Heterodyne Receiver Lecture Notes PDF

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Analog & Digital Communication

UNIT I
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Super Heterodyne Receiver
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Outline
Block diagram of heterodyne receiver
Descriptions of various sections of
receiver
Receiver operation
Various issues
Frequency conversion
Local oscillator tracking
Image frequency
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Principles
Frequency Spectrum Sharing (many
transmitters using one medium)
Demodulating desired signal and rejecting
other signals transmitted at the same time
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Source signal
The source signal is audio
Different sources have different spectrum
Voice (speech)
Music
Hybrid signals (music, voice, singing)
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Different audio sources have different

bandwidth W
Speech- 4kHz
High quality music- 15kHz
AM radio limits base-band bandwidth W
to 5kHz
FM radio uses base-band bandwidth W
to 15kHz
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Typical radio system

Radio system should be able to receive
any type of audio source simultaneously.
Different stations with different sources
transmit signals simultaneously.
Different listeners tune to different stations
simultaneously.
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Requirement
The radio receiver has to be cost effective
Requirements:
Has to work with both AM and FM signals
Tune to and amplify desired radio station
Filter out all other stations
Demodulator has to work with all radio
stations regardless of carrier frequency
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IF
For the demodulator to work with any radio
signal, we convert the carrier frequency
of any radio signal to Intermediate
Frequency (IF)
Radio receiver design can be optimized for
that frequency
IF filter and a demodulator for IF frequency
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Basic radio receiver

A radio receiver consists of the following:
A Radio Frequency (RF) section
An RF-to-IF converter (mixer)
An Intermediate Frequency (IF) section
Demodulator
Audio amplifier
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This is known as the Superheterodyne

Receiver
Two stages: RF and IF
(filtering and amplification)
The receiver was designed by Armstrong
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Transmission Bandwidth
Transmission bandwidth: BT
BT is the bandwidth occupied by a
message signal in the radio frequency
spectrum
BT is also the carrier spacing
AM bandwidth is BT = 2W
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Important
The minimum bandwidth of RF filter (front
end tuner) is
BRF > BT
Passes the desired radio channel, and
adjacent channels
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Block diagram
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Heterodyning
Mixing of two different frequencies in a
non-linear device
Translation of one frequency to another
using non-linear mixing
Basically does multiplication job
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Various sections
RF section
Mixer or converter section
IF section
Audio detector section
Audio amplifier section
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RF section
RF section has pre-selector and amplifier
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Pre-selector
Band pass filter
Broad tuned i.e. adjustable centre
frequency
Blocks image frequency
Reduces noise bandwidth
Provides initial step to limit the receiver
bandwidth
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RF amplifier
Determines sensitivity of receiver
First active device in receiver path
Noise added at this stage should be as
minimum as possible
Very important in deciding noise figure of
receiver
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Mixer/converter section
Oscillator
Mixer stage
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Local oscillator
Wein bridge oscillator

Hartley oscillator
Clapp oscillator
Selecting a particular oscillator circuit
depends on
Stability
Accuracy
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Mixer
Converts radio frequencies (RF) to intermediate
frequencies (IF)
Non-linear device
Heterodyning takes place in the mixer stage
RF to IF
Carrier and side band frequencies converted

from RF to IF
Envelope remains same
Bandwidth remains same
Typical IF is 455 KHz
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Mixer or Balanced modulator

Two inputs to mixer or balanced modulator
Output of balanced mixer is product of two input
signals
Vout = (sin 2f1t )(sin 2f 2 t )

1
1
= cos [2 ( f1 f 2 )t ] cos [2 ( f1 + f 2 )t ]
2
2
Output of mixer has both sum and difference of input
frequencies
By placing an appropriate filter either one of the terms
can be selected
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One input to mixer : from pre-selector,

chosen station i.e. fc
Another input : from local oscillator, flo
Output of mixer : (flo-fc) and (flo+fc)
Choose flo always greater than fc by 455
KHz
Then difference term will produce 455 KHz
irrespective of fc
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IF section
Band pass filter
Selects only
455 KHz (difference

term)
Rejects sum term
IF amplifier
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IF section
Gives most of receivers gain and selectivity
IF center frequency and bandwidth are
constant for all stations
IF is lesser than the lowest available AM
station frequency
Easier to construct amplifiers and filters at
lower frequencies
IF amplifier more stable than RF amplifier
i.e. no break down oscillation
5 to 6 stages of IF amp, but only single RF amp
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Detector section
Converts IF signals to original source
information
Also called audio detector
Envelope detector
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Audio amplifier section

Several amplifiers cascaded
Output is given to one or more speakers
Number of amplifiers depends on output
power required
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Basic receiver operation

Demodulation process undergoes two or
more frequency conversions
RF to IF then IF to source information
RF and IF are relative terms
No absolute values
In commercial broadcast AM receiver (535

KHz to 1605 KHz)
IF may be 455 KHz
In commercial FM broad cast receiver

IF may be 10.7 MHz
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Frequency conversion
Identical to modulator stage of transmitter
Difference is we do down conversion
instead of up conversion
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Principle of frequency conversion
1.
2.
3.
4.
The combination of any two sine waves

through a nonlinear device produce the
following frequency components:
A dc level
Components at each of the 2 original
frequencies.
Components at the sum and difference
frequencies of the 2 original frequencies.
Harmonics of the original frequencies.
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Example
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Gang tuning
Both pre-selector and local oscillator are
tuned together
When station is changed in AM receiver
Center frequency is changed in pre-selector
Together local oscillator frequency is changed
Difference between them is always 455 KHz
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Local oscillator tracking

When ever station is changed oscillator
frequency is also changed
Oscillator frequency changes so that when
it combines with antenna signal at mixer
stage it always produces IF (455 KHz for
commercial AM)
This ability of oscillator is called tracking
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Tuning ratio
AM stations range from 540 KHz to 1600
KHz
Pre-selector center frequency changed
from 540 KHz to 1600 KHz
Tuning ratio is 2.96
Local oscillator frequency changed from

995 KHz to 2055 KHz
Tuning ratio is 2.06
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AM station range is:540 KHz to 1600 KHz

455 KHz IF may be obtained by using a
local oscillator which has range
OR
1st method offers ratio of 13
2nd method offers ratio of 2
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Remember
More tuning ratio more difficult to design an

oscillator
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Capacitance tuning ratio

Resonant frequency proportional to (1/C)
Capacitance in pre-selector changes by
8.8
Capacitance in oscillator changes by 4.26
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Tracking error
Local oscillator always should oscillate
455 KHz above the pre-selector frequency
Difference between them is always 455
KHz
If it deviates then the amount is called
tracking error
Tracking error of 3 KHz is allowed
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Tracking error
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Electronic tuning
Instead of big ganged capacitors use
reverse biased diodes
Reverse bias p-n junction
Depletion layer changes with applied
reverse bias
Depletion capacitance also changes
Use this for tuning purpose
Varactor diodes
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Electronic tuning
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Example
We have selected an AM station whose
frequency is 600 KHz
To get an IF of 455 KHz local oscillator
has to oscillate with 600 KHz + 455 KHz =
1055 KHz
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595 600 605

KHz KHz KHz
From
antenna
1055KHz
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Suppose 1510 KHz is also present at the

input of mixer, then?
Difference between 1510 KHz and 1055
KHz is also 455 KHz
We get information from 600 KHz AM
station as well as from 1510 KHz AM
station
No way to differentiate them
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Only absolute difference matters
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Image frequency
Image frequency is radio frequency that is
located in IF frequency above local oscillator
frequency
fimage=flocal_osc+fIF
Substituing, flocal_osc=fRF+fIF
fimage=fRF+2.fIF
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Solution to Image problem

Go for higher IF
Puts image farther in spectrum
Problem of choosing higher IF

Stability of IF amplifier poorer
Trade off
Get rid of image and stability
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Solution to Image problem

If pre-selector does not allow image
frequency then there is no image problem
How to make pre-selector do this?
Reduce bandwidth of pre-selector
How to reduce bandwidth of pre-selector?
Go for higher Q factor
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Image frequency rejection ratio

IFRR=(1 + Q22)
=(fim/fRF) (fRF/fim)
IFRR(dB)=10 log(IFRR)
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AM detectors
Peak detector
Non-coherent
Non-linear device
diode
Half-wave rectifier
with capacitor
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Peak detector wave forms
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Positive peak detector
Irrespective of modulation depth the output average

is always carrier peak
This fact is used in AGC
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Detector distortion
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Highest modulating frequency that can be

detected using peak detector is given by
f m (max) =
1
1
2
m
2 RC
where m modulation index

RC time constant
What about 100% modulation?
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RF signal strength
RF signal travels through space
Signal strength varies depending on
environment also depending on transmitter
location
If not taken care then speaker output
(volume) changes randomly
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Automatic gain control

Takes care minor variations in signal
strength
AGC automatically increases gain when
received signal is weaker and vice versa
Monitors signal strength
Adjusts gain of RF and IF amplifiers
automatically
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AM receiver with AGC
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Simple AGC
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AGC operation
Output of peak detector is used as feed
back
Remember average voltage of peak
detector o/p only depends on carrier
strength
Higher signal strength higher negative
voltage at peak detector o/p
This reduces positive bias at Q1, and
thereby gain
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Problem of using AGC

Assume radio station is not broadcasting
anything
Then carrier strength is zero
AGC increases the gain of amplifier
indefinitely
Receiver amplifies its own noise and
outputs to speaker
Quiet receiver when there is no signal
Squelch circuit does this

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Analog & Digital Communication

Super Heterodyne Receiver

Different audio sources have different

Typical radio system

Basic radio receiver

This is known as the Superheterodyne

The receiver was designed by Armstrong

Wein bridge oscillator

Carrier and side band frequencies converted

Mixer or Balanced modulator

Vout = (sin 2f1t )(sin 2f 2 t )

One input to mixer : from pre-selector,

455 KHz (difference

Audio amplifier section

Basic receiver operation

In commercial broadcast AM receiver (535

In commercial FM broad cast receiver

Principle of frequency conversion

The combination of any two sine waves

Local oscillator tracking

Local oscillator frequency changed from

AM station range is:540 KHz to 1600 KHz

More tuning ratio more difficult to design an

Capacitance tuning ratio

595 600 605

Suppose 1510 KHz is also present at the

Only absolute difference matters

Solution to Image problem

Problem of choosing higher IF

Solution to Image problem

Image frequency rejection ratio

Peak detector wave forms

Positive peak detector

Irrespective of modulation depth the output average

Highest modulating frequency that can be

where m modulation index

Automatic gain control

AM receiver with AGC

Problem of using AGC

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