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JAN SPOORENBERG
Lung Adaptations for Diffusion
1. Alveoli are one cell thick; capillary walls one cell thick
2. walls are made of flattened epithelial cells; short diff. dis.
2. alveoli are covered in capillaries [network - increase SA]
3. reduces diffusion distance (short diffusion distance)
4. large SA provided by alveoli (air sacs)
5. concentration gradient is maintained by breathing
6. also maintained by blood flow
7. large numbers of red blood cells; O2 combines w haemoglobin
8. Ficks law - diffusion rate proportional to surface area
Why circulatory system is important for gas exchange
1. Mass flow generated by heart;blood flow maintains conc. grad.
2. Network of capillaries means all cells are close to blood
3. Double circulatory system leads to efficient gas exchange
4. Network of capillaries; large SA - fast diffusion (Ficks law)
5. Capillaries have thin cell walls; small diffusion distance
How gas exchange occurs in cells
1. Gas exchange occurs via diffusion through cell membrane
2. O2 enters cell, CO2 leaves cells } both are small/non-polar
3. Move down the concentration gradient
4. Large SA to V ratio
Why double circulatory system is advantageous (compared to single)
1. Blood flows at a higher pressure
2. Blood can flow at a lower pressure/slower into the lungs
3. Less damage to the lungs
4. Ref. to more efficient gas exchange/transport of gases
Why double circulatory system is good for diffusion
1. one side of heart transports blood; other to lungs
2. separation of oxygenated/deoxygenated blood
3. good for maintaining concentration gradient
4. b.p lower to lungs, higher to body
5. need for good supply of O2; v. high metabolism, v active
Why insect does not need blood vessels
1. Large surface area to volume ratio
2. Low metabolic rate/low metabolism
3. Diffusion is fast enough for exchange of gases/waste
4. Movement of blood back into heart is fast enough
5. All cells are very close to heart
Describe the structure of the heart
1. idea that there are four chambers
2. correct ref to relative position of atria and ventricles
3. idea of left and right sides separate/septum
4. ref to the muscular nature of the walls
5. ref to the cardiac muscle
6. idea of relative thickness of ventricle walls
7. correct ref to position of semilunar valves
8. correct ref to semilunar valves
9. ref to position of tendons/cords/papillary muscles
10. correct ref to position of aorta/pulmonary artery
11. correct ref to position of vena cava/pulmonary vein
12. correct ref. to coronary arteries; ref to SAN
Arteries vs Capillaries
1. Arteries have thick walls; capillary walls one cell thick
2. Arteries - lots of collagen; capillaries - no collagen
3. Arteries - muscle cells; capillaries - no muscle cells
4. Arteries - elastic tissue (allows for recoil); collagen - none
5. Arteries - narrow lumen; capillaries - even narrower
How structure of arteries make it suited to its function
1. Elastic tissue - recoil/stretch; maintain press. w/ no damage
2. Smooth muscle - can exert pressure/contract
3. Smooth lining - reduces friction/smooth blood flow
4. Collagen - helps avoid damage or rupture
5. Narrow lumen - helps maintain high blood pressure
How structure of capillary is linked with its function
1. Capillary has thin wall (one cell thick, no collagen)
2. So, has a short diffusion distance, ensuring fast diffusion rate
How veins structure helps to maintain blood flow
1. They have semi-lunar valves; help prevent back flow of blood
2. They are fitted inbetween muscles; muscles contract & pump
3. Wider lumen and thinner walls than arteries
What is Cardiovascular Disease?
1. Disease of heart; atherosclerosis leads to narrowing of lumen
DNA Replication
1. DNA Helicase [named enzyme] unravels the DNA strand
2. Replication is semiconservative; one new strand made
3. Mononucleotides line up along the strand
4. Via complementary base pairing; form H bonds between them
5. Phosphodiester bonds form between mononucleotides
6. Via condensation reaction
DNA Polymerase attaches nucleotides; DNA Ligase connects fragments
Role of mRNA and tRNA in protein synthesis (4)
mRNA 1. mRNA transcribe DNA template; is copy of genetic code
2. mRNA is made up of codons that code for specific amino acids
3. the mRNA contains the code for the new protein/polypeptide
3. the mRNA moves out of the nucleus, & binds to the ribosomes
5. and is used in translation [acts as template for translation]
tRNA
1. tRNA attaches to one specific amino acid (one)
2. amino acids line up on mRNA via complementary base pairing
3. peptide bonds form via condensation); released by tRNA
2. tRNA then binds to mRNA
3. amino acids join via peptide bonds
Protein Synthesis (Translation)
1. mRNA binds to ribosome
2. tRNA attaches to one specific amino acid each
3. codon/anticodon interaction/complementary base pairing
4. formation of hydrogen bonds between the bases
5. peptide bonds form between the amino acids; released tRNA
6. peptide bonds formed via condensation reactions
Describe why mutation alters enzymes
1. gene is seq. of bases
2. that code for seq. of amino acids in protein
3. gene mutation alters the DNA triplet codon
4. therefore can change amino acid sequence
5. STOP codon can be coded for
6. this may change the shape of the protein/enzymes
7. therefore causing change of the active site; a.s is specific
How gene mutation leads to thick mucus in cystic fibrosis
1. Change in base sequence changes the amino acid structure
2. Changes the shape of the protein; alters its function
3. CFTR protein (channel) cannot transport Cl- ions into cells
4. The protein channel is open for Na+; absorbed by mucus
4. Water doesnt move out of cells/ doesn't dilute; via osmosis
5. Sticky mucus which cannot be removed by cilia in lung
How gene mutation results in non functioning enzyme
1. Gene mutation changes the DNA base sequence
2. Alters the primary structure; sequence of amino acids
3. Changes the position of R groups on amino acid
4. Affects how it is folded, what tertiary bonds form (name one)
5. This changes final 3D shape of the protein; changes active site
6. Active site is specific; binds to substrate to form complex
Somatic Cell Therapy vs Germ Line
1. somatic involves body cells; germ line involves gametes
2. somatic cant be inherited/germ line can be inherited
3. somatic legal; germ line is illegal
4. somatic is temp. treatment/germ line could be cure
Gene Therapy - Replacement of CFTR gene
1. ref. to virus; e.g. liposome, virus and plasmid
2. idea of inserting functional gene that codes for CFTR protein
3. method of getting into longs; e.g. nebuliser
4. CFTR protein made via transcription/translation
5. allows chloride ions to leave cells
6. water moves out of cells via osmosis
7. mucus becomes less sticky
Gene Therapy
1. Use named vector (e.g. liposome or altered virus or plasmid)
2. Introduce healthy gene into body cells (name,e.g. cells in lung)
3. Normal gene is transcribed & translated; healthy protein made
4. Instead of faulty protein
3. Suitable delivery method (e.g. injection or nebuliser)
4. Treatment needs to be repeated (due to cell replacement)
How cystic fibrosis leads to infertility
1. Thick mucus builds in reproductive system; blocks cervix
2. Prevents sperm from reaching egg, fertilization impaired
Ethics of Genetic Screening/Prenatal Testing
1. Right of life; abortion is murder
2. False +ve/-ve; abortion of healthy fetus/birth of disorder
3. Stress to parents - increased change of miscarriage