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Chapter 5 THE DESIGN OF WATER TRANSPORT AND DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS

The design of water transport and distribution systems consists of two parts: hydraulic and
engineering.
The main parameters considered in hydraulic design consist of:

Sufficient flows

Velocity
Not be lower than 0.6 m/s to prevent sedimentation
Not be more than 2 m/s to prevent erosion and high head losses. Commonly used values
are 1 -1.5 m/sec.

Pressure
Pressure in municipal distribution systems ranges from 150-300 kPa in residential
districts with structures of four stories or less and 400-500 kPa in commercial districts.
Also, for fire hydrants the pressure should not be less than 150 kPa (15 m of water).
In general for any node in the network the pressure should not be less than 25 m of water.
Moreover, the maximum pressure should be limited to 70 m of water
Engineering (non-hydraulic) design criteria such as:
The selection of durable pipe materials, joints, fittings and other appurtenances,
Setting a network of valves whereby parts of the network can quickly be isolated
Providing easy access to the vital parts of the system
5.1 CONVEYANCE OF WATER
The term conveyance of water is used to indicate the following two arrangements:
Drawing off the water from the sources of water, commonly known as the intakes.
Leading the water from intakes to the purification plants and then leading the treated
water to the consumers through distribution pipes.
In the first stage water is transported by gravity or by pumping or by the combined action of both,
depending upon the relative elevations of the treatment plant and the source of supply.
In the second stage water transmission may be either by pumping into an overhead tank and then
supplying by gravity or by pumping directly into the water-main for distribution.
5.1.1 Intake Structure
An intake is a structure which is constructed across the surface of water so as to permit the
withdrawal of water from the source. The basic function of the intake structure is to help in
safely withdrawing water from the source over predetermined pool levels and then to discharge
this water into the withdrawal conduit (normally called intake conduit), through which it flows
up to water treatment plant.
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5.1.2

As far as possible, the site should be near the treatment plant so that the cost of conveying
water to the city is less.
The intake must be located in the purer zone of the source to draw best quality water
from the source, thereby reducing load on the treatment plant.
The intake must never be located at the downstream or in the vicinity of the point of
disposal of wastewater.
The site should be such as to permit greater withdrawal of water, if required at a future
date.
The intake must be located at a place from where it can draw water even during the driest
period of the year.
The intake site should remain easily accessible during floods and should not get flooded.
Moreover, the flood waters should not be concentrated in the vicinity of the intake.
5.1.3

Factors Governing Location of Intake

Design Considerations

Sufficient factor of safety against external forces such as heavy currents, floating
materials, submerged bodies, ice pressure, etc.
Should have sufficient self weight so that it does not float by upthrust of water.
The depth of foundations for an intake should be sufficient so that no damage is done by
the current of water.
In case the intake is situated in navigational channels, its sides should be protected by a
cluster of piles all around from the blows of moving ships.
The screens or strainers should be provided at the entry level of an intake to avoid the
entry of floating matter and fish.
The size of inlets to the intake should be sufficient so that the required quantity of water
is allowed to enter. The number of inlets should also be more so that the difficulty of
drawing water does not arise even if some of them are blocked due to any reason.
5.1.4

Types of Intake

The intakes are mainly of the following four types:

Canal intakes
Reservoir or lake intakes
River intakes
Portable intakes

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Figure 5.1:Example of River bottom intake and floating intake

5.2 PIPES
The water can be conveyed either through gravity conduits or through pressure conduits
- Free Flow System
In this system, the surface of water in the conveying section flows freely due to gravity. In such a
conduit the hydraulic gradient line coincide with the water surface and is parallel to the bed of
the conduit. It is often necessary to construct very long conveying sections, to suit the slope of
the existing ground. The sections used for free-flow are: Canals, flumes, grade aqueducts and
grade tunnels.
- Pressure System
In pressure conduits, which are closed conduits, the water flows under pressure above the
atmospheric pressure. The bed or invert of the conduit in pressure flows is thus independant of
the grade of the hydraulic gradient line and can, therefore, follow the natural available ground
surface thus requiring lesser length of conduit.
The pressure aqueducts may be in the form of closed pipes or closed aqueducts and tunnels
called pressure aqueducts or pressure tunnels designed for the pressure likely to come on them.
Due to their circular shapes, every pressure conduit is generally termed as a pressure pipe. When
a pressure pipe drops beneath a valley, stream, or some other depression, it is called a depressed
pipe or an inverted siphon.
Depending upon the construction material, the pressure pipes are of following types: Cast iron,
steel, R.C.C, hume steel, vitrified clay, asbestos cement, wrought iron, copper, brass and lead,
plastic, and glass reinforced plastic pipes.

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- Hydraulic Design
The design of water supply conduits depends on the resistance to flow, available pressure or head,
and allowable velocities of flow. Generally, Hazen-William's formula for pressure conduits and
Manning's formula for freeflow conduits are used.

Hazen-William's formula
V = 0.85 C R0.63S0.54

Manning's formula
V=1/n R2/3S1/2
And the diameter could be found by using Darcy-Weisbach formula
hL=(fLv2)/(2gd)
Where:
V= velocity in m/s; R= hydraulic radius in m; S= slope, C= Hazen-William's coefficient, d =
diameter of the pipe in m and n = Manning's coefficient.
5.2.1

DESIGN OF PIPE SYSTEM

Transmission and distribution mains represent most of the initial cost of a water system. These
system components are not visible when construction is complete. Therefore, good design and
construction are vital if a water system is to deliver safe, adequate, reliable water as
economically as possible.
Remember that Transmission mains convey water from the source, treatment, or storage
facilities to the distribution system. There may be a few service connections on the transmission
main, but the purpose of this larger diameter pipe is to deliver water to the distribution mains
where most of the service connections are. Distribution mains deliver water to individual
customer service lines and provide water for fire protection through fire hydrants, if applicable
Facility Sizing

When sizing water system mains, engineers should consider many factors including
pumping
costs, water system demand,
land use,
friction losses, and
flow velocities.
These factors interrelate, so designers should recognize the influence of each when selecting
optimum piping arrangements. Engineers must design transmission lines, distribution facilities,
water sources, pumping facilities and storage facilities so that, together, they meet minimum
demand and pressure requirements throughout the distribution system.

There are many formulas used for sizing water system distribution and transmission lines like:
Manning's formula
Hazen William

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Hardy cross method
Darcy Weisbach equation
There also are many common computer programs available to aid in the design of complex water
systems (example in Chapter 5).

Engineers must use a hydraulic analysis to determine the minimum size of a transmission or
distribution main. All distribution mains must be at least 6 inches in diameter, unless a
hydraulic analysis justifies another size.

Distribution pipelines must be able to deliver enough water to meet peak hourly demand
(PHD) at 30 psi at every existing and proposed service.

When designing a water main, it is important to consider the type of pipe used and the
pressure needs of the water system. Excessive water system pressure can increase the risk of
pipe failure and cause customers to wastewater. Distribution system pressure should not
exceed 100 psi, unless the design engineer can justify the need for the excessive pressure (to
reduce pumping costs, increase fire flow reliability, and for other reasons), and verify that the
pipe material is appropriate for this use.

When a supplier anticipates pressure in the mains will exceed 80 psi, the purveyor is
responsible for recommending that customers install and maintain an individual pressurereducing valve (PRV).

The layout of water mains should be built in segmented grids and loops located in the
established right-of-way or utility easement. Distribution mains should be looped, if possible,
to avoid as many dead ends as possible. Purveyors should install dead-end mains only under
two conditions:
Looping is impractical due to topography, geology, pressure-zone boundaries,
unavailable easements, or locations of users.
The water system plans a main extension in the near future that will eliminate the
deadend condition.
If suppliers cannot avoid dead ends, they should provide blow-offs to allow adequate flushing
and cleaning of those mains.
5.2.2

Pipes in series and parallel

Pipes in series

When pipes of different diameter are connected in series, the total head loss is equal to the
summation of the individual head losses in different pipes. Such arrangement is quite common
since draw-off usually takes place along the length of service main, necessitating the decrease in
diameter as the discharge decreases.

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Pipe in parallel

Laying the pipes in parallel may be necessary due to the following reasons:

To increase the capacity of the line

To facilitate repairs without closing down the complete supply
To use smaller diameter pipes, by laying them in parallel, if one single large diameter
pipe is not available.

When pipe are laid in parallel, the head loss through each pipe will be the same. Also, the total
discharge Q will be equal to the sum of the discharge in each pipe.

5.2.3

Pipe materials

The pipe material is selected while keeping in view the forces to be resisted by it. The usual
stresses to which pipes are subjected are: stress due to change of direction, to internal water
pressure, to soil above the pipes, to water hammer and temperature.
The selection of material for the pipe is done by considering various factors such as availability
of fund, type of water to be conveyed, carrying capacity of the pipe, maintenance cost, durability,
etc.
The following are the various materials which are used for pipes: Asbestos cement, Cast iron,
cements concrete, copper, galvanised iron, lead, plastic, steel, etc.
5.2.4

Pipe appurtenances

The distribution pipes are provided with various pipe appurtenances or accessories so as to make
the distribution of water easy and effective. The following are some appurtenances: Air valves,
Bib cocks, fire hydrants, reflux valves, relief valve, scour valves, sluice valves, stop cocks and
water meters.
5.2.5

Pipe corrosion

The term pipe corrosion is used to indicate the loss of pipe of pipe material due to the action of
water. The metallic structure of pipe is attacked and dissolved by water. The pipe corrosion may
be internal or external and it leads to the disintegration of metal.
Factors contributing to the pipe corrosion:
Acidity
Alkalinity
Biological action
Chlorination
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Electrical current
Mineral and organic constituents
Oxygen

Effects of pipe corrosion:

Tuberculation
Disintegration
Imparts colour, taste and odour to the water
dangerous for drinking and other purpose
Prevention of pipe corrosion
In practice, it is not possible to completely eliminate the pipe corrosion. But the following are the
measures which are commonly adopted for minimising pipe corrosion:
Cathodic protection
Proper pipe material
Protective linings
Treatment of water

5.3 LAYOUTS OF DISTRIBUTION NETWORK

The distribution pipes are generally laid below the road pavements, and as such their layouts
generally follow the layouts of roads. There are, in general, four different types of pipe networks;
any one of which either singly or in combinations, can be used for a particular place. They are:
Dead End System:
It is suitable for old towns and cities having no definite pattern of roads.

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Advantages:
1. Relatively cheap.
2. Determination of discharges and pressure easier due to less number of valves.
Disadvantages
1. Due to many dead ends, stagnation of water occurs in pipes.

Grid Iron System:

It is suitable for cities with rectangular layout, where the water mains and branches are laid in
rectangles.

Advantages:
1. Water is kept in good circulation due to the absence of dead ends.
2. In the cases of a breakdown in some section, water is available from some other direction.
Disadvantages
1. Exact calculation of sizes of pipes is not possible due to provision of valves on all
branches.
Ring System:
The supply main is laid all along the peripheral roads and sub mains branch out from the mains.
Thus, this system also follows the grid iron system with the flow pattern similar in character to
that of dead end system. So, determination of the size of pipes is easy.
Advantages:
1. Water can be supplied to any point from at least two directions.

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Radial System:
The area is divided into different zones. The water is pumped into the distribution reservoir kept
in the middle of each zone and the supply pipes are laid radially ending towards the periphery.

Advantages:
1. It gives quick service.
2. Calculation of pipe sizes is easy.
5.3 PUMPS FOR WATER SUPPLY PROJECT
A pump is a device which converts mechanical energy into hydraulic energy. It lifts water from a
lower to a higher level and delivers it at high pressure. If gravity is insufficient to supply water at
an adequate pressure, then pumps need to be installed to boost the pressure. Pumps can be either
permanently operational or intermittent. They can be controlled by a time-switch, pressure or a
water level in a tank or reservoir. A back-up system (e.g. a standby pump) may be needed.
Pumps are employed in water supply projects at various stages for following purposes:
1. To lift raw water from wells.
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2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

To deliver treated water to the consumer at desired pressure.

To supply pressured water for fire hydrants.
To boost up pressure in water mains.
To fill elevated overhead water tanks.
To back-wash filters.
To pump chemical solutions, needed for water treatment.

5.3.1 Classification of Pumps

Based on principle of operation, pumps may be classified as follows:
1. Displacement pumps (reciprocating, rotary)
2. Velocity pumps (centrifugal, turbine and jet pumps)
3. Buoyancy pumps (air lift pumps)
4. Impulse pumps (hydraulic rams)
5.3.2

Choice of type of pumps

Following considerations govern the choice of a particular type of pump in water supply project:
Capacity of pumps
Importance of water supply scheme
Initial cost
Location of pump
Maintenance cost
Number of unit required
Quality of water to be pumped
Total head of water
Type of power available
Type of supply service - intermittent or continuous
5.3.3 Power for pumps
To develop power for the working of pumps, the following machines are used:
Steam engine
Diesel engine
Gasoline engine
Electric motor
5.3.4 Capacity of Pumps
Work done by the pump:

H.P = QH/75 or
Where,

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H.P = horsepower of pumps. H.P is unit for measuring the power of pump or engine.
1 metric HP = 75 kg.m/sec
= specific weight of water (kg/m3),
Q = discharge of pump (m3/s),
W = weight of water (kg/sec) = * Q
H= total head against which pump has to work (m).
H = Hs + HD + Hf + (losses due to exit, entrance, bends, valves, and so on)
Where, Hs=suction head, Hd = delivery head, and Hf = friction loss.

Total brake horse power: B.H.P =

or B.H.P =

Where, E is efficiency of pump. If the pump is driven by electric motor, the overall efficiency =
efficient of pump * efficient of motor
After getting total BHP, you have to provide even number of motors say 2,4,... with their total
capacity being equal to the total BHP and provide half of the motors required as stand-by.
Illustrative example 5.1
A city has a population of 150,000. Water is to be supplied at the rate of 160 litres per head per
day. If the static lift of the pump is 40 m, calculate the brake horse power of motor. The length
and diameter of the rising main are 300 m and 50cm respectively. Assume that the efficiency of
motor is 85% and that of pump is 60%. Assume f=0.04 and peak hour demand as 1.5 times the
average demand.
Illustrative example 5.2
The water is to be raised from a tube well to an overhead storage tank. Work out the BHP of the
electro-motor pumping set from the following data:
Discharge of tube well = 30l/s
Length of rising main = 200m
Coefficient of friction = 0.072
Static head = 28 m
Combined efficiency of electro-pumping set = 70%
Velocity in rising main = 180 cm/sec

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