisfactory response. Second-order systems have responses that depend on the
dissipative elements in the system. Some systems are oscillatory and are characterized by
decaying, growing, or continuous oscillations.
Other second order systems do not exhibit oscillations in their responses. In this
section we define a pair of parameters that are commonly used to characterize secondTRR COLLEGE OG ENGINEERING
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order systems, and use them to define the conditions that generate non-oscillatory,
decaying or continuous oscillatory, and growing (or unstable) responses.
When the resistance, inductance, and capacitance are connected in series to the voltage
source e and the voltage across the capacitor is taken as output.
The mathematical equations are
e(t) = R i(t) +L di/dt+(1/C) i dt and eo =(1/C) i dt
Ei(s)/Eo(s) = (s2+(R/L) s+(1/LC))LC
Eo(s)/Ei(s) =1/(s2+(R/L) s+(1/LC))LC
Compare with characteristic equation s2+2wns+wn2=0
wn = 1/LC, = (R/2)* C/L, = cos-1()
Damping frequency = wd = wn1-2
TIME RESPONSE SPECIFICATIONS:
(i) Delay Time: It is the time taken to reach 50% of its final value.
td = (1+0.7 )/ wn
(ii) Rise Time: It is the time taken to rise from 10% to 90% for over damped system.
It is the time taken for the system response to rise from 0 to 100% for under
damped system.
It is the time taken for the system response to rise from 5% to 95% for
theoretically damped system.
td = [(-tan-1(1-2/)]/wd
(iii) Peak Time: It is the time taken for the response to reach peak value for the first
attempt.
tp = /wd
(iv) Settling Time: It is the time taken to reach and stay within the tolerable limit (2-5%).
ts = 4/(wn)
(v) Peak Overshoot: It is the ratio of maximum peak value measured to the final value.

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Mp = e-/(1-2)

THEORETICAL CALCULATIONS:
(- to be done by the student-)
PROGRAM:
NUM=[0 0 81];
DEN=[1 4 81];
SYS=TF(NUM,DEN)
STEP(SYS)
TITLE(STEP RESPONSE);
GRID
OBSERVATION TABLE:
Time
td (sec)
tr (sec)
tp (sec)
ts (sec)
Mp (%)

Theoretical values

Practical Values

RESULT:
The time response specifications of second order system are determined and
verified using MATLAB.

VIVA VOCE:
1. What is the need to analyze the time response?
2. Define transient response.
3. Define steady state response.
4. Define steady state error.

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2. DC SERVO MOTOR SPEED-TORQUE


CHARACTERISTCS
AIM:
To study speed torque characteristics dc servo motor.
APPARATUS:
DMM

2 no s

Connecting wires
DC Servo Motor kit
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM & BLOCK DIAGRAM:

Fig.1 Circuit Diagram for DC Servomotor Speed-Torque Characteristics

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Fig2. Block Diagram for DC Servomotor Speed-Torque Characteristics

THEORY:
The DC servo motors resemble a dc shunt motor turned inside out. Dc servo
motors feature permanent magnets, located on the rotor, or a wound rotor excited by dc
voltage through slip rings, requires that the flux created by the current carrying
conductors in the stator rotate around the inside of the stator in order to achieve servo
motor action. The servo motor features a rotating field is obtained by placing three stator
windings around the interior of the stator punching. The windings are then interconnected
so that introducing a three-phase excitation voltage to the three stator windings (which
are separated by 120 electrical degrees) produces a rotating magnetic field. Brushless dc
servo motor construction speeds heat dissipation and reduces rotor inertia.
The DC servo motor features permanent magnet poles on the rotor, which are
attracted to the rotating poles of the opposite magnetic polarity in the stator creating
torque. As in the dc shunt motor, the dc servo motor offers torque, which is proportional
to the strength of the permanent magnetic field and the field created by the current

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carrying conductors. The magnetic field in the dc servo motor stator rotates at a speed
proportional to the frequency of the applied voltage and the number of poles.
The rotor rotates in synchronism with the rotating field, thus the name
synchronous motor is often used to designate servo motors of this design. More recently,
this servo motor design has been called an electrically commutated motor (ECM) due to
its similarity to the dc shunt motor. In the dc shunt motor, the flux generated by the
current carrying winding (rotor) is mechanically commutated to stay in position with
respect to the field flux. In the synchronous dc servo motor, the flux of the current
carrying winding rotates with respect to the stator; but, like the dc motor, the current
carrying flux stays in position with respect to the field flux that rotates with the rotor. The
major difference is that the synchronous dc servo motor maintains position by electrical
commutation, rather than mechanical commutation.

PROCEDURE:
FOR PLOTTING SPEED TORQUE CHARACTERISTICS OF DC SERVO MOTOR

1) Adjust spring balance so that there is minimum load on the servo motor. Note that
you have to pull the knob K in up ward direction to apply load on the servo motor.
You may make use of holes to apply a fixed load in the system by using screw.
2) Ensure the pot P (speed control) is in maximum and anticlockwise position.
3) Switch on the supply and slightly press the control knob in anti clock wise
direction so that self start relay is turned ON and armature voltage is applied to
the armature from zero onwards.
4) Connect the digital or analog millimeter across the terminal marked armature
voltage in the range o to 35 volts.
5) Adjust P so that Va = 10v and P2 so that Vf = 20v
6) Note down T1 ,T2 and speed and enter the result in the table1
7) Keeping Va= 10v, adjust T1 up to 500 gm in suitable steps to get a set of readings.
8) Now for Va= 15, 20v repeat step 6.
9) Plot speed torque characteristics.
10) You may repeat above steps for various values of field Vg by controlling pot P2.
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OBSERVATION:
Table 1 ; Radius of pulley ; R=3.54 cms, VF=20 volts
Armature voltage constant Va =10, 15, 20, 25 V, etc
A: VF= 20V and VA =10V

S.No

T1 gm

T2 gm

Pulley radius R=3.5cms


T=(T1-T2)

Torque
=T *3.5 gm-cm

Speed
[RPM]

Ia
[amps]

T=(T1-T2)

Torque
=T *3.5 gm-cm

Speed
[RPM]

Ia
[amps]

T=(T1-T2)

Torque
=T *3.5 gm-cm

Speed
[RPM]

Ia
[amps]

B: VF= 20V and VA =15V

S.No

T1 gm

T2 gm

C: VF= 20V and VA =20V

S.No

T1 gm

T2 gm

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EXPECTED GRAPH:

PRECAUTIONS:
1) The speed control knob should be always in the most anti clock wise position
before switching ON the equipment
2) In order to increase Va, rotate the knob in the clock wise direction in a gentle
fashion.
3) In order to increase the load on servo motor adjust the spring balance in a care full
fashion.
RESULT:
The speed-torque characteristics of DC servo motor are drawn.
VIVA VOCE:
1. What is meant by servo motor?
2. How it is different from DC motor?
3. Explain the advantages of DC servo motor.
4. Draw the characteristics of DC servo motor.

3. TRANSFER FUNCTION OF A DC MOTOR


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AIM:
To study the torque speed characteristics and determine the transfer function of
a DC motor.
APPARATUS:
1. Trainer kit of a DC motor
2. DMM meters 2 nos
3. Connecting wires
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

THEORY:
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DC motors are the most commonly used actuators in electro-mechanical control


systems or servomechanisms. Compared to actuators like 2-phase ac motor and stepper
motor has the advantage of higher torque and simpler driving circuit. However, the
presence of a compensator and a set of brushes with the problems of sparking make the
DC motor somewhat less durable. This of course is not true for a present day well
designed DC servomotor.
The study of the dynamic characteristics of the DC motor is important because the
overall performance of the control system depends on it. A standard analysis procedure is
to model the various subsystems and then combine these to develop the model of the
overall system.
This experiment is designed to obtain the torque-speed characteristics, compute
the various parameters, and finally determine the transfer function of a DC motor.
PROCEDURE:
MOTOR AND GENERATOR CHARACTERISTICS:

1. Set Motor switch to ON set RESET switch to RESET set LOAD switch to
0 position.
2. Vary Ea in small steps and take readings.
3. Plot N VS Ea and Eg VS N obtain the slopes and compute Km and KG.
TORQUE- SPEED CHARACTERISTICS:

1. Set Motor switch to OFF set RESET switch to RESET set LOAD switch
to 0 position.
2. Connect Ea to the voltmeter and set Ea = 6V.
3. Shift the Motor switch to ON measure armature in put (Ea), motor current (Ia)
& motor speed in rpm record the readings.
4. Set the LOAD switch to 1, 2. . 5 and take readings as above.
5. Complete the table motor voltage Ea = 6 volts; Ra = 28.
6. Plot torque VS speed cures on a graph paper.
7. Complete B from the slope of torque speed curve and average Kb from the
table.
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8. Repeat above for Ea = 8v, 10v, 12v and record the average values of motor
parameters B and Kb.
STEP RESPONSE:

1. Set Motor switch to OFF set RESET switch to RESET set LOAD switch
to 0 position.
2. Connect Ea to the volt meter and set it to 6V.
3. Switch ON the motor and measure Eg & the speed in rpm these are the steady
state generator voltage Eg and steady state motor speed N respectively.
4. Set ES to 63.2% of Eg measure above this is the generator Vg at which the
counter will stop counting.
5. Switch OFF the motor set RESET switch to READY.
6. Now switch the motor ON record the counter reading as time constant in mille
seconds.
7. Repeat above with Ea = 8V, 9V and tabulate the results.
8. Substitute the values of Km and Tm in equation
Gm(s) = Km / (STm + 1) = w(s) / Ea(s).
9. Using the average values of Tm, B, Kb and Ra calculate the motor inertia from
equation I = Tm (B+Kb/Ra).

OBSERVATION:
MOTOR AND GENERATOR CHARACTERISTICS:

S.No

Ea (volts)

Ia (mA)

N (rpm)

Eg (volts)

TORQUE SPEED CHARACTERISTICS:

S.No

Load

Ia

W=

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Eb = Ea-IaRa

Kb =

Tm = KbIa

DEPARTMENT OF EEE
Step

(mA)

CONTROL SYSTEMS
(rpm)

2N/60
(rad/sec)

(volts)

Eb / w

N
(rpm)

Es = 0.632Eg
(volts)

Time constant
Tm msec

(N-m)

STEP RESPONSE:

S.No

Ea
(volts)

Eg
(volts)

EXPETED GRAPH:

FORMULAE USED:

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Gain constant Km
= N/ 30 Ea

DEPARTMENT OF EEE

CONTROL SYSTEMS

Motor gain constant = Km = KT /(RaB+KTKb)


Motor time constant = Tm = Ra I/(RaB+KTKb)
Steady state armature current, Ia = (Ea Eb)/ Ra = (Ea/Ra) (KbW/Ra)
Steady state torque generated, Tm = KTIa
Tm = - KTKb / Ra(w) + KT / Ra (Ea)
Kb = Eb / W = (Ea - IaR) / W [volts/rad/sec]
Average Kb = 22.53x10-3 volts/rad/sec
B- Coefficient of viscous friction (N-m/rad/sec)

RESULT:
The transfer function of a DC motor is determined and speed-torque
characteristics are drawn.
VIVA VOCE:
1. Define transfer function.
2. How transfer function is different from voltage gain?
3. Explain the advantages of transfer function.

4. PID CONTROLLER
AIM:
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To study the performance characteristics of an analog PID controller using


simulated system.
APPARATUS:
1.

PID Controller kit

2. Connecting wires
3. C R O
4. Digital voltmeter.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

THEORY:

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A proportionalintegralderivative controller (PID controller) is a generic control


loop feedback mechanism (controller) widely used in industrial control systems. A PID
controller attempts to correct the error between a measured process variable and a desired
set point by calculating and then outputting a corrective action that can adjust the process
accordingly.
The PID controller calculation (algorithm) involves three separate parameters; the
Proportional, the Integral and Derivative values. The Proportional value determines the
reaction to the current error, the Integral value determines the reaction based on the sum
of recent errors, and the Derivative value determines the reaction based on the rate at
which the error has been changing. The weighted sum of these three actions is used to
adjust the process via a control element such as the position of a control valve or the
power supply of a heating element.
By "tuning" the three constants in the PID controller algorithm, the controller can
provide control action designed for specific process requirements. The response of the
controller can be described in terms of the responsiveness of the controller to an error, the
degree to which the controller overshoots the set point and the degree of system
oscillation. Note that the use of the PID algorithm for control does not guarantee optimal
control of the system or system stability.
Some applications may require using only one or two modes to provide the
appropriate system control. This is achieved by setting the gain of undesired control
outputs to zero. A PID controller will be called a PI, PD, P or I controller in the absence
of the respective control actions. PI controllers are particularly common, since derivative
action is very sensitive to measurement noise, and the absence of an integral value may
prevent the system from reaching its target value due to the control action.

PROCEDURE:
Controller Response:
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1. Apply a square wave signal of 100 mv, P-P at the in put of the error detector
connect P I and D o/p s to the summer and display controller O/P on the CRO.
2. With P-potentiometer set to zero obtain maximum value of
P-P Square wave O/P
Kc =

---------------------------------

P-P Square wave o/p


=

-----------------------------

P-P square wave I/P

0.1

3. with I - potentiometer set to maximum and P, D potentiometer to zero , a


ramp will be seen on C R O .maximum value of K is then given by
4 x f x (P-P) triangular curve O/P ramp in
K I (max) =

------------------------------------------------------P-P square wave amplitude in volts

Where f is the frequency of I/P


4. Set D - potentiometer to maximum and P and I potentiometers to zero. A series of
sharp pulses will be seen on C R O. this is obviously not suitable for calibrating
the D -potentiometer applying a triangular wave at the I/P of the error detector a
square wave is seen on the C R O
P-P Square wave O/P
Kd(max) =

------------------------------------4 x f x (P-P) Triangular wave I/P

5. Set all the three potentiometers = P, I and D to maximum values and apply a
square wave I/P of 100 mv (P-P). Observe and trace the stop response of P I D
controller, identify the effects of P, I and D controls individually on the shape of
this response.
II. Proportional control:
1) Make connections as shown in the fig, with process made up of time delay and
time constant blocks. Notice that the C R O operations in the X - Y mode ensures
stable display even at low frequencies.
2) Set input amplitude to 1v (P-P) and frequency to low value.

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3) For various values of Kc = 2-2, 2-4 . . . . . measure from screen the value if peak
over shoot and steady state error and tabulate graph.
EXPETED GRAPH:

CALCULATIONS:
(a) P- control:
I/P = Square wave amp ----0.1v (p-p)
O/p = square wave amps2.0

(p-p)

O/p voltage (p-p)


Kc (max) 2.0/0.1 =20 = --------------------------I/p voltage (p-p)
(b) I - control:
I/p = square wave amplitude of 0.1v (p-p)
T=?
F = 1/T
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O/P=Triangular wave of amplitude v (P-P)


Ki (max) =

4 x f x o/p voltage (p-p)


-------------------------------I/P Voltage [P-P]

(c). D - Control:
Input Triangular wave of amplitude V (p-p)
Time =?
F =1/t
O/P Square wave of amplitude V(P-P)
O/P voltage (P-P)
K d (max) = ---------------------4 x f x I/P voltage (P-P)
RESULTS:
The performance characteristics of analog controller using simulated system are
drawn.
VIVA VOCE:
1. What is the need to add proportional control scheme in the system?
2. Give the advantages of integral control over proportional control.
3. Explain the advantages of derivative control scheme.
4. What is need have included PID controller in the system?

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5. STATE SPACE MODEL FOR CLASSICAL TRANSFER


FUNCTION USING MATLAB VERIFICATION
(I) CONVERSION OF TRANSFER FUNCTIONS TO STATE SPACE MODEL:
AIM:
To obtain the state space model for the given transfer function and verifying it
using MATLAB.
s 2 3s 3
T (s) 3
s 2 s 2 3s 1

THEORY:
In control engineering, a state space representation is a mathematical model of a
physical system as a set of input, output and state variables related by first-order
differential equations. To abstract from the number of inputs, outputs and states, the
variables are expressed as vectors and the differential and algebraic equations are written
in matrix form (the last one can be done when the dynamical system is linear and time
invariant).
The state space representation (also known as the "time-domain approach")
provides a convenient and compact way to model and analyze systems with multiple
inputs and outputs. With p inputs and q outputs, we would otherwise have to write down
laplace transforms to encode all the information about a system. Unlike the frequency
domain approach, the use of the state space representation is not limited to systems with
linear components and zero initial conditions. "State space" refers to the space whose
axes are the state variables. The state of the system can be represented as a vector within
that space.
The internal state variables are the smallest possible subset of system variables that
can represent the entire state of the system at any given time. State variables must be
linearly independent; a state variable cannot be a linear combination of other state
variables. The minimum number of state variables required to represent a given system,
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n, is usually equal to the order of the system's defining differential equation. If the system
is represented in transfer function form, the minimum number of state variables is equal
to the order of the transfer function's denominator after it has been reduced to a proper
fraction. It is important to understand that converting a state space realization to a transfer
function form may lose some internal information about the system, and may provide a
description of a system which is stable, when the state-space realization is unstable at
certain points. In electric circuits, the number of state variables is often, though not
always, the same as the number of energy storage elements in the circuit such as
capacitors and inductors.
THEORITICAL CALCULATIONS:
(-to be done by the student-)
PROGRAM:
NUM = [1 3 3]
DEN = [1 2 3 1]
[A, B, C, D] = TF2SS(NUM, DEN)

OUTPUT:

A=

-2 -3 -1

1 0 0

B= 0

0 1 0

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C=1 3 3

D=0

DEPARTMENT OF EEE

CONTROL SYSTEMS

(II) CONVERSION OF STATE SPACE MODEL TO TRANSFER FUNCTION


AIM:
To obtain the transfer function for the given state space model and Verifying it
using MATLAB.
-2 1 0
A=

-3 0 1

1
B=

-1 0 0

C=1 0 0

THEORETICAL CALCULATIONS:
( - to be done by the student - )

PROGRAM:
A = [-2 1 0; -3 0 1; -1 0 0]
B = [1; 3; 3]
C = [1 0 0]
D = [0]
[NUM, DEN] = SS2TF (A, B, C, D)
OUTPUT:

T (s)

s 2 3s 3
s 3 2 s 2 3s 1

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D=0

DEPARTMENT OF EEE

CONTROL SYSTEMS

RESULT:
The state space model of the given transfer function has been verified using
MATLAB and also verified for transfer function the given state space model using
MATLAB.
VIVA VOCE:
1. What do you understand by state space model?
2. Explain the advantages of state space model over transfer function approach.
3. Give the formula for transfer function in state space model.
4. What do mean by state vector?

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6. EFFECT OF FEEDBACK ON A GIVEN DC MOTOR


AIM:
To study the performance characteristics of a DC motor.
APPARATUS:
Trainer kit
Tachometer generator
Connecting wires
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

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THEORY:
The direct current (DC) motor is one of the first machines devised to convert
electrical power into mechanical power. Permanent magnet (PM) direct current converts
electrical energy into mechanical energy through the interaction of two magnetic fields.
One field is produced by a permanent magnet assembly; the other field is produced by an
electrical current flowing in the motor windings. These two fields result in a torque which
tends to rotate the rotor. As the rotor turns, the current in the windings is commutated to
produce a continuous torque output.
DC motors are the most commonly used actuators in electro-mechanical control
systems or servomechanisms. Compared to actuators like 2-phase ac motor and stepper
motor has the advantage of higher torque and simpler driving circuit. However, the
presence of a compensator and a set of brushes with the problems of sparking make the
DC motor somewhat less durable. This of course is not true for a present day well
designed DC servomotor.

PROCEDURE:
CLOSED LOOP PERFORMANCE:

1. Set VR = 1V and KA = 5
2. Record the speed N in rpm and the tachogenerator voltage VT and steady state
error ESS = VR - VT.
3. Repeat the above procedure for different values of KA.
4. Compare in each case, the steady state error computed using the formula.
TRANSFER FUNCTION OF MOTOR TACHO GENERATOR:

1.

Set VR = 1V and KA = 3.

2.

Record the speed N in rpm and the tachogenerator output VT.

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3.

CONTROL SYSTEMS

Repeat the same with VR = 1V and KA = 4, 5, 6, 7 . . . 10 & tabulate the measured


motor voltage (VM = VRKA) steady state motor speed N in rpm and tacho
generator out put VT.

4.

Plot N VS VM and VTVSN obtain KM from the linear regain of the speed in rad/sec.
WSS/motor voltage tacho generator gain
KT = VT, volt sec / Wss rad

5.

Apply square wave signal and find the time constant using formula given below.

6.

Obtain the motor transfer using,


G(s) = Km / STm+1

OBSERVATION:
MOTOR AND TACHO GENERATOR CHARACTERISTICS:

S.No KA
setting

N
(rpm)

VT
(volts)

Vm = VRKA
(volts)

CLOSED LOOP PERFORMANCE:


S.No KA
setting

N
(rpm)

VT
(volts)

Ess = VR-VT
(volts)

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Experimental
Ka = Vm / VR

DEPARTMENT OF EEE

CONTROL SYSTEMS

EXPECTED GRAPH:

THEORETICAL FORMULAE:
Keff = (KAKMKT) / (1+ KAKMKT)
Teff = 1 / (2f in [1-VT (p-p) / Vm (p-p)KMKT] )
Km = shaft speed (N) / motor voltage (Vm)
Where Km motor gain constant
And KT = VT / Wss voltage/rad
Where KT tacho generator gain
RESULT:
Effect of feed back on a given control system is studied.
VIVA VOCE:
1. What is meant by feed back?
2. Explain the advantages of negative feed back over the positive feed back.
3. What happen when positive feedback is given a motor?
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4. Give one example for closed and open loop control system.

7. ROOT LOCUS AND BODE PLOT FROM MATLAB


(i) ROOT LOCUS PLOT:
AIM(i):
To plot the Root locus for the given transfer function and to verify it using
MATLAB.
G( s)

k ( s 1)
s ( s 1)( s 2 2 s 5)

APPARATUS:
PC with MATLAB software.
THEORY: ROOT LOCUS:
In control theory, the root locus is the locus of the poles and zeros of a transfer
function as the system gain K is varied on some interval. The root locus is a useful tool
for analyzing single input single output (SISO) linear dynamic systems. A system is
stable if all of its poles are in the left-hand side of the s-plane (for continuous systems) or
inside the unit circle of the z-plane (for discrete systems).
In addition to determining the stability of the system, the root locus can be used to
identify the damping ratio and natural frequency of a system. Where lines of constant
damping ratio can be drawn radially from the origin and lines of constant natural
frequency can be drawn as arcs whose center points coincide with the origin. By selecting

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CONTROL SYSTEMS

a point along the root locus that coincides with a desired damping ratio and natural
frequency a gain can be calculated and implemented in the controller.
Suppose there is a motor with a transfer function expression P(s), and a controller
with both an adjustable gain K and a transfer function expression C(s). A unity feedback
loop is constructed to complete this feedback system. For this system, the overall transfer
function is given by

Thus the closed-loop poles (roots of the characteristic equation) of the transfer
function are the solutions to the equation 1+ KC(s)P(s) = 0. The principal feature of this
equation is that roots may be found wherever KCP = -1. The variability of K (that's the
gain you can choose for the controller) removes amplitude from the equation, meaning
the complex valued evaluation of the polynomial in s K(s)C(s) needs to have net phase of
180 deg, wherever there is a closed loop pole. We are solving a root cracking problem
using angles alone! So there is no computation per-se, only geometry. The geometrical
construction adds angle contributions from the vectors extending from each of the poles
of KC to a prospective closed loop root (pole) and subtracts the angle contributions from
similar vectors extending from the zeros, requiring the sum be 180. The vector
formulation arises from the fact that each polynomial term in the factored CP,(s-a) for
example, represents the vector from a which is one of the roots, to s which is the
prospective closed loop pole we are seeking. Thus the entire polynomial is the product of
these terms, and according to vector mathematics the angles add (or subtract, for terms in
the denominator) and lengths multiply (or divide). So to test a point for inclusion on the
root locus, all you do is add the angles to all the open loop poles and zeros. Indeed a form
of protractor, the "spirule" was once used to draw exact root loci.
From the function T(s), we can also see that the zeros of the open loop system
(CP) are also the zeros of the closed loop system. It is important to note that the root

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locus only gives the location of closed loop poles as the gain K is varied, given the open
loop transfer function. The zeros of a system can not be moved.
Using a few basic rules, the root locus method can plot the overall shape of the
path (locus) traversed by roots as the value of K varies. The plot of the root locus then
gives an idea of the stability and dynamics of this feedback system for different values of
k.
Roots of the transfer function move on the s-plane tracing a particular path when
gain is changed from 0 to . This path is called root locus.

Open loop transfer function = G (s )


Closed loop transfer function =

G( s)
(1 G ( s ) H ( s ))

The characteristic equation is 1 G ( s ) H ( s ) = 0


G ( s ) H ( s ) 1
To make above equation true, G ( s ) H ( s ) 180 0 (2k 1) ------(1)
| G ( s ) H ( s ) | 1

------(2)

A plot satisfying (1) and (2) is the root locus. The constant part in G ( s ) H ( s ) is called
the Gain.
ROOT LOCUS PLOT USING MATLAB:
The characteristic equation can be written as 1 k

num
0.
den

The command rlocus (num, den) gives the root locus plot.
If the system is defined in state space, root locus is obtained by the command rlocus (A,
B, C, D).
THEORETICAL CALCULATIONS:
(-to be done by the student-)
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PROGRAM:
NUM = INPUT(ENTER NUMERATOR OF THE TF);
DEN = INPUT(ENTER DENOMINATOR OF THE TF);
SYS=TF (NUM, DEN)
RLOCUS (SYS)
GRID
OUTPUT:
The Root locus for the given transfer function has been obtained and verified it by
using MATLAB.

(ii) BODE PLOT FROM MATLAB


AIM:
To obtain the Bode Plot for the given transfer function and to verify it using
MATLAB.
G( s)

50( s 2)
( s 1)( s 3)( s 4)

APPARATUS:
PC with MATLAB software.
THEORY:

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A Bode magnitude plot is a graph of log magnitude versus frequency, plotted with
a log-frequency axis, to show the transfer function or frequency response of a linear,
time-invariant system.
The Bode plot is named after Hendrik Wade Bode. It is usually a combination of a
Bode magnitude plot and Bode phase plot
The magnitude axis of the Bode plot is usually expressed as decibels, that is, 20
times the common logarithm of the amplitude gain. With the magnitude gain being
logarithmic, Bode plots make multiplication of magnitudes a simple matter of adding
distances on the graph (in decibels), since
A Bode phase plot is a graph of phase versus frequency, also plotted on a logfrequency axis, usually used in conjunction with the magnitude plot, to evaluate how
much a frequency will be phase-shifted. For example a signal described by: Asin(t) may
be attenuated but also phase-shifted. If the system attenuates it by a factor x and phase
shifts it by the signal out of the system will be (A/x) sin(t ). The phase shift is
generally a function of frequency.
Phase can also be added directly from the graphical values, a fact that is
mathematically clear when phase is seen as the imaginary part of the complex logarithm
of a complex gain.
BODE PLOT USING MATLAB:
A stable linear system subjected to a sinusoidal input gives sinusoidal output of
the same frequency after steady state conditions are reached. However, the magnitude and
phase angle change. The output magnitude and phase depends on the input frequency.
Bode plot give this relation in a graphical way. It can be proved that if s is replaced by
jw, the transfer function gives steady state response to sinusoidal inputs where w is the
angular frequency. The command bode (num, den) produces the bode plot.

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The command (mag, phase, w) =bode (num, den, w) can be used for specified
frequency points contained in w-vector. Result is stored in magnitude and phase matrices.
The command mag dB=20*log (mag) produces magnitude in dB.
The command log space (d1, d2) generates 50 points between 10d1 and 10d2, w=log
space (1, 2) generates 50 points between 10-1 and 102 i.e., and 100 rad/sec. but if we have
to generate 100 points use the command, w=log space (-1, 2, 100).

G( s)

50( s 2)
( s 1)( s 3)( s 4)

THEORETICAL CALCULATIONS:
(- to be done by the student-)
PROGRAM:
NUM = INPUT(ENTER NUMERATOR OF THE TF);
DEN = INPUT(ENTER DENOMINATOR OF THE TF);
SYS=TF (NUM, DEN);
BODE (SYS)
GRID
OUTPUT:
The Bode plot for the given transfer function has been obtained and verified it by
using MATLAB.
RESULT:
For the given transfer function, root locus plot and bode plot are drawn and
verified by using MATLAB.
VIVA VOCE:
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1. Define root locus plot.


2. Give the advantages of root locus.
3. Is root locus plot drawn on open loop or closed loop system?
4. Give the advantages of bode plot over Nyquist plot.
5. Define gain cross over frequency.
6. Define phase cross over frequency.
7. Define gain margin and phase margin.

8. TEMPERATURE CONTROL SYSTEM


AIM:
To study the performance of various types of controller used to control the
temperature of an oven.
APPARATUS:
Temperature control unit
Techno meter

-1

Stop clock

-1

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

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THEORY:
Temperature control system is one of the most common industrial control
systems. Here the plant to be controlled is an electric oven. As we know, characteristics
and performance of many devices change with a change in temperature making them
difficult to use in a particular operation. The change in temperature is caused by a change
in environment. To hold characteristics constant in a changing environment we must
supply or remove heat to compensate for variations in ambient temperature. This is
accomplished with temperature controllers.
Most installations of temperature controllers supply heat, or remove heat (chill),
to hold the temperature at a constant point somewhat above or below the ambient
temperature. Electronic temperature controllers are most often used to vary the supply of
an electric current through a resistance heater to accomplish this when the controlled
temperature is to be above ambient. The controlled device or material can also be
stabilized at some temperature below environment by controlling the flow of a refrigerant
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through a heat exchanger. Yet another type of low temperature control system (called
buck and boost) supplies cooling to drop the temperature below the desired set point and
then controls the temperature by supplying heat via a controller to get the exact
temperature setting. This type of operation is needed when the desired set point is close to
the ambient temperature. In an ideal world, once we set the temperature of an area or
device, the temperature would remain the same over any length of time. Unfortunately
we do not live in an ideal world. If one were to observe the temperature of a controlled
item over a period of time it would be rare to always find that item at the exact target (set
point) temperature. Temperature would vary above and below the set point most of the
time. What we are concerned about, therefore, is the amount of variation. One of the
newer temperature controller designs uses a sophisticated means of reducing this
variation. This controller is known as a PID controller.
In order to understand the operation of a PID (Proportional-IntegralDifferential) controller, we should review a few basic definitions.
Derivative - is a value which expresses the rate of change of another value. For instance,
the derivative of distance is speed.
Integral - is the opposite of a derivative. The integral of acceleration is velocity and the
integral of velocity is distance.
Proportional - means a value varying relative to another value. The output of a
proportional controller is relative to (or a function of) the difference between the
temperature being controlled and the set point. The controller will be full on at some
temperature which is well below the set point (or desired temperature). It will be full off
at some point above the set point.
For a given constant power condition, heat loss through insulation will cause the
actual temperature to be slightly less than it would be in a well insulated heated area. This
difference is the "I" in PID. It can be manually corrected by changing the position of the
proportional band center point (called offset) so the result is the temperature you want to
hold. The problem is that if the heat loss conditions change and the system begins to lose
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heat faster, then that changes the offset and you may not be there to manually correct it.
To compensate for this, we monitor the change of that temperature point by watching the
change in temperature of the sensor. We then take the derivative of that change (get a
value for the rate of change in temperature - the "D" in PID ) which is then added to the
Integral value to make an automatic correction. Basic control actions commonly used in
temperature control systems are:
a. on-off controller
b. Proportional controller
c. Proportional-Integral controller
d. Proportional-Integral-Derivative controller
PROCEDURE:
I. OPEN LOOP TESTING:

1. Keep switch S1 to WAIT, S2 to SET and open FEED BACK.


2. Connect potentiometer (p) output to driver i/p and switch on the unit.
3. Set potentiometer P to 0.5 which gives Kp = 10 adjust reference potentiometer to
read 5 on the dmm.
4. Put switch S2 to the measure position and note down the room temperature.
5. Put switch S1 to run position and note down the room temperature readings
every 30 seconds till the temperature becomes almost constant.
6. Plot temperature time curve on a graph paper calculate T1 and T2 hence write the
transfer function of the oven including its driver as
G(s) = Ke (ST2) / (1+ST1) with T in 0C.
II. P CONTROLER:

Kp for P controller is a Kp = T1 / (K T2)

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1. starting with cool oven, keep switch S1 to WAIT position & connect P to
output to the driver i/p keep R, D, and I o/ps disconnected short FEED BACK
terminals.
2. Set up potentiometer to the above calculated value of Kp keeping in mind that
maximum gain is 10.
3. Plot the observation on a linear graph paper and observe the rise time, study state
error and output overshoot.
III. P I CONTROLER:

1.

Starting with cool oven, keep switch S1 to WAIT position & connect P & I
output to the driver i/p and disconnect R, D. o/ps short FEED BACK terminals.

2.

Set P and I potentiometer to the above values of KP and K respectively select


and set the desired temperature to say 60 keep switch S2 to RUN position and
record temperature plot the observation on graph.

3.

Starting with a cool oven, keep switch S1 to WAIT position & connect P, I, and
D o/ps to driver i/p keep R output disconnected short feed back terminals.

4.

Set P, I & D potentiometer according to calculated values.

IV. P ID CONTROLER:

1. Starting with cool oven, keep switch S1 to WAIT position & connect P & I
output to the driver i/p and disconnect R, D. o/ps short FEED BACK terminals.
2. Set P, I, D according to the above calculated values of KP, KI (or) KD keeping in
mind that there is a maximum value are 20, 0.0245 and 23.5 respectively.
3. Select & set the desired temperature time readings.
4. Plot the response on a graph paper and observe Tr Steady state error and
percentage over shoots.
OBSERVATIONS:

P CONTROLER:

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DEPARTMENT OF EEE
S.No

CONTROL SYSTEMS
TIME

TEMPERATURE

TIME

TEMPERATURE

TIME

TEMPERATURE

P I CONTROLER:

S.No

PID CONTROLER:

S.No

EXPETED GRAPH:

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RESULT:

The performance of various types of controllers i.e., P, PI and PID controllers to


control the temperature of an oven are studied.
VIVA VOCE:
1. Define control system.
2. Define open loop control system.
3. Define open loop control system.
4. Is temperature control system open loop are closed loop control system?

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9. CONVERSION OF STATE SPACE MODEL TO


NYQUIST PLOT
AIM:
To obtain the Nyquist plot from the given state model and to verify it using
MATLAB.
0
A=

-3 -4

0
B=

THEORY:

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D=0

DEPARTMENT OF EEE

CONTROL SYSTEMS

A Nyquist plot is used in automatic control and signal processing for assessing the
stability of a system with feedback. It is represented by a graph in polar coordinates in
which the gain and phase of a frequency response are plotted. The plot of these phasor
quantities shows the phase as the angle and the magnitude as the distance from the origin.
This plot combines the two types of Bode plot magnitude and phase on a single
graph, with frequency as a parameter along the curve. The Nyquist plot is named after
Harry Nyquist, a former engineer at Bell Laboratories. The high frequency response is at
the origin. The plot provides information on the poles and zeros of the transfer function
(eg. from the angle at which the curve approaches the origin).
Assessment of the stability of a closed-loop negative feedback system is done by
applying the Nyquist stability criterion to the Nyquist plot of the open-loop system (i.e.
the same system without its feedback loop). This method is easily applicable even for
systems with delays which may appear difficult to analyze by means of other methods.
Nyquist and related plots are classic methods of assessing stability, but have been
supplemented or supplanted by computer-based mathematical tools in recent years. Such
plots remain a convenient method for an engineer to get an intuitive feel for a circuit.
THEORETICAL CALCULATIONS:
( - to be done by the student - )

PROGRAM:
A = [0 1;-3 -4]
B = [0;1]
C = [10 0]
D = [0]
[NUM, DEN] = SS2TF (A, B, C, D)
NYQUIST (TF (NUM, DEN))
TITLE (NYQUIST PLOT);
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GRID
RESULT:
Nyquist plot for the given state model has been obtained and verified it using
MATLAB.
VIVA VOCE:
1. Define the term state.
2. Define the term state variable.
3. Give the statement on Nyquist stability criterion?
4. Give advantage of Nyquist plot over bode plot.

10. STUDY OF SYNCHRO


AIM:
(1) To obtain the stator voltages corresponding to the given rotor positions for the
given Synchro transmitter.
(2) To connect the given Synchro transmitter pair as suggested and study it as an
error detector.
APPARATUS:
Synchro transmitter and receiver pair kit
1-phase power supply (0-100V)
Volt meter (0-100V)
Connecting leads

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THEORY:
The most important unit in a modern transmission system is the synchro.
Synchros of different types transmit, receive, or combine signals among stations which
may be widely separated; for example, they transmit gun order signals from a computer
to the automatic control equipment at a gun mount. The simplest types of synchro units
are the synchro transmitter (sometimes called synchro generator) and the synchro
receiver (sometimes called synchro motor). The transmitter is a device that transmits an
electrical signal corresponding to the angle of rotation of its shaft. The receiver is a
device that, when it receives such a signal, causes its own shaft (if not appreciably
loaded) to rotate to an angle corresponding to the signal.
The transmitter and receiver are identical in construction except that the motor has
a damper (not illustrated) -a device that keeps it from running away when there are
violent changes in its electrical input.
To understand how a synchro functions, think of it for the moment as a
transformer in which the primary and secondary are wound on separate cores. When a
current flows in the primary, it forms a magnetic field in its core. As the current changes
and reverses (which it does constantly, being an alternating current) so does the magnetic
field. The changes in the field induce current in the secondary (whose circuit is closed
through a load). The currents in the secondary produce their own magnetic field. At any
instant, the induced or secondary field opposes in direction that produced by the primary.
Now consider a synchro transmitter connected to a receiver as in fig, so that the
rotors are fed by the same AC line and the stator coils of the receiver load the
corresponding coils of the transmitter. The currents induced in the transmitter stator
flow also in the receiver, and produce the resultant stator fields shown by the white
arrows. Thus the receiver rotor, which produces a magnetic field similar to that of the
transmitter rotor (because it is excited by the same AC line), always, because it is free to
rotate, assumes exactly the same angular position (relative to the stator) as does the
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transmitter rotor. When the transmitter rotor is turned-say 30 degrees, as in fig, the
resultant field produced by the stator turns too, as it did in fig, so does the receiver stator
field.

Fig 1.a Schematic diagram of synchro transmitter

Fig 1.b Stator voltages


Synchro control transformer has a wound rotor coil and three stator coils, but the
internal construction is different. The rotor is round instead of bobbin-shaped (to keep it
from tending to line up with a magnetic field as a receiver rotor does) and is wound with
finer wire to increase electrical impedance and limit the amount of current it will carry.
The synchro control transformer has 2 inputs, 1 mechanical (its rotor is driven by the
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mechanism or load whose position it regulates) and the other electrical (the synchro
signal from the transmitter which is to control the load). The electrical (synchro) 3-wire
input goes into the control transformers stator. The stators field acts as the primary of
the transformer; the rotor is its secondary. The output thus comes from the rotor and
varies with its position with respect to the stator. This output is not a synchro signal; it is
a voltage whose value and polarity with respect to the AC supply depend on the position
of the control transformers rotor with respect to the stator.

Fig.3. Synchro pair as error detector


PROCEDURE (SYNCHRO TRANSMITTER):
1) Connect the system to main supply
2) Switch on the main switch and SW1
3) Do not connect any wires between the stator winding of TX & TR.
4) Starting from zero position (i.e. Knob of synchro transmitter at 0 degree) note- down
the voltages between stator terminals i.e. ES1S2, ES2S3, & ES3S1 in a sequential fashion.
5) Rotate the knob by 30 degree and note down ES1S2, ES2S3, and ES3S1.
6) Repeat step no.5 for further rotation by 30 degree.
OBSERVATION TABLE 1: S.No.
1
2
3
4

Rotor angle in
Degrees
0
30
60
.

Es1S2

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Stator voltages
ES2S3

ES3S1

DEPARTMENT OF EEE
5
6
7.
..
13

CONTROL SYSTEMS

360

PROCEDURE (SYNCHRO PAIR):


1) Connect the system to main supply
2) With the help of patch card establish connections between corresponding
terminals of TX & TR stators. i.e., connect S1 to S1 , S2to S2 and S3 to S3 of TX &
TR stator respectively .
3) Switch on SW1 & SW2 as well as main of instrument.
4) Move the pointer (rotor position of TX in steps of 30 degrees and observe the
new position of TR.
5) Enter the input angular position and output angular position in the tabular
column and plot the graph.

OBSERAVTION TABLE 2: -

S.No.
1
2
.
.
.

Rotation of rotor of
Synchro Transmitter, t
0
30

Rotation of rotor of Synchro


Receiver,r

330

13.
PRECAUTIONS:
1. The connections should be tight and clean.
2. The multimeter should be used carefully.
3. The supply to the rotor of synchro transmitter should not exceed 30Volts.

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RESULT:
1) The graph of ES1S2, ES2S3, and ES3S1 has been plotted for various positions of rotor.
It is observed that the voltages are displaced by 120 degrees.
2) The rotor of receiver follows the position of rotor of transmitter.

VIVA-VOCE:
1.

What are the trade names for synchro?

2.

What is electrical zero position of transformer?

3.

What is null position of control transformer?

4.

Give one application for synchro.

11. COMPENSATION DESIGN


OBJECTIVE:
To study the effects of different cascade compensation networks for a given
system.
APPARATUS:
Trainer kit
Connecting wires
CRO

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CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

THEORY:
Practical feedback control systems are often required to satisfy design
specifications in the transient as well as steady state regions. This is usually not possible
by selecting good quality components alone, due to basic physical limitations and
characteristics of these components. Cascade compensation is most commonly used for
this purpose and the design of compensation networks figures prominently in any course
on automatic control systems. Due to the absence of any laboratory experience, however,
the concepts of compensation remain rather vague. This unit has been designed to enable
the students to go through the complete design procedure and finally verify the
performance improvements provided by compensation.
A simulated second order system with variable gain is taken as the unsatisfactory
system. Simulated system has the advantage of predictable performance which is
necessary if the verification of the results is to be meaningful. Built-in variable frequency
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square wave and sine wave generators are provided for time domain and frequency
domain testing of the system. The frequency may be varied in the range 25Hz 800Hz
and its value read on a built-in frequency meter on the panel. Although most practical
control systems have bandwidth up to a few Hz only, a higher bandwidth has been chosen
for the simulated system to facilitate viewing on a CRO. A pre-wired amplifier makes the
implementation of the compensation network extremely simple. Only a few passive
components need plugging into the circuit. Lead and lag networks may be designed and
tested on the set-up using both frequency domain and s-plane procedures.
The experimental set-up is accompanied by the supporting literature which becomes of
vital importance as a major part of the experiment involves theoretical design of
compensation networks. Although a complete coverage of design philosophy is not
feasible in this document, all efforts have been made to describe the salient features and
design steps of the four problems listed above. Also included is a typical design,
explicitly covered with compensation network parameter calculation and final results.
PROCEDURE:
BODE PLOT OF THE PLANT:
1. Disconnect the compensation terminals and apply an input, say 1Vp-p, to the
plant from the built in sine wave source.
2. From the low frequency end of the magnitude plot, obtain the error coefficient
and the steady state error.
3. Calculate the forward path gain K necessary to meet the steady state error
specifications.
4. Set the above value of K, short the compensation terminals and observe the step
response of the closed loop system. Compute the time domain performance
specifications.
5. Shift the magnitude by 20 log10(K) and obtain the value of phase margin.
Compare with the given specifications of phase margin.
LAG NETWORK DESIGN:
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1. From the bode plot, find a frequency where PMactual=PMspecified+a safety margin (50100). This is new gain cross over frequency wg,new.
2. Measure gain at wg,new. This must equal the high frequency attenuation of the lag
network, (20log). Compute .
3. Choose Zc=1/T, at approx. 0.1 wg,new and Pc= 1/T. accordingly.
4. Write the transfer function Gc(s) and calculate R1, R2 and C.
5. Implement Gc(s) with the help of the few passive components and and the
amplifier provided for this purpose. The gain of the amplifier must be set at unity.
6. Insert the compensator and determine experimentally the phase margin of the
plant.
7. Observe the step response of the compensated system. Obtain the values of Mp, tp,
ess and .

LEAD NETWORK DESIGN:


1. From the bode plot, calculate the required phase lead as phase lead needed (m ) =
PMspecified - PMavailable + safety margin (50-100).
2. calculate for the lead network from
= (1 - sinm) / (1 + sinm)
3. calculate new gain cross over frequency wg,new such that |G|wg,new = 10 log
4. this step ensures that maximum phase lead shall be added at the new gain cross
over frequency.
5. the corner frequencies are now calculated from 1/T = wm and 1/T = wm/ .
6. Implement Gc(s) with the help of the few passive components and the amplifier
provided for this purpose. The gain of the amplifier is to be set equal to 1/ .
7. Insert the compensator and determine experimentally the phase margin of the
plant with compensator.

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8. Observe the step response of the compensated system. Obtain the values of Mp, tp,
ess and .
OBSERVATION:
Frequency response measurements:
f

x0

y0

Hz

Gain dB

Phase in
Degrees

Component values for implementation


R1 = 19.64 k 20 k
R2 = 9.09 k 9.1 k
C1=1F

RESULT: The effects of different cascade compensation networks for a given


system are studied.
VIVA VOCE:
1. What do mean by compensation?
2. What is the purpose of lag compensator?
3. What is the purpose of lead compensator?
4. Discuss the comparison of lag, lead and lead-lag networks.
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