Road - Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia

5/22/2015
RoadWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia
Road
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia
Aroadisathoroughfare,route,orwayonlandbetweentwoplacesthathasbeenpavedorotherwise
improvedtoallowtravelbysomeconveyance,includingahorse,cart,bicycle,ormotorvehicle.
Roadsconsistofoneortworoadways(BritishEnglish:carriageways),eachwithoneormorelanesandany
associatedsidewalks(BritishEnglish:pavement)androadverges.
Roadsthatareavailableforusebythepublicmaybereferredtoaspublicroadsorashighways.
Contents
1Definitions
1.1UnitedStates
1.2UnitedKingdom
2History
3Design
4Construction
5Maintenance
5.1Slabstabilization
5.2Testing
5.3Jointsealing
6Safetyconsiderations
7Environmentalperformance
8Terminology
9Regulation
9.1Rightandlefthandtraffic
10Economics
10.1Constructioncosts
11Statistics
12Seealso
13References
Definitions
TheOrganisationforEconomicCooperationandDevelopment(OECD)definesaroadas"alineof
communication(travelledway)usingastabilizedbaseotherthanrailsorairstripsopentopublictraffic,
primarilyfortheuseofroadmotorvehiclesrunningontheirownwheels,"whichincludes"bridges,
tunnels,supportingstructures,junctions,crossings,interchanges,andtollroads,butnotcyclepaths."[1]
Inurbanareasroadsmaydivergethroughacityorvillageandbenamedasstreets,servingadualfunction
asurbanspaceeasementandroute.[2]Modernroadsarenormallysmoothed,paved,orotherwiseprepared
toalloweasytravel.[3]Historicallymanyroadsweresimplyrecognizablerouteswithoutanyformal
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Road
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constructionormaintenance.[4]
UnitedStates
IntheUnitedStates,lawsdistinguishbetweenpublicroads,whichareopentopublicuse,andprivate
roads,whichareprivatelycontrolled.[5]
UnitedKingdom
IntheUnitedKingdomthereissomeambiguitybetweenthetermshighwayandroad.TheHighwaycode
detailsrulesfor"roadusers".[6]ForthepurposesoftheEnglishlaw,HighwaysAct1980,whichcovers
EnglandandWalesbutnotScotlandorNorthernIreland,thetermroadisdefinedtobe"anylengthof
highwayorofanyotherroadtowhichthepublichasaccess,andincludesbridgesoverwhicharoad
passes."[7]Thisincludesfootpaths,bridlewaysandcycletracks,andalsoroadanddrivewaysonprivate
landandmanycarparks.[8]VehicleExciseDuty,aroadusetax,ispayableonsomevehiclesusedonthe
publicroad.[8]
Thedefinitionofaroaddependsonthedefinitionofahighway,howeverthereisnoformaldefinitionfora
highwayintherelevantAct.A1984rulingsaid"thelandoverwhichapublicrightofwayexistsisknown
asahighwayandalthoughmosthighwayshavebeenmadeupintoroads,andmosteasementsofwayexist
overfootpaths,thepresenceorabsenceofamaderoadhasnothingtodowiththedistinction.[9][10]Another
legalviewisthatwhileahighwayhistoricallyincludedfootpaths,bridleways,driftways,etc.,itcannowbe
usedtomeanthosewaysthatallowthemovementofmotorvehicles,andthetermrightsofwaycanbe
usedtocoverthewiderusage.[11]
History
Theassertionthatthefirstpathwayswerethetrailsmadebyanimalshasnotbeenuniversallyacceptedin
manycasesanimalsdonotfollowconstantpaths.[4]Othersbelievethatsomeroadsoriginatedfrom
followinganimaltrails.[13][14]TheIcknieldWayisgivenasanexampleofthistypeofroadorigination,
wheremanandanimalbothselectedthesamenaturalline.[15]Byabout10,000BC,roughroads/pathways
wereusedbyhumantravelers.[4]
Theworld'soldestknownpavedroadwaslaidinEgyptsometimebetween2600and2200BC.[16]
StonepavedstreetsarefoundinthecityofUrintheMiddleEastdatingbackto4000BC.[4]
Corduroyroads(logroads)arefounddatingto4000BCinGlastonbury,England.[4]
TheSweetTrack,atimbertrackcausewayinEngland,isoneoftheoldestengineeredroads
discoveredandtheoldesttimbertrackwaydiscoveredinNorthernEurope.Builtinwinter3807BCor
spring3806BC,treeringdating(Dendrochronology)enabledveryprecisedating.Itwasclaimedto
betheoldestroadintheworld[17][18]untilthe2009discoveryofa6,000yearoldtrackwayin
Plumstead,London.[19][20]
BrickpavedstreetswereusedinIndiaasearlyas3000BC.[4]
In500BC,DariusItheGreatstartedanextensiveroadsystemforPersia(Iran),includingtheRoyal
Road,whichwasoneofthefinesthighwaysofitstime.[21]TheroadremainedinuseafterRoman
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times.
Inancienttimes,transportbyriverwasfareasierandfaster
thantransportbyroad,[18]especiallyconsideringthecostof
roadconstructionandthedifferenceincarryingcapacity
betweencartsandriverbarges.Ahybridofroadtransportand
shiptransportbeginninginabout1740isthehorsedrawn
boatinwhichthehorsefollowsaclearedpathalongtheriver
bank.[22][23]
Fromabout312BC,theRomanEmpirebuiltstraight[24]
strongstoneRomanroadsthroughoutEuropeandNorth
Africa,insupportofitsmilitarycampaigns.Atitspeakthe
RomanEmpirewasconnectedby29majorroadsmovingout
fromRomeandcovering78,000kilometersor52,964Roman
milesofpavedroads.[18]
Inthe8thcenturyAD,manyroadswerebuiltthroughoutthe
ArabEmpire.Themostsophisticatedroadswerethosein
Baghdad,whichwerepavedwithtar.Tarwasderivedfrom
petroleum,accessedfromoilfieldsintheregion,throughthe
chemicalprocessofdestructivedistillation.[25]
TheHighwaysAct1555inBritaintransferredresponsibility
formaintainingroadsfromgovernmenttolocalparishes.[18]
Thisresultedinapoorandvariablestateofroads.Toremedy
this,thefirstofthe"Turnpiketrusts"wasestablishedaround
1706,tobuildgoodroadsandcollecttollsfrompassing
vehicles.Eventuallytherewereapproximately1,100trustsin
Britainandsome36,800km(22,870miles)ofengineered
roads.[18]TheRebeccaRiotsinCarmarthenshireand
Rhayaderfrom1839to1844contributedtoaRoyal
Commissionthatledtothedemiseofthesystemin1844,[26]
whichcoincidedwiththedevelopmentoftheUKrailway
system.
Design
Transfgranwasnamedas"the
bestroadintheworld". [12]
ThePortaRosaisaGreekstreet
datingfromthe3rdto4thcenturyBC
inVelia,withapavedsurfaceand
gutters.
Thesubjectofroaddesignisconsideredpartofhighwayengineering.Structuralroaddesignisthescience
ofdesigningaroadforitsenvironmentinordertoextenditslongevityandreducemaintenance.TheShell
pavementdesignmethodisusedinmanycountriesforthedesignofnewasphaltroads.
Construction
Roadconstructionrequiresthecreationofacontinuousrightofway,overcominggeographicobstacles
andhavinggradeslowenoughtopermitvehicleorfoottravel.[27](pg15)andmayberequiredtomeet
standardssetbylaw[28]orofficialguidelines.[29]Theprocessisoftenbegunwiththeremovalofearthand
rockbydiggingorblasting,constructionofembankments,bridgesandtunnels,andremovalofvegetation
(thismayinvolvedeforestation)andfollowedbythelayingofpavementmaterial.Avarietyofroad
buildingequipmentisemployedinroadbuilding.[30][31]
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Afterdesign,approval,planning,legalandenvironmentalconsiderationshavebeenaddressedalignmentof
theroadissetoutbyasurveyor.[24]Theradiiandgradientaredesignedandstakedouttobestsuitthe
naturalgroundlevelsandminimizetheamountofcutandfill.[29](page34)Greatcareistakentopreserve
referenceBenchmarks[29](page59)
Roadsaredesignedandbuiltforprimaryusebyvehicularandpedestriantraffic.Stormdrainageand
environmentalconsiderationsareamajorconcern.Erosionandsedimentcontrolsareconstructedtoprevent
detrimentaleffects.Drainagelinesarelaidwithsealedjointsintheroadeasementwithrunoffcoefficients
andcharacteristicsadequateforthelandzoningandstormwatersystem.Drainagesystemsmustbecapable
ofcarryingtheultimatedesignflowfromtheupstreamcatchmentwithapprovalfortheoutfallfromthe
appropriateauthoritytoawatercourse,creek,riverortheseafordrainagedischarge.[29](page38to40)
Aborrowpit(sourceforobtainingfill,gravel,androck)andawatersourceshouldbelocatednearorin
reasonabledistancetotheroadconstructionsite.Approvalfromlocalauthoritiesmayberequiredtodraw
waterorforworking(crushingandscreening)ofmaterialsfor
constructionneeds.Thetopsoilandvegetationisremovedfromthe
borrowpitandstockpiledforsubsequentrehabilitationofthe
extractionarea.Sideslopesintheexcavationareanotsteeperthan
oneverticaltotwohorizontalforsafetyreasons.[29](page53to56)
Oldroadsurfaces,fences,andbuildingsmayneedtoberemoved
beforeconstructioncanbegin.Treesintheroadconstructionarea
maybemarkedforretention.Theseprotectedtreesshouldnothave
thetopsoilwithintheareaofthetree'sdriplineremovedandthe
areashouldbekeptclearofconstructionmaterialandequipment.
Compensationorreplacementmayberequiredifaprotectedtreeis
damaged.Muchofthevegetationmaybemulchedandputasidefor
useduringreinstatement.Thetopsoilisusuallystrippedand
stockpilednearbyforrehabilitationofnewlyconstructed
embankmentsalongtheroad.Stumpsandrootsareremovedand
holesfilledasrequiredbeforetheearthworkbegins.Final
rehabilitationafterroadconstructioniscompletedwillinclude
seeding,planting,wateringandotheractivitiestoreinstatethearea
tobeconsistentwiththeuntouchedsurroundingareas.[29](page66to
ApavedRomanroadinPompeii
67)
Processesduringearthworkincludeexcavation,removalofmaterial
tospoil,filling,compacting,constructionandtrimming.Ifrockor
otherunsuitablematerialisdiscovereditisremoved,moisture
Oldtractorroadoverfarmland,
contentismanagedandreplacedwithstandardfillcompactedto
Ystad,Sweden
meetthedesignrequirements(generally9095%relative
compaction).Blastingisnotfrequentlyusedtoexcavatetheroad
bedastheintactrockstructureformsanidealroadbase.Whenadepressionmustbefilledtocomeupto
theroadgradethenativebediscompactedafterthetopsoilhasbeenremoved.Thefillismadebythe
"compactedlayermethod"wherealayeroffillisspreadthencompactedtospecifications,undersaturated
conditions.Theprocessisrepeateduntilthedesiredgradeisreached.[29](page68to69).
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Generalfillmaterialshouldbefreeoforganics,meetminimumCaliforniabearingratio(CBR)resultsand
havealowplasticityindex.Thelowerfillgenerallycomprisessandorasandrichmixturewithfinegravel,
whichactsasaninhibitortothegrowthofplantsorothervegetablematter.Thecompactedfillalsoserves
aslowerstratumdrainage.Selectsecondfill(sieved)shouldbecomposedofgravel,decomposedrockor
brokenrockbelowaspecifiedparticlesizeandbefreeoflargelumpsofclay.Sandclayfillmayalsobe
used.Theroadbedmustbe"proofrolled"aftereachlayeroffillis
compacted.Ifarollerpassesoveranareawithoutcreatingvisible
deformationorspringthesectionisdeemedtocomply.[29](page70to
72)
Geosyntheticssuchasgeotextiles,geogridsandgeocellsare
frequentlyusedinthevariouspavementlayerstoimproveroad
quality.Thesematerialsandmethodsareusedinlowtrafficprivate
roadwaysaswellaspublicroadsandhighways.[32]Geosynthetics
performfourmainfunctionsinroads:separation,reinforcement,
filtrationanddrainagewhichincreasethepavementperformance,
reduceconstructioncostsanddecreasemaintenance.[33]
Surveyoratworkwithaleveling
instrument.
Thecompletedroadwayisfinishedbypavingorleftwithagravel
orothernaturalsurface.Thetypeofroadsurfaceisdependenton
economicfactorsandexpectedusage.Safetyimprovementssuchas
trafficsigns,crashbarriers,raisedpavementmarkersandother
formsofroadsurfacemarkingareinstalled.
AccordingtoaMay2009reportbytheAmericanAssociationof
StateHighwayandTransportationOfficials(AASHTO)andTRIP
anationaltransportationresearchorganizationdrivingonrough
roadscoststheaverageAmericanmotoristapproximately$400a
yearinextravehicleoperatingcosts.Driverslivinginurbanareas
withpopulationsmorethan250,000arepayingupwardsof$750
moreannuallybecauseofacceleratedvehicledeterioration,
increasedmaintenance,additionalfuelconsumption,andtirewear
causedbypoorroadconditions.
Whenasinglecarriagewayroadisconvertedintodualcarriageway
bybuildingasecondseparatecarriagewayalongsidethefirst,itis
usuallyreferredtoasduplication,[34]twinningordoubling.The
originalcarriagewayischangedfromtwowaytobecomeoneway,
whilethenewcarriagewayisonewayintheoppositedirection.In
thesamewayasconvertingrailwaylinesfromsingletracktodouble
track,thenewcarriagewayisnotalwaysconstructeddirectly
alongsidetheexistingcarriageway.
AsphaltlayerandHammroadroller
Subbaselayercomposedofcement
basedmaterialbeingappliedduring
constructionoftheM8motorwayin
Ireland.
Maintenance
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Likeallstructures,roadsdeteriorateovertime.Deteriorationisprimarilyduetoaccumulateddamagefrom
vehicles,howeverenvironmentaleffectssuchasfrostheaves,thermalcrackingandoxidationoften
contribute.[35]Accordingtoaseriesofexperimentscarriedoutinthelate1950s,calledtheAASHORoad
Test,itwasempiricallydeterminedthattheeffectivedamagedone
totheroadisroughlyproportionaltotheFourthpowerofaxle
weight.[36]Atypicaltractortrailerweighing80,000pounds(36.287
t)with8,000pounds(3.629t)onthesteeraxleand36,000pounds
(16.329t)onbothofthetandemaxlegroupsisexpectedtodo7,800
timesmoredamagethanapassengervehiclewith2,000pounds
(0.907t)oneachaxle.Potholesonroadsarecausedbyraindamage
andvehiclebrakingorrelatedconstructionworks.
Pavementsaredesignedforanexpectedservicelifeordesignlife.
InsomepartsoftheUnitedKingdomthestandarddesignlifeis40
yearsfornewbitumenandconcretepavement.Maintenanceis
consideredinthewholelifecostoftheroadwithserviceat10,20
and30yearmilestones.[37]Roadscanbeandaredesignedfora
varietyoflives(8,15,30,and60yeardesigns).Whenpavement
lastslongerthanitsintendedlife,itmayhavebeenoverbuilt,and
theoriginalcostsmayhavebeentoohigh.Whenapavementfails
beforeitsintendeddesignlife,theownermayhaveexcessiverepair
andrehabilitationcosts.Someasphaltpavementsaredesignedas
perpetualpavementswithanexpectedstructurallifeinexcessof50
years.[38]
Typicalpavementstrataforaheavily
traveledroad
Manyasphaltpavementsbuiltover35yearsago,despitenotbeingspecifically
designedasaperpetualpavement,haveremainedingoodconditionlongpasttheir
designlife.[39]Manyconcretepavementsbuiltsincethe1950shavesignificantly
outlivedtheirintendeddesignlives.[40]SomeroadslikeChicago,Illinois's"Wacker
Drive",amajortwolevelviaductinthedowntownarea,arebeingrebuiltwitha
designedservicelifeof100years.[41]
Virtuallyallroadsrequiresomeformofmaintenancebefore
theycometotheendoftheirservicelife.Proactiveagencies
usepavementmanagementtechniquestocontinuallymonitor
roadconditionsandschedulepreventivemaintenance
treatmentsasneededtoprolongthelifespanoftheirroads.
Technicallyadvancedagenciesmonitortheroadnetwork
surfaceconditionwithsophisticatedequipmentsuchas
laser/inertialProfilometers.Thesemeasurementsincluderoad
curvature,crossslope,asperity,roughness,ruttingandtexture.
Thisdataisfedintoapavementmanagementsystem,which
recommendsthebestmaintenanceorconstructiontreatmentto
correctthedamagethathasoccurred.
"Roadworksahead"
sign,typicallyused
inEurope
Manualroadrepairtakingplacein
Howrah,India.
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Maintenancetreatmentsforasphaltconcretegenerallyincludethinasphalt
overlays,cracksealing,surfacerejuvenating,fogsealing,micromillingor
diamondgrindingandsurfacetreatments.Thinsurfacingpreserves,protects
andimprovesthefunctionalconditionoftheroadwhilereducingtheneedfor
routingmaintenance,leadingtoextendedservicelifewithoutincreasing
structuralcapacity.[42]
Maintenancefortheolderconcretepavementsthatdevelopfaultsincludesthe
techniquecalleddowelbarretrofit.Thisinvolvescuttingslotsinthepavement
ateachjoint,placingdowelbarsintheslots,thenfillingthemwithconcrete
patchingmaterial.Thismethodcanextendthelifeoftheconcretepavementfor
another15years.[43]
Failuretomaintainroadsproperlycancreatesignificantcoststosociety,ina
2009reportreleasedbytheAmericanAssociationofStateHighwayand
TransportationOfficials(USA)about50%oftheroadsintheUSAareinbad
conditionwithurbanareasworse.Thereportestimatesthaturbandriverspay
anaverageof$746/yearonvehiclerepairswhiletheaverageUSmotoristpays
about$335/year.Incontrast,theaveragemotoristpaysabout$171/yearinroad
maintenancetaxes(basedon600gallons/yearand$0.285/gallontax).
Linemarkinginrural
India.
Slabstabilization
Distressandserviceabilitylossonconcreteroadscanbecausedbylossofsupportduetovoidsbeneaththe
concretepavementslabs.Thevoidsusuallyoccurnearcracksorjointsduetosurfacewaterinfiltration.The
mostcommoncausesofvoidsarepumping,consolidation,subgradefailureandbridgeapproachfailure.
Slabstabilizationisanondestructivemethodofsolvingthisproblemandisusuallyemployedwithother
ConcretePavementRestoration(CPR)methodsincludingpatchinganddiamondgrinding.Thetechnique
restoressupporttoconcreteslabsbyfilingsmallvoidsthatdevelopunderneaththeconcreteslabatjoints,
cracksorthepavementedge.
Theprocessconsistsofpumpingacementitousgroutorpolyurethanemixturethroughholesdrilledthrough
theslab.Thegroutcanfillsmallvoidsbeneaththeslaband/orsubbase.Thegroutalsodisplacesfreewater
andhelpskeepwaterfromsaturatingandweakeningsupportunderthejointsandslabedgeafter
stabilizationiscomplete.Thethreestepsforthismethodafterfindingthevoidsarelocatinganddrilling
holes,groutinjectionandposttestingthestabilizedslabs.
Slabstabilizationdoesnotcorrectdepressions,increasethedesignstructuralcapacity,stoperosionor
eliminatefaulting.Itdoes,however,restoretheslabsupport,therefore,decreasingdeflectionsunderthe
load.Stabilizationshouldonlybeperformedatjointsandcrackswherelossofsupportexists.Visual
inspectionisthesimplestmannertofindvoids.Signsthatrepairisneededaretransversejointfaulting,
cornerbreaksandshoulderdropoffandlinesatornearjointsandcracks.Deflectiontestingisanother
commonprocedureutilizedtolocatevoids.Itisrecommendedtodothistestingatnightasduringcooler
temperatures,jointsopen,aggregateinterlockdiminishesandloaddeflectionsareattheirhighest.
Testing
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Groundpenetratingradarpulseselectromagneticwavesintothepavementandmeasuresandgraphically
displaysthereflectedsignal.Thiscanrevealvoidsandotherdefects.
Theepoxy/coretest,detectsvoidsbyvisualandmechanicalmethods.Itconsistsofdrillinga25to50
millimeterholethroughthepavementintothesubbasewithadrybitrotohammer.Next,atwopartepoxy
ispouredintotheholedyedforvisualclarity.Oncetheepoxyhardens,techniciansdrillthroughthehole.
Ifavoidispresent,theepoxywillsticktothecoreandprovidephysicalevidence.
Commonstabilizationmaterialsincludepozzolancementgroutandpolyurethane.Therequirementsfor
slabstabilizationarestrengthandtheabilitytoflowintoorexpandtofillsmallvoids.Colloidalmixing
equipmentisnecessarytousethepozzolancementgrouts.Thecontractormustplacethegroutusinga
positivedisplacementinjectionpumporanonpulsingprogressivecavitypump.Adrillisalsonecessary
butitmustproduceacleanholewithnosurfacespallingorbreakouts.Theinjectiondevicesmustincludea
groutpackercapableofsealingthehole.Theinjectiondevicemustalsohaveareturnhoseorafastcontrol
reverseswitch,incaseworkersdetectslabmovementontheupliftgauge.Theupliftbeamhelpstomonitor
theslabdeflectionandhastohavesensitivedialgauges.[44][45]
Jointsealing
Alsocalledjointandcrackrepair,thismethodspurposeistominimizeinfiltrationofsurfacewaterand
incompressiblematerialintothejointsystem.Jointsealantsarealsousedtoreducedowelbarcorrosionin
ConcretePavementRestoration(CPR)techniques.Successfulresealingconsistsofoldsealantremoval,
shapingandcleaningthereservoir,installingthebackerrodandinstallingthesealant.Sawing,manual
removal,plowingandcuttingaremethodsusedtoremovetheoldsealant.Sawsareusedtoshapethe
reservoir.Whencleaningthereservoir,nodust,dirtortracesofoldsealantshouldremain.Thus,itis
recommendedtowaterwash,sandblastandthenairblowtoremoveanysand,dirtordust.Thebackerrod
installationrequiresadoublewheeled,steelrollertoinserttherodtothedesireddepth.Afterinsertingthe
backerrod,thesealantisplacedintothejoint.Therearevariousmaterialstochooseforthismethod
includinghotpourbituminousliquid,siliconeandpreformedcompressionseals.[44][46][47][48]
Safetyconsiderations
Carefuldesignandconstructionofroadscanincreaseroadtraffic
safetyandreducetheharm(deaths,injuries,andpropertydamage)
onthehighwaysystemfromtrafficcollisions.
Onneighborhoodroadstrafficcalming,safetybarriers,pedestrian
crossingsandcyclelanescanallprotectpedestriansandcyclists.
LanemarkersinsomecountriesandstatesaremarkedwithCat's
eyesorBottsdots,brightreflectorsthatdonotfadelikepaint.Botts
dotsarenotusedwhereitisicyinthewinter,becausefrostand
snowplowscanbreakthegluethatholdsthemtotheroad,although
theycanbeembeddedinshort,shallowtrenchescarvedinthe
roadway,asisdoneinthemountainousregionsofCalifornia.
Pedestriancrossing,linemarkings
andstreetfurniture.
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Formajorroadsriskcanbereducedbyprovidinglimitedaccessfrompropertiesandlocalroads,grade
separatedjunctionsandmediandividersbetweenoppositedirectiontraffictoreducelikelihoodofheadon
collisions.
Theplacementofenergyattenuationdevices(e.g.guardrails,widegrassyareas,sandbarrels)isalso
common.Someroadfixturessuchasroadsignsandfirehydrantsaredesignedtocollapseonimpact.Light
polesaredesignedtobreakatthebaseratherthanviolentlystopacarthathitsthem.Highwayauthorities
mayalsoremovelargertreesfromtheimmediatevicinityoftheroad.
Environmentalperformance
Carefuldesignandconstructionofaroadcanreduceanynegative
environmentalimpacts.
Watermanagementsystemscanbeusedtoreducetheeffectof
pollutantsfromroads.Rainwaterandsnowmeltrunningoffofroads
tendstopickupgasoline,motoroil,heavymetals,trashandother
pollutantsandresultinWaterpollution.Roadrunoffisamajor
sourceofnickel,copper,zinc,cadmium,leadandpolycyclic
aromatichydrocarbons(PAHs),whicharecreatedascombustion
byproductsofgasolineandotherfossilfuels.[49]
AirpollutionalongPasadena
HighwayinLosAngeles,California
Deicingchemicalsandsandcanrunoffintoroadsides,contaminate
groundwaterandpollutesurfacewaters[50]androadsaltscanbe
toxictosensitiveplantsandanimals.[51]Sandappliedtoicyroadscanbegroundupbytrafficintofine
particulatesandcontributetoairpollution.Sandcanalterstreambedenvironments,causingstressforthe
plantsandanimalsthatlivethere.
Roadsareachiefsourceofenvironmentalnoisegeneration.Intheearly1970sitwasrecognizedthatdesign
ofroadscanbeconductedtoinfluenceandminimizenoisegeneration.[52]Noisebarriersareusedtoreduce
noisepollution,inparticularwhereroadsarelocatedclosetobuiltupareas.Regulationscanrestricttheuse
ofenginebraking.
Motorvehicleemissionscontributeairpollution.Concentrationsofairpollutantsandadverserespiratory
healtheffectsaregreaterneartheroadthanatsomedistanceawayfromtheroad.[53]Roaddustkickedup
byvehiclesmaytriggerallergicreactions.[54]Inaddition,onroadtransportationgreenhousegasemissions
arethelargestsinglecauseofclimatechange,scientistssay.[55]
Terminology
Alignmenttherouteoftheroad,definedasaseriesofhorizontaltangentsandcurves.
Adversecamberwherearoadslopestowardstheoutsideofabend,increasingthelikelihoodthat
vehiclestravellingatspeedwillskidortopple.Usuallyonlyatemporarysituationduringroad
maintenance.
AllweatherroadUnpavedroadthatisconstructedofamaterialthatdoesnotcreatemudduring
rainfall.
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Bankedturn
Bicycleboulevardamotorway,optimizedforbicycletraffic(hencedistinctlydifferentfrom
Segregatedcyclefacilities).
CamberorCrowntheslopeoftheroadsurfacedownwardsawayfromthecentreoftheroad,so
thatsurfacewatercanflowfreelytotheedgeofthecarriageway,oronbendsanglingofthesurface
toleantraffic'intothebend'reducingthechanceofaskid.
Cantsuperelevation
CrossslopeTheslopeofthepavement,expressedasunitsof
riseperunitofrun,orasapercentage.
Gradelongitudinalslope
BelishaBeaconanorangeglobe,litatnight,usedto
highlightapedestriancrossing.
BollardRigidpoststhatcanbearrangedinalinetoclosea
roadorpathtovehiclesaboveacertainwidth
BywayHighwayoverwhichthepublichavearightto
travelforvehicularandotherkindsoftraffic,butisused
mainlyasafootpathorbridleway
TheA22(T)withlinemarkingsnear
BypassRoadthatavoidsor"bypasses"abuiltuparea,town,
SummerHill,EastSussex,England
orvillage
BottleneckSectionofaroadwithacarryingcapacity
substantiallybelowthatofothersectionsofthesameroad
Botts'dotsNonreflectiveraisedpavementmarkerusedon
roads
Cat'seyereflectiveraisedpavementmarkerusedonroads
ChicaneSequenceoftightserpentinecurves(usuallyanS
shapecurveorabusstop)
ChipsealRoadsurfacecomposedofathinlayerofcrushed
stone'chips'andasphaltemulsion.Itsealsthesurfaceand
protectsitfromweather,butprovidesnostructuralstrength.It
ischeaperthanasphaltconcreteorconcrete.IntheUnited
RoadwithguardrailsinKaluga
Statesitisusuallyonlyusedonlowvolumeruralroads
Oblast,Russia
CornicheRoadonthesideofaclifformountain,withthe
groundrisingononesideandfallingawayontheother
Curb(kerb)Araisededgeatthesideoftheroadway.
Curbextension(alsokerbextension,bulbout,nib,
elephantear,curbbulgeandblister)Trafficcalmingmeasure,
intendedtoslowthespeedoftrafficandincreasedriver
awareness,particularlyinbuiltupandresidential
neighborhoods.
Drainagegradient
Farmtomarketroadastateroadorcountyroadthat
connectsruraloragriculturalareastomarkettowns.
Fork(literally"forkintheroad")Typeofintersection
Roadwithtrafficsignsinthe
wherearoadsplits
outskirtsofBern,Switzerland
Greenlane(UK)Unsurfacedroad,maybesoinfrequently
usedthatvegetationcolonisesfreely,hence'green'.Many
greenlanesareancientroutesthathaveexistedformillennia.
GuiderailPreventsvehiclesfromveeringofftheroadintooncomingtraffic,crashingagainstsolid
objectsorfallingfromaroad.Alsocalledaguardrailortrafficbarrier.
Gutter(UK)adrainagechannelusuallyattheedgeoftheroadoralongamedian.
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InterstateHighwaySystem(UnitedStates)SystemofInterstateandDefenseHighways
Layby(Pullout,pulloff)Apavedareabesideamainroadwherecarscanstoptemporarilytolet
anothercarpass.
Loosechippingsthehazardofstonechippingsthathavecomeloose
MedianOndualcarriagewayroads,includingcontrolled
accesshighways,dividedhighwaysandmanylimitedaccess
roads,thecentralreservation(BritishEnglish),median(North
AmericanEnglish),medianstrip(NorthAmericanEnglish
andAustralianEnglish),neutralground[LouisianaEnglish]
orcentralnaturestrip(AustralianEnglish)Areathat
separatesopposinglanesoftraffic
MountainpassArelativelylowlevelroutethrougharange
ofmountains
MilestoneOneofaseriesofnumberedmarkersplaced
Highway401,aroutewithacollector
alongaroad,oftenatregularintervals,showingthedistance
/expresssetup.
todestinations.
NationalHighwayRoadbuiltandmaintainedbyanational
authority.
PavementTheroadregardedasageoconstruction.Inthe
UKthetermisroadsurfaceandthepavementisapedestrian
walkwayalongsidetheroad.
PedestriancrossingDesignatedpointonaroadwhereroad
markingorothermeanshelpspedestrianscrosssafely
Pelicancrossing(officiallyPeliconcrossing)(UK)a
PEdestrianLIghtCONtrolledcrossing.
PrivatehighwayHighwayownedandoperatedforprofit
byprivateindustry
ThewideCoastalRoadinthe
PrivateroadRoadownedandmaintainedbyaprivate
PhilippinesnowcalledtheManila
individual,organization,orcompanyratherthanbya
CaviteExpressway
government
Profiletheverticalalignmentofaroad,expressedasa
seriesofgrades,connectedbyparaboliccurves.
PublicspacePlacewhereanyonehasarighttocome
withoutbeingexcludedbecauseofeconomicorsocial
conditions
RanchroadU.S.roadthatconnectsruralandagricultural
areastomarkettowns
RoadnumberOftenassignedtoidentifyastretchofpublic
roadsoftendependentonthetypeofroad,withnumbers
differentiatingbetweeninterstates,motorways,arterial
RoadintheJujuyProvince,
thoroughfares,etc.
Argentina
RoadtrafficsafetyProcesstoreducetheharm(deaths,
injuries,andpropertydamage)thatresultfromvehiclecrashes
onpublicroads
RoadworksPartoralloftheroadisoccupiedforworkormaintenance
RoughnessDeviationsfromatrueplanarpavementsurface,whichaffectsvehiclesuspension
deflection,dynamicloading,ridequality,surfacedrainageandwinteroperations.Roughnesshave
wavelengthsrangingfrom500mmuptosome40m.Theupperlimitmaybeashighas350mwhen
consideringmotionsicknessaspectsmotionsicknessisgeneratedbymotionwithdownto0.1Hz
frequencyinanambulancecardriving35m/s(126km/h),waveswithupto350mwillexcite
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5/22/2015
motionsickness.
Roundabout(UK)aroadjunctionwheretypicallythreeormoreroadsarejoinedbyacircularsection
ofroad.Traffic'ontheroundabout'haspriorityovertrafficonapproachroads,unlessindicated
otherwise.Incountrieswheretrafficdrivesonthelefttheroundaboutistravelledinaclockwise
direction.AlsoknownasanislandinpartsoftheUK.
Shoulder(alsohardshoulder)Aclear,levelareatothesideoftheroadwayavailableforstopping
ifneeded.
StatehighwayRoadnumberedbythestate,fallingbelownumberednationalhighways(likeU.S.
Routes)inthehierarchyoraroadmaintainedbythestate,includingnationallynumberedhighways
TrafficPedestrians,riddenorherdedanimals,vehicles,bicycles,andotherconveyancesusingany
roadforpurposesoftravel.[56]
Texture(roads)Deviationsfromatrueplanarpavementsurface,whichaffectstheinteraction
betweenroadandtire.Microtexturehavewavelengthsbelow0.5mm,Macrotexturebelow50mm
andMegatexturebelow500mm.
TrafficcalmingSetofstrategiesusedbyurbanplannersandtrafficengineerstoslowdownor
reducemotorvehicletraffic,therebyimprovingsafetyforpedestriansandbicyclistsandimproving
theenvironmentforresidents
Trafficisland(UK)asmallraisedareausedtohelpdefinethetrafficflow,whichmayalsoactasa
refugeforpedestrianscrossingthecarriagewayoralocationforsigns,barriersorlightsasynonym
forroundaboutinsomepartsoftheUK
TrafficlightAlsoknownasatrafficsignal,stoplight,stopandgolightsasignalingdeviceata
roadintersection,pedestriancrossing,orotherlocationthatassignsrightofwaytodifferent
approachestoanintersection
Zebracrossing(UK)apedestriancrossingmarkedbyblackandwhitestripesonthecarriageway
Regulation
Rightandlefthandtraffic
Trafficflowsontherightorontheleftsideoftheroaddependingonthecountry.[57]In
countrieswheretrafficflowsontheright,trafficsignsaremostlyontherightsideof
theroad,roundaboutsandtrafficcirclesgocounterclockwise/anticlockwise,and
pedestrianscrossingatwowayroadshouldwatchoutfortrafficfromtheleftfirst.[58]
Incountrieswheretrafficflowsontheleft,thereverseistrue.
About33%oftheworldbypopulationdriveontheleft,and67%keepright.Byroad
distances,about28%driveontheleft,and72%ontheright,[59]eventhoughoriginally
mosttrafficdroveontheleftworldwide.[60]
Economics
Transporteconomicsisusedtounderstandboththerelationshipbetweenthetransportsystemandthewider
economyandthecomplexnetworkeffectswhentherearemultiplepathsandcompetingmodesforboth
personalandfreight(road/rail/air/ferry)andwhereInduceddemandcanresultinincreasedondecreased
transportlevelswhenroadprovisionisincreasedbybuildingnewroadsordecreased(forexample
CaliforniaStateRoute480).Roadsaregenerallybuiltandmaintainedbythepublicsectorusingtaxation
althoughimplementationmaybethroughprivatecontractors).[61][62]oroccasionallyusingroadtolls.[63]
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5/22/2015
Publicprivatepartnershipsareawayforcommunitiestoaddresstherisingcostbyinjectingprivatefunds
intotheinfrastructure.Therearefourmainones:[64]
design/build
design/build/operate/maintain
design/build/finance/operate
build/own/operate
Economicsandsocietydependheavilyonefficientroads.Inthe
EuropeanUnion(EU)44%ofallgoodsaremovedbytrucksover
roadsand85%ofallpeoplearetransportedbycars,busesor
coachesonroads.[65]Thetermwasalsocommonlyusedtoreferto
roadsteads,waterwaysthatlentthemselvestousebyshipping.
Constructioncosts
AccordingtotheNewYorkStateThruwayAuthority,[66]some
samplepermilecoststoconstructmultilaneroadsinseveralUS
northeasternstateswere:
AcitystreetinMumbai,Indiawith
ConnecticutTurnpike$3,449,000permile
lefthandtraffic.
NewJerseyTurnpike$2,200,000permile
PennsylvaniaTurnpike(DelawareExtension)$1,970,000
permile
NorthernIndianaTollRoad$1,790,000permile
GardenStateParkway$1,720,000permile
MassachusettsTurnpike$1,600,000permile
Thruway,NewYorktoPennsylvaniaLine$1,547,000permile
OhioTurnpike$1,352,000permile
PennsylvaniaTurnpike(earlyconstruction)$736,000permile
Statistics
TheUnitedStateshasthelargestnetworkofroadsofanycountrywith4,050,717miles(6,518,997km)as
of2009.[67]TheRepublicofIndiahasthesecondlargestroadsystemintheworldwith4,689,842
kilometres(2,914,133mi)ofroad(2013).[68]ThePeople'sRepublicofChinaisthirdwith3,583,715
kilometres(2,226,817mi)ofroad(2007).TheFederativeRepublicofBrazilhasthefourthlargestroad
systemintheworldwith1,751,868kilometres(1,088,560mi)(2002).SeeListofcountriesbyroadnetwork
size.WhenlookingonlyatexpresswaystheNationalTrunkHighwaySystem(NTHS)inChinahasatotal
lengthof45,000kilometres(28,000mi)attheendof2006,and60,300kmattheendof2008,secondonly
totheUnitedStateswith90,000kilometres(56,000mi)in2005.[69][70]
Manysettlementsarenotreachablebyroadalone.Roadvehiclesmustbecarriedbyboatorferrytoislands,
andsomelocationsareintentionallycarfree.Evenonthemainland,somesettlementshavenoroads
connectingwiththemaincontinentalnetwork,duetonaturalobstacleslikemountainsorwetlands,
remoteness,orgeneralexpense.Unpavedroadsorlackofroadsaremorecommonindevelopingcountries,
thoughevenlargecitieslikeIquitos,PeruandJuneau,Alaskaaredisconnected.
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Seealso
AASHORoadTest
Byway(road)
Dirtroad
Drainagegradient
Gravelroad
Lane
Listofroadsandhighways
ListofOECDcountriesbyroadnetworksize
Pedestrianzone
Pavementmanagementsystem
Roadslipperiness
Roadtransport
Shoulder(road)
Structuralroaddesign
Traderoute
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Categories: Roads
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Road - Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia

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