DAUGAVPILS UNIVERSITY

THE FACULTY OF THE HUMANITIES

THE ENGLISH PHILOLOGY DEPARTMENT

ZANDA MAURIA

IRONY IN BRITISH NEWSPAPERS OF VARIOUS TYPES

Bachelor paper

Scientific adviser:
Dr. philol., Ilze Oehnovia

Daugavpils, 2014

DAUGAVPILS UNIVERSITTE
HUMANITR FAKULTTE
ANGU FILOLOIJAS KATEDRA

ZANDA MAURIA

IRONIJA DADA VEIDA LAIKRAKSTOS LIELBRITNIJ

Bakalaura darbs

Zintnisk vadtja:
Dr.philol., Ilze Oehnovia

Daugavpils, 2014

ABSTRACT
Zanda Mauria IRONY IN BRITISH NEWSPAPERS OF VARIOUS TYPES.
Bachelor paper.
Scientific adviser: Ilze Oehovia, Dr.philol.
The paper contains 45 pages and 3 appendices. 41 sources were used to make a research
and to write the paper.
The aim of the research is to study the use of irony in British broadsheet and tabloid
newspaper articles.
The methods of research and data collection: the analytical research method used in the
study of scientific literature and mass media products on the topic and in the process of data
collection; the descriptive method used to present the analysis of theoretical literature on the
concept and classification of irony, the peculiarities of newspaper types and their language,
and the results of the empirical research; the statistical method used to state the frequency of
the use of irony function (reinforcing) of British broadsheet and tabloid newspaper articles.
The outline of the paper: the paper contains two chapters. The first chapter consists of
ten subchapters and focuses on the theoretical aspects of irony, the peculiarities of the
language of newspapers and the usage of irony. The second chapter, consisting of two
subchapters, describes the method and the procedure used to carry out the empirical research
and presents the results of the empirical research of the use of irony in British broadsheet and
tabloid newspapers.
As the result of the research articles from three British broadsheet and three tabloid
newspapers were examined in order to determine in which type of British newspapers
(broadsheet or tabloid) irony is used more frequently; the functions and markers of irony were
determined.

ANOTCIJA
Zanda Mauria Ironija dada veida laikrakstos Lielbritnij. Bakalaura darbs.
Zintnisk vadtja: Dr.philol. Ilze Oehnovia.
Darbs sastv no 45 lappusm un 3 pielikumiem. Darba izstrdei tika izmantoti 41
literatras avoti.
Darba mris ir izptt verbls ironijas izmantojumu dados Lielbritnijas
laikrakstos.
Ptjuma un datu vkanas metodes: analtisk ptjumu metode izmantota zintnisks
literatras un masu mediju materilu izpt, k ar datu vkanas proces; deskriptv metode
izmantota ironijas jdziena un klasifikcijas analzes rezulttu aprakst, laikrakstu valodas un
virsrakstu izveides patnbu, k ar emprisk ptjuma rezulttu aprakst; statistisk metode
izmantota, lai noteiktu ironijas funkcijas (pastiprino funkcija) lietojuma bieumu dada
veida laikrakstos Lielbritnij.
Darba satura izklsts: darbs sastv no divm nodam. Pirm nodaa sastv no desmit
apaknodam, kurs pttas tmas teortiskajai daai: ironijas jdziens, laikrakstu valodas un
ironijas lietoana laikrakstos. Otraj noda, kura sastv no divm apaknodam, ir aprakstta
emprisk ptjuma metodoloija, k ar sniegti verbls ironijas analzes rezultti, kuri tika
iegti no britu avu rakstiem.
Ptjuma rezultt tika izptti raksti no trs Lielbritnijas lielformta laikrakstiem un
trs tablodiem, lai noteiktu, kuros laikrakstos (lielformta vai tablodos) ironija tiek lietota
biek; tika noteiktas ironijas funkcijas un to rdtji.

Anotacin
Zanda Mauria IRONA EN PERIDICOS BRITNICOS DE DIVERSOS TIPOS.
Licenciatura papel.
Consejero cientfico: Ilze Oehovia, Dr.philol.
El papel contiene 45 pginas y 3 apndices, 41 fuentes eran usadas para hacer una
investigacin y escribir el papel(peridico).
El objetivo de la investigacin es estudiar la nocin de la irona verbal, los tipos de
irona y sus particularidades, para examinar las particularidades de tipos de peridico, su
lengua y el uso de irona en peridico de gran formato britnico y artculos del peridico del
tabloide.
Los mtodos de investigacin y recopilacin de datos: la investigacin analtica mtodo
utilizado en el estudio de la literatura cientfica y de los medios de comunicacin de masas en
el tema y en el proceso de la recogida de datos; el mtodo descriptivo utilizado para presentar
el anlisis de bibliografa terica sobre el concepto y la clasificacin de la irona, las
peculiaridades de los peridicos tipos y su idioma, y los resultados de la investigacin
emprica; el mtodo estadstico utilizado en estado la frecuencia del uso de la irona (refuerzo)
del diario britnico sensacionalista y artculos de prensa.
El esbozo del documento: El documento contiene dos captulos. El primer captulo se
compone de diez captulos y se centra en los aspectos tericos del concepto irona, las
peculiaridades de la lengua de uso diario y de irona. El segundo captulo, que consta de dos
captulos, describe el mtodo y el procedimiento utilizado para llevar a cabo la investigacin
emprica y presenta los ejemplos de los resultados obtenidos en la investigacin emprica
sobre el uso de irona verbal diario britnico y peridicos sensacionalistas.
En el resultado de la investigacin los artculos de tres peridicos de gran formato
britnicos y tres tabloides fueron examinados para determinar qu tipo de peridicos
britnicos (gran formato o tabloide) irona se utiliza con ms frecuencia; las funciones y los
marcadores de la irona se determinaron.

Table of contents
Introduction ............................................................................................................................ 7
1.

CONCEPT OF IRONY AND CONCEPT OF NEWSPAPERS. ..................................... 10

1.1.

Approaches to the study of irony ............................................................................... 10

1.2.

Classification of irony ................................................................................................ 13

1.3.

Verbal irony ............................................................................................................... 14

1.4.

The purposes and functions of irony.......................................................................... 16

1.5.

Comprehension of irony ............................................................................................ 18

1.6.

Markers of Irony ........................................................................................................ 20

1.7.

Distinguishing features or of irony, sarcasm and humour ......................................... 21

1.8.

The concept of newspaper ......................................................................................... 23

1.9.

Language of newspapers and its structure ................................................................. 25

1.10.
2.

Irony in newspapers ............................................................................................... 27

THE ANALYSIS OF IRONY AS USED IN BRITISH NEWSPAPER ARTICLES ...... 29

2.1 Irony in the broadsheet newspapers The Guardian, the Telegraph and the
Independent. ......................................................................................................................... 30
2.2 Verbal irony in British tabloid newspapers the Daily Mail, Metro and the Daily
Express ................................................................................................................................. 35
Conclusions .......................................................................................................................... 41
References ............................................................................................................................ 43

APPENDICES ..............................................................................................................................

Introduction
The theme of the present paper is Irony in British Newspapers of Various Types This
theme is fundamental in the modern society because irony can be found everywhere; in our
daily life. Everything in humans surrounding can be used as the source of irony music,
poetry, films, television shows and even newspapers. Newspapers are one of the most
significant ways of news delivering to audience. What is even more interesting is that,
although newspapers are considered to be formal there are many figurative devices used to
create and make articles more appealing and interesting to readers. Journalists and editors are
interested in writing in a style that draws readers attention, in making it appealing, funny and
interesting, and to do so they use many stylistic devices such as metaphors, rhetoric questions,
metonymy, antiphrastic expressions, metaphors, similes and irony.
Irony is a stylistic device which is widely used by everyone. It is used to state
something obvious contrary to what actually happens, to be funny, to draw attention to a
particular situation, and to make remarks to other people who have the same background
knowledge as the speaker.
The aim of the present research is to study the use of irony in British broadsheet and
tabloid newspaper articles.
The objectives:
to study and analysis of scientific literature on the subject, irony and newspaper;
to select and clarify examples of irony from British newspapers;
to analyze the data collected;
drawing conclusions on which British newspapers (tabloid or broadsheet) use
irony in their articles more frequently and clarifying the techniques used in
creating irony in British newspaper articles.
The research question:
In which type of newspapers (broadsheet or tabloid) is irony exploited more frequently,
how and for what purpose is it created and used?
The research hypothesis:
Since broadsheet newspapers are of more serious character, irony is more characteristic
of tabloid newspaper articles, it is most often created by means of contextual markers and it
functions to reinforce the meaning of an utterance.
The methods of the research:
the analytical research method used in the study of scientific literature and mass
media on the topic;

 the descriptive method used to present the analysis of theoretical literature on

the concept and classification of irony, the peculiarities of newspaper types and
their language, and to present the results of the empirical research;
the statistical method used to state the proportions of various markers and
functions of irony in British broadsheet and tabloid newspaper articles.
The method of data collection:
the method of qualitative discourse analysis used in the process of eliciting
examples of irony in British broadsheet and tabloid newspaper articles.

The research paper is based on 41 sources, the fundamental ones being:

Booth, W. C. (1975) A Rhetoric of Irony. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Colebrook, C. (2004) Irony. Routledge: Taylor& Francis Group.
Conboy, M. (2007) Language of the News. London and New York: Routledge
Gibbs, R.W. & Colston, H.L. (2007) Irony in Language and Thought. Taylor &
Francis Group.
Giora R. (1998) Irony. Amsterdam, Philadelphia: John Benkamins Publishing
Company.
Long, Meabh, (2010) Derrida and a Theory of Irony: Parabasis and Parataxis,
Available at Durham E-Theses Online: http://etheses.dur.ac.uk/665/
Reah, D. (1998) The Language of Newspapers. London and New York:
Routledge.
Stanel, T. (2006) Linguistic Approaches to Irony. Chemnitz.

The outline of the chapters:

The paper contains two chapters. The first chapter consists of 10 subchapters and
focuses on the theoretical aspects of the concept and the characteristics of irony, the
peculiarities of the language of newspaper and the types of newspapers. The first subchapter
discusses the phenomenon of irony; the second subchapter deals with the classification of
irony; the third subchapter focuses on verbal irony and its differences from other types of
irony; the fourth subchapter discusses the purposes and the functions of irony; the fifth
subchapter offers the insight into the issue of how irony is understood; the sixth subchapter
describes the markers of irony; the seventh subchapter discusses the differences between
humour, sarcasm and irony; the eighth subchapter provides the general information
concerning newspapers, their types and differences between broadsheets and tabloids; the
ninth subchapter dwells upon the language of newspapers and the structure of newspapers; the
8

tenth subchapter provides information about irony in newspapers. The second chapter,
consisting of two subchapters, presents the results of the empirical research, i.e. the analysis
of the use of irony in British tabloid and broadsheet newspaper articles. The articles were
randomly collected from six British newspapers, three from British tabloid newspapers and
three from British broadsheet newspapers. The author read 200 articles from each newspaper,
which made the total amount of articles read 1 200 (600 broadsheet newspaper articles and
600 tabloid articles).
The first subchapter of Chapter 2 describes the examples of irony elicited from the
broadsheet newspapers The Guardian; The Independent; The Daily Telegraph; the second
subchapter presents the analysis of the data collected from the tabloid newspapers Daily Mail;
Metro and The Sunday Express.

1.

CONCEPT OF IRONY AND CONCEPT OF NEWSPAPERS.

During the 20th century there have been various attempts to formulate irony as a

coherent concept. Various literary critics, for instance, Booth (1975), Colebrook (2004), Long
(2010), Stanel (2006) and others, have proposed different views on the classification and the
distinction of the types of irony, and how and when it is used. Consideration of the history
and various approaches to the classification of irony, provides for the establishment of the
concept of irony and also facilitates making conclusions concerning how irony has changed
throughout time.
Irony has grown throughout centuries and changed radically from sly cunning to literary
concepts and admiration. Irony is used in everyday life and has become an indispensable
phenomenon in human life.

1.1.

Approaches to the study of irony

Nowadays irony is a phenomenon which is widely used in all spheres of life. Humans

have used irony for a long time. Irony has lived with humans since the beginnings of the time.
It might be as old as the human race; however, the term can be traced back only to 1502,
when irony was recognized as irony for the first time.
The term irony can be traced back to Greek eirnia, from eirn dissembler, which was
first used in 1502, and in Latin ironia, both of these words are the bases of the modern term
irony. During the 15th century, in English there appeared various names for irony such as
ironye, ironia, ironie, and yronye. Only in the 17th century, irony got its spelling as irony, i.e.
as we know it today. The roots of irony have been found as far as to Ancient Greece eironeia,
yet

in

that

time

the

understanding

of

the

concept

of

irony

was

different.

(http://csmt.uchicago.edu/glossary2004/irony.htm)
However, the concept of irony has been a basis for arguing for many decades since its
original meaning has changed greatly nowadays. The problem arises in the fact that irony has
been used for almost 2000 years and its origin can be found in Ancient Greek eironeia.
Aristotle used irony with an absolutely different notion than we do now. Only in the 17th
century, irony seems to have got its spelling of irony as we know it today (Colebrook 2004:
8). Colebrook (2004) claims that the concept of irony developed more during the time of
Renaissance and began to mean a capacity to remain distant and different from what is said
in general (Colebrook 2004: 8).

10

The author of the paper provides the following example: if you have a Smart Fortwo car
and on the licence plate there is an inscription HUGE, it is ironical, because the word
HUGE carries the meaning of big, enormous which is quite the opposite in respect of the
contextual meaning, i.e. small. It is known that all smart cars are tiny and meant only for
two people.
In the first texts of Attic, irony denoted negative qualities such as sly cunning. Plato in
Laws prescribes death for ironists, while in the Sophist eirnes he denotes those pretenders,
sophists and hypocrites who use language as an art in itself with no greater truth. Although
irony is found in Platos dialogs, it is Socrates who mostly is associated with irony. Socratess
irony of dissimulation or self-deprecation is a poetic irony. Schlegel (cited from Long 2010:
135) describes Socratic irony as a truly transcendental buffoonery that rises up to the
heights of philosophy through play and parody. To Schlegels contemporaries, irony was no
more than sarcasm, without any high thoughts and admiration of it.
Schlegel (cited from Long 2010: 135) claims that Socratic or Platonic irony is as a
scientific irony of exploratory thoughts and the highest cognition a consciousness and
thinking that has attained harmony and become aware of the secret contradictions even in its
innermost striving for the highest goal. He also emphasises that philosophy by Socrates was
practised with irony and was deeply ironic: Philosophy is the real homeland of irony, which
one would like to define as logical beauty; for wherever philosophy appears in oral or written
dialogues and is not simply confined into rigid systems there irony should be asked for
and provided. (Ibid.)
Socratic irony is related to Socrates teaching method. This method is used in colleges
and universities to encourage students to think and express their opinions while the teacher
plays ignorant (Long 2010: 21). Irony can also be used as a strategy in getting what a person
wants.
Later, in Augustinian and Restoration periods, irony was used as a verbal device which
expressed the so-called praise-by-blame which meant that things which were discussed
were praised but at the same time they were blamed for something. (Knox 1961: 6) For
example, in a situation where a boy has broken his mothers favourite vase and his mother say
very well done, my son! Indeed very well done! It is clear that the mother of the boy did say
those words with irony because it was her favourite vase and she blames her son through
praising how very well he has done by breaking her vase (example provided by the author of
the paper). Knox (1961) himself had dedicated a chapter of his book to The Methods of
Blame-By-Praise Associated with Irony where he distinguished eight methods.

11

Muecke (1969: 67 cited from Freedman 1986: 138) additionally deals with the problem
of classification of irony. She offers three types of irony, the first two are Praise for
desirable qualities known to be lacking and Praise for having undesirable qualities or for
lacking desirable qualities. Knox has noticed these two in his discussion of methods. The
third method distinguished by Muecke is Inappropriate or irrelevant praise: as when vital
principles being at stake, one praises an ecclesiastical measure for being convenient or
economical or politically shrewd.
Only in the 1720s irony became common in the literary and general discussion after
the clear-cut ironies of Defoe and Swift and the constant, obtrusive ironies of controversial
pamphlets and periodicals (Knox 1961: 7). Gradually, in early 18th century, ironic writing
had become a popular and clear-cut mode for writers. When used in writing, irony stimulated
people to examine the concept of irony further than its acknowledged formulations.
According to Knox (1961: 9), there are four definitions of irony. The most popular
formulation is that irony is saying the contrary of what one means. This formulation has
been derived from Quintilians, Cicero and the medieval rhetoricians. Occasionally appeared
the formulation that irony is saying something other than one means which was used by
Miles Coverdale and John Lawson. The third definition stated by Quitilian is less stereotyped
and more useful than the first two and it has been used by a number of writers from Thomas
Wilson to the Earl of Chesterfield. This definition states that irony means to censure with
counterfeited praise and praise under a pretence of blame (Knox 1961:10). The last but not
the least, as Knox names it, is the English defined version which characterizes the word
irony as implying any kind of mocking or scoffing, not paying attention to its rhetorical
structure.
The Oxford Advanced Learners Dictionary (2000: 687) provides the following two
definitions for irony that defines the concept of irony nowadays:
1.) the amusing or strange aspect of a situation that is very different from what you
expect;
2.) the use of words that say the opposite of what you really mean, often as a joke and
with a tone of voice that shows this: England is famous for its food, she said with heavy
irony.
According to Long (2010: 11) irony is a trope, the trope of tropes, and not a trope at
all. It is a plain inversion and a complex mode of consciousness, immersed engagement and
superior distance, an inevitable function of language and a cruel and unusual use. It is purely
rhetorical and deeply structural, (auto)poiesis and (auto)annihilation, a duty and an
indulgence. It is dialectic, an entrapped oscillation, an endless interruption, a permanent
12

becoming, political and private, transcendent and nihilistic, ethical, unethical and a-ethical. It
is sarcasm, wit, scepticism and enthusiasm, evokes sympathy and hostility, empathy and
incomprehension, and is a divine and wholly human mode of creation.
In Danesis Dictionary of Media (2009: 164), irony has been given the following
definition: irony is amusing or subtly mocking phrase or statement in which the literal
meaning stands in opposition to the intended meaning. For example, if an opera singer goes
off the key a few times, someone in the audience might shout out ironically You sure know
the song well! (Ibid.) The term is also used to evaluate any mocking or incongruous text or
performance. (Ibid.)
Fowlers definition of irony is as follows: the use of words intended to convey one
meaning to the uninitiated part of the audience and other to the initiated, the delight of it lying
in the secret intimacy set up between the latter and the speaker (Fowler 1965: 306, cited from
Conan 1991: 27)
Taking into consideration everything mentioned above, we can state that the whole
definition of irony could be that irony is a difference between what is said and what is done;
what is said and what is implied; what is implied or said and what others understand and what
is about to happen or is intended and what happens.

1.2.

Classification of irony
Linguists M. Long (2010), Colebrook (2004), Wilson and Sperber (1992) have

classified and distinguished new types and definitions of irony. In the modern world there are
three types of irony distinguished. The three basic types are verbal irony, situational irony
and dramatic/tragic irony. M. H. Abrams (2009: 134-138) distinguishes also such specific
types of irony as Socratic irony and Cosmic irony.
According to Collins English Dictionary (2011), dramatic or tragic irony is: theatre the
irony occurring when the implications of a situation, speech, etc., are understood by the
audience but not by the characters in the play. Dramatic irony (Long 2010: 31) is also tragic
irony, and specific dramatic irony differs only from general dramatic irony in that it is overt.
Dramatic irony also is the sense of contradiction felt by spectators of a drama who see a
character acting in ignorance of his condition (Sedgewick 1948: 49).
The third type of irony is situational irony. This type of irony is mostly used in
literature. According to A Glossary of Literary Terms (2009), a situational irony is a plot
device in which events turn out contrary to expectation yet are perversely appropriate.
Example 1: In a school lottery, the pocket rocket motorcycle is won by a shy, demure
nun.
13

Example 2: After successfully going over Niagara Falls in a barrel, the stunt man goes
home, takes a shower, slips on the soap, and breaks his leg. (Situational irony is the most
commonly applied sense of the word irony, but it is often over-applied. Strictly speaking, to
be ironic, an outcome must be not only contrary to expectation, but perversely and strangely
appropriate.)
Muecke (1969, cited Gibbs, Colston 2007: 467) presents an elementary definition of
situational irony which states that situational irony is a condition of events opposite to what
was, or might naturally be expected, or a contradictory outcome of events as if in mockery of
the promise and fitness of things.
Long (2010) also points out that irony is both inclusive and exclusive, it can be
productive and interruptive communication, it can be historically grounded and historical.
Long implies that there are more than just three major types of irony. According to Long,
there is simple irony, complex irony, satirical irony, situational irony, Socratic irony,
Romantic irony and the irony of irony. Nevertheless, the theories are based on a common
ground in the sense of disseverance what irony produces, a space expressible as the difference
between what is said and what is meant by it, what is expected and what actually occurs. In
A Glossary of Literary Terms Abrams (2009), besides the terms mentioned above, presents
also the following types of irony:
- cosmic irony;
- structural irony;
- stable irony;
- unstable irony.
Abrams, (2009) provides the definitions to other types of irony which are not included
in the top three types of irony such as Socratic irony, structural irony, cosmic irony, romantic
irony.

1.3.

Verbal irony
The study of verbal irony is relatively new, compared to classical studies of irony, but it

is not less complicated. Psycholinguists and linguists commenced the exploration of verbal
irony only in mid 1980s (Colston and Gibbs 2007: ix). Verbal irony is a figurative device
used in both speech and writing.
In the classical rhetoric (Wilson, Sperber 1992: 54), verbal irony is a trope, and as such
it involves the substitution of a figurative for a literal meaning. Irony is defined as the trope in
which the figurative meaning is the opposite of the literal meaning.

14

Modern definitions of verbal irony stay in the classical tradition. The only difference
between the modern and the classical definition is that what was analyzed classically as a
figurative meaning is reanalyzed as a figurative implication.
Although the traditional definition covers most of the features of irony, ironical
exclamations (1) do not belong to it. Ironic exclamations cannot be analysed as irony, because
they do not express completely opposite thought to what is said; it is not true and not false.
However, verbal irony is clearly felt there.
(1) Ah, Tuscany in May! (Wilson, Sperber 1992: 55)
A friend has invited you to visit him in Tuscany. It is said by your friend that Tuscany
in May is the most beautiful place on the earth. When you arrive you face cold weather,
strong wind and rain.
This exclamation would definitely be understood ironically, even though it does not
belong to the traditional definition of irony. According to Wilson and Sperber (1992: 55-56),
the traditional definition of irony thus fails on the purely descriptive level: some ironical
utterances do not communicate the opposite of what is literally said. According to the
traditional definition, an ironical utterance communicates a single determinate proposition
which could, if necessary, have been conveyed by means of another, purely literal utterance.
They claim that if that is the case then the ironical exclamation (2) should be pragmatically
equal to the literal meaning (3):
(2) What a lovely weather! = (3) What an awful weather!
Besides, Wilson and Sperber (1992) introduce the problem of the traditional irony,
which states that irony should not only give descriptions but also explanations. To understand
what irony is, it is important to understand why it exists, how it works and what is that
appeals to people. They believe that verbal irony is both natural and universal: that it can be
expected to arise spontaneously, without having to be taught or learned (Wilson, Sperber
1992: 57). They also argue (Wilson, Sperber 1992) that interjections, quotations,
understatements and other related language uses can be ironical as well.
In addition, Frye (1957: 40 cited from Conan 1991: 29) states that verbal irony is a
technique of saying as little and meaning as much as possible, or in more general way, a
pattern of words that turn away from direct statement or its own obvious meaning. Gibbs and
Colston (2007: 36) provide a theory that irony does not arise spontaneously. It is a shift from
norm and is governed by arbitrary rhetorical rules on conventions and may differ from
culture to culture.
Verbal irony as a technique could be used in face-to-face conversation, declaring
criticism or expressing ones feelings. Verbal irony, when written down by a teacher,
15

playwright or writer, is complex and the writer depends on that the reader will know the
truth.

1.4.

The purposes and functions of irony

There are a lot of questions that are difficult to answer when it comes to irony and the

most important question is why people use irony instead of producing utterances in literal
language?
Dews, Kaplan, and Winner (1995: 347) have proposed that [S]peakers choose irony
over literal language in order to be funny, to soften the edge of an insult, to show themselves
to be in control of their emotions, and to avoid damaging their relationship with the
addressee. Therefore irony has many functions and they also apply in writing. To intrigue
readers, written texts should be funny and writers have to show themselves as decent source
that do not over react but show their possible insults in a softer way. It can be used as a
politeness strategy, considering that irony can be used to prevent damaging relationships.
Dews and others (1995: 366) wrapped up that the two overarching functions of irony. . . [are]
to save face and to be funny.
Moreover, Sperber and Wilson (1992: 60) offer their variant by stating that irony
involves the expression of an attitude of disapproval.
Gibbs (2000) and Kreuz et al (1991) claim that adults perceptions show that ironic
commentary is considered funnier and livelier than literal commentaries. Dews and others
(1995) note that ironic statements are recognized to be funnier than literal statements and
acknowledged that the humour function of irony results from surprise yielded by the
disparity between what is said and what is meant (Dews, Kaplan, Winner 1995: 348).
However, during the last decades other theories such as Allusional Pretense theory
(Kumon-Nakamura, 1995), the Graded Salience Hypothesis (e.g., Giora 1997), Implicit
Display Theory (Utsumi 2000), and Colstons (2002) theory of Contrast and Assimilation
have been developed.
Attardo in his Irony markers and functions: towards a goal-oriented theory of irony and
its processing (2000) provides a short summary of scholars views and theories about the
functions of irony. He has drawn up the list of irony markers and functions taking into
account the findings of many scholars, such as Muecke (1978), Cutler (1974), Myers Roy
(1977), Haiman (1998), Grice (1978), Attardo (1993; 1994), Barbe (1995) Dews et.al. (1995).
Attardo (2000) has listed six reasons that have been discussed by different scholars.
These reasons are:
Group Affiliation
16

 Sophistication
Retractability
Evaluation
Rhetorical
Politeness strategy.
Group Affiliation means that a group of people have in-group feeling which is
expressed through irony. It is also stated that one of ironys purposes is that of establishing
shared evaluation (Hartung 1996 cited from Attardo 2000: 12). Irony can be used as a part
of teambuilding if people have the same interests.
Sophistication means that irony is used to evoke humour. Even though humour and
irony can be distinguished, in sophistication irony is used to be witty, funny and humorous.
Retractability allows speakers to criticize friendlier and at the same time save himself
from being the mean one. As Jorgensen (1996 cited from Attardo, 2000: 13) shows that
sarcasm a type of irony makes hearer less defensive and makes him evaluate speaker
positively.
Evaluation is expressing feelings (anger, frustration), attitude and evaluation of
situation, context etc. Irony usually is has negative tone, although Dews et.al. (1995: 349)
believe that irony has both negative and positive effect.
Irony, as it has already been mentioned above, is used as a rhetorical device. Carston
(1981: 30 cited from Attardo 2000: 13) notes that irony is a powerful rhetorical tool because
it presupposes the truth of the presupposed proposition to be self-evident. It means that irony
is used to comment on something very obvious instead of saying it directly. For example, if a
secretary says to her boss You have been the nicest boss I have ever had! after being told
that she cannot leave work earlier to meet her family. It is obvious that her boss is mean.
Politeness strategy or face-saving strategy (Attardo 2000: 14) means that irony can be
used to avoid conflict. For example, if there are two people and one of them had cup of
coffee, and they have run into each other, one might say Thank you so much! You just made
my day!(Example provided by the author of the paper). Also it has been pointed out that
ironical remark is more polite than a direct criticism (Attardo 2000: 15).
Timothy B. Jay in his The Psychology of Language (2003: 335) notes that irony has
two functions. One of them is the humorous function when ironic language is less critical than
a straightforward verbal assault. The other function, however, is that irony has a humour
function whereby the incongruity produces a humorous response that mutes the upset that
may be generated by a literal statement. T. Jay (2003) claims that irony is a way for the
speaker to declare his negative feelings or attitude without having to point out them directly.
17

Being said that it is clear that irony give opinions and not facts, it is subjective, and those
opinions are mostly of the negative kind.
However, Hutcheon (1995: 44-56) states that there are nine functions of irony:
aggregative (inclusionary amiable communities, exclusionary elitist in-groups), selfprotective (self-deprecating, ingratiating, arrogant, defensive), distancing (offering a new
perspective,

indifferent,

non-committal),

assailing

(corrective,

satiric,

destructive,

aggressive), provisional (non-dogmatic, demystifying, evasive, hypocritical, duplicitous),

reinforcing

(emphatic,

precise,

decorative,

subsidiary),

oppositional

(transgressive,

subversive, insulting, offensive), ludic (humorous, playful, teasing, irresponsible, trivializing,

reductive), and complicating (complex, rich, ambiguous, misleading, imprecise). Hence
Hutcheon (1995: 56) concludes and summarizes irony within a sentence: Ironys edge, then,
would seem to ingratiate and to intimidate, to underline and to undermine; it brings people
together and drives them apart. Yet, however plural these functions, we still seem to want to
call the thing itself by a single name: irony.
Generalizing, it can be said that irony is used for different reasons, but its functions are
to allow a speaker / writer to be humorous, to reinforce a given statement, to be more polite,
to be self-saving and to express negative feeling in a more positive way.

1.5.

Comprehension of irony
Utterances of irony can be understood differently. It depends on human knowledge and

interpretation of words, as well as on ones ability to connect words that are said with the
situation in which they are said. Not everyone is able to understand the situation and irony
which is used in it. Irony is understood through interaction between the utterance and its
context. It has social functions such as to be humorous and to be sarcastic.
The problem of irony is that it is based purely on ones comprehension and
interpretation of what is said or done or had happened. Clark and Gerrig state: A listeners
understanding of an ironic utterance depends crucially on the common ground he or she
believes is shared by the ironist and the audience (Clark, Gerrig 1984: 124 cited from Kreuz,
Link 2002: 130). This means that without common background knowledge it is hardly
possible for a person to understand whether irony is used or not. For example, if a person has
very little knowledge in economy, then if he reads or hears something about economy he may
take it literally, rather than ironically. This arises another question why do people use irony?
Let us consider two utterances:
She: Its such a wonderful weather outside!
(The sun is shining and it is warm)
18

 She: Its just awesome weather today, isnt it!

(It is raining heavily)
These examples (developed by the author of the paper) show that to adequately
comprehend what has been said, the context is necessary. Both utterances give the impression
about wonderful and nice day and the only difference lays in the fact that in example 1 the
statement echoes the circumstances, while example 2 denies them. It is the attitude that is
expressed differently: while example 1 is true, example 2 is ironic because what is said is in
contrast to what is implied.
According to Grice and Searle (cited from Giora 1998: 7) comprehenders (term used by
Giora 1998 to name people) first figure out the literal meaning of sentences regardless of their
context. At first everything is taken literally and compared with the situation and the context.
If it fits, then there is no further searching and the literal meaning is sufficient. However, if it
does not match the context and the situation, the literal meaning is rejected and replaced by
non-literal, i.e. figurative meaning. This process requires the interpretation of non-literal
language (figurative language) such as metaphor, irony, etc., which additionally requires the
phase of reinterpretation which is not necessary in case of literal language.
It appears that to be able to understand and catch irony, human brain would have to
work more than in case of literal language. There should be at least three phases in processing
figurative language: 1 taking sentences and situation literally; 2 comprehending the
meaning of the sentences taking into account the context; 3 making conclusions.
Interpretation is based on the content of the original; information can be paraphrased or
summarized. Irony also depends on the context and circumstances in which the situation
occurs. People make their own interpretation and basing on that interpretation and background
they may come to some kind of conclusion, yet this interpretation of what is heard may differ
depending on a person.
If a young lady goes to an agent and the agent says to her (3) young ladys interpretation
can be different from the agent.
(3) I can do what Melinas Monroe agent did for her.(Wilson, Sperber, 1992 cited
from Gibbs, Coslton 2007: 46).
Young lady assumes that her agent will make her rich and famous, because it is well
known that Monroes agent made her rich and famous. However, the interpretation of the
same text can be different, if one knows that Monroes agent was lying and cheating. In this
situation the agents words can be understood as a hint that he will make the lady famous, but
will collect more of her fame and money than he should. (Wilson, Sperber 1992: 46)

19

According to Wilson and Sperber (1992), when humans process information, they
argue, achieve some cognitive effect and the processing require some kind of mental effort.
They state that efforts of memory, attention and reasoning are necessary. Moreover, some of
effects are achieved in terms of alterations to the ones beliefs: the understanding of
contextual implications, the cancellations of existing assumptions, or the strengthening of
existing assumptions. Wilson and Sperber name these effects contextual effects. The
scholars characterise the notion of relevance in terms of effect and effort as follows:
Relevance
Other things being equal, the greater the contextual effect achieved by the processing of
a given piece of information, the greater its relevance for individual who processes it.
Other things being equal, the greater the effort involved in the processing of a given
piece of information, the smaller its relevance for the individual who processes it (Wilson,
Sperber 1992: 67).
Wilson and Sperber (1992: 67) additionally claim that humans automatically aim at
maximal relevance, i.e. a human maximizes contextual effect for minimal processing effort.
This process of information processing determines which information is attended to, which
background assumptions are taken from memory and used as context and which inferences
are drawn to it. If a person does not have any background information, both context and irony
might be lost to him.
The author of the paper provides the following example: if in a group of friends one
says its like year 2001 all over again with all the Twin Towers, and if a person in that
group has missed this horrible event, he will not understand that something very horrible has
happened. At the same time, this phrase can be understood as a fact that everyone is talking
about some event, and it does not have to be tragic, it just has to be in the centre of attention.
Whatever the interpretation, it is based on some knowledge and context. One and the same
phrase can be viewed differently depending on the situation in which it is uttered. Stanel
(2006: 18) proposes that while an ironic statement can be perceived as a joke for a friend, it
may have an insulting effect for a stranger. It is also mentioned that people usually use irony
consciously rather than unconsciously (Stanel 2006: 25-26).

1.6.

Markers of Irony
Irony, the same as any other device of figurative language, has its own markers that may

indicate that the sentence is ironic. According to Attardo (2000: 7), Muecke (1978) has the
largest catalogue of markers of irony, Schaffer (1982: 45) has a list of some 49 cues of irony
and Booth (1974: 49-86) also discusses a number of cues used in literary works. Attardo
20

(2000:7-10) additionally mentions eight most frequent and clear markers of irony: intonation,
nasalization, exaggerated stress, other phonological means, morphological means,
typographical means, kinesic markers (like winks, nudges, etc.) and context. We will touch
upon those markers that can be and are used in written language since the research object is
the use of irony in newspapers. One of the markers from this list that is used in written
language is the use of typographical means. This means that typographical markers function
as replacements for the ironical intonation. Scare quotes, use of quotation marks, other
markers like exclamation mark to express emphasis, or dots (...) to mark suspended
discourse (Ibid).
Wilson and Sperber (1992: 54-76) discuss markers of irony in greater deal. They also
agree that typography is a way to indicate irony in written language. They provide examples
of quotations and exclamation interjections. Carvalho et al. (2009) also have named some
clues for automatically identifying ironic sentences by recognizing onomatopoeic expressions,
emoticons, and special quotation marks and punctuation.
However, Neshkovska (2013: 200) has given the overall summary of markers of verbal
irony. These markers are based on the works of such scholars as Gerrig and Goldvarg (2000),
Kreuz (1996), Rafaie (2005), Geethakumary (2004) and Kumon Nakamura et al (1995). She
states eleven markers of irony that are: contextual cues (statements which differ from the true
state); typographic markers (capital letters and inverted commas); syntactic markers
(commands, questions, exclamations, etc.); verbal markers (adjectives that support the
overstatement); neologisms (newly coined words); echoing (norms and standards; what
someone has done or said); nouns, verbs and adjectives which belong to a different register
(colloquial words and slang) and are unsuitable in a context; figurative speech (rhetoric
questions, metonymy, antiphrastic expressions, metaphors, similes); idioms, rhyme and
alluding (to failed expectations).

1.7.

Distinguishing features or of irony, sarcasm and humour

Language is rich in various types of linguistic and rhetorical devices such as sarcasm,

humour, metaphor and irony which create a possibility for people to play with words and
create ambiguity. The question arises whether people can distinguish between humour, irony
and sarcasm.
There are different views on whether irony can be distinguished from humour and
whether sarcasm can be distinguished from irony. According to Attadro (2001: 168-169),
there is a difference between humour and irony and it is that humour consists of two facets
a semantic and a pragmatic one. However, irony is solely a pragmatic phenomenon without
21

semantic counterpart. This means that a non-ironic sentence and ironical sentence are
indistinguishable from the point of view of semantics. Attardo (2001: 170) also notes that
humour (jokes) have richer semantics than irony. Danesi (2009: 150) states that humour is
state of producing or perceiving something as funny, generally accompanied by laughter.
Humor takes many literary and media forms: wit is humor based on cleverness; satire deals
with human weaknesses, making fun of them; sarcasm is more nasty, often taking the form of
indirect stinging commentary (Thats a lovely suit too bad they didnt have your size); irony
implies the opposite of what is being said or done through understatement; farce, slapstick,
and buffoonery involve pranks and practical jokes; parody and burlesque alter a story
comically; and mimicry involves imitating someone else for comic effect. Thus,
summarizing this definition, the scholar claims that irony and sarcasm make a part of humour.
According to Attardo (Gibbs, Colston 2007: 137), sarcasm is an overtly aggressive
type of irony, with clearer markers/cues and a clear target. He also states that some authors
(Muecke 1969; Mizzau 1984: 26; Gibbs and OBrien 1991; Kreuz and Roberts 1993) consider
that irony and sarcasm have superficial differences rather than they differ considerably.
Others (Haiman 1990, 1998; Schaffer 1982: 7677; Brown 1980: 111; Kreuz, Glucksberg
1989: 374), on the contrary, try to differentiate between irony and sarcasm. For example,
Haiman (1990, 1998) states that irony does not require the intention of the speaker when
sarcasm does and notes that irony can be situational but sarcasm cannot. Sperber and Wilson
(1981) distinguish irony as echoing ones own utterance and sarcasm as echoing another
persons utterance. Schaffer (1982: 76-77) mentions particular verbal elements for irony and
sarcasm. (Attardo 2007: 137)
According to Urdang (1972: 1169 cited from Gibbs, Colston 2007: 111), sarcasm is
considered a negative, bitter or caustic form of speech and it demonstrates that the comment
is negative.
Danesi (2009: 259) states that sarcasm is mocking or satirical language: for example,
How slim you look these days! (uttered to someone who has put on weight). Sarcasm is not
only remarks, it is also insults and hurtful expressions that are said to do harm and make
another person feel pain.
In speech sarcasm can be recognized by means of vocal range and pitch changes, as
well as by lengthening of syllables (Mounts 2012: 4). It can be identified by non-verbal
communication, such as nodding, rolling eyes, winking to someone, widening ones eyes or
other facial expressions that are not normally manifested.

22

Sarcasm appears to be especially accepted and understood when the speaker and listener
have some rapport, i.e. shared experiences, perceptions and knowledge referred to as
common ground (Mounts 2012: 5).
The author of the paper will support the view of Muecka, and not distinguish separately
irony and sarcasm. In this paper the author will focus on verbal irony which includes sarcasm
and refer it to as irony.

1.8.

The concept of newspaper

Newspapers are part of our daily life; we use them to be informed about ongoing events,

about the weather and basically about everything that occurs around the world. Newspapers
are part of mass media such as television, films, and radio. Before discussing the peculiarities
of newspaper language and its structure it is important to clarify what a newspaper is.
The term newspaper in the modern world has lost its true meaning primary
information devoted to the news of the day, and some analysis and comment on this news
(Reah, 2002: 2). Today news contains a variety of different items such as advertising,
entertainment, activities of celebrities, TV and film stars and royal family.
Danesi (2009: 213) states that a newspaper is a print publication issued daily, weekly
or at regular times that provides news, features, information of interest to the public, and
advertising. According to http://www.macmillandictionary.com/ newspaper is a set of large
printed sheets of folded paper containing news, articles, and other information usually
published every day. There are two main types of newspaper, the quality or broadsheet
newspapers that generally deal with serious news issues, and the tabloid newspapers that deal
more with subjects such as sport, television actors, and shocking crime stories. A newspaper
is usually simply called a paper. Oxford online dictionary provides the following definition
of a newspaper: A printed publication (usually issued daily or weekly) consisting of folded
unstapled sheets and containing news, articles, advertisements, and correspondence.
Nowadays a newspaper is not just a paper which reflects news, it contains entertaining
information as well.
According to Garwood et al.( 1992: 44) the British are a nation of newspaper readers
because of the Unite Kingdoms small geographical area. In the UK there are many national
newspapers: average around 15 million copies on weekdays and almost 18 million on
Sundays. These numbers affirm that people of the UK are great newspaper readers.
While newspapers in Britain can be divided into two groups on the grounds of political
opinion right-wing or left-wing ones, however, the division of British newspapers can be
done according to Reahs (2002) classification. Reah (2002: 2) distinguishes three types of
23

newspapers: the broadsheet newspapers (Telegraph, The Times, the Guardian, The
Independent); the middle-range tabloids (the Express, the Daily Mail) and the tabloids (the
Sun, the Mirror, the Star). Despite this division, there are also some newspapers which do not
belong to any of these groups; those are local newspapers and newspapers of particular
political groups (Reah 2002: 2). According to the webpage www.thepaperboy.com, the types
of newspapers are distinguished according to the content of newspaper the quality press or
broadsheet newspapers (the Guardian, the Independent, the Times, the Observer, the Daily
Telegraph, Financial Times) and the popular press or tabloids. Tabloids however can be
divided into the more sensationalist mass market titles, or red tops (Daily Mirror, Daily
Star, The Sun), and the middle-market papers (Daily Express, Daily Mail).
Danesi (2009) provides the definitions of both broadsheet and tabloid newspapers.
Broadsheet [also called (erroneously) broadside] 1. early colonial newspaper imported
from England, consisting of a single sheet; 2. full-size newspaper; 3. a newspaper that covers
news in a serious, informative way (Danesi 2009: 49).
Tabloid a small format newspaper that is roughly half the size of a standard
newspaper, usually containing sensational coverage of crime, scandal, gossip, violence, or
news about celebrities. Tabloids also typically include lurid photographs, cartoons and other
graphic features (Danesi 2009: 283).
Www.mediaknowall.com enumerates several differences between broadsheets and
tabloids. They claim that tabloid newspapers are less serious, their headlines are bigger,
shorter articles about events that are not that important, lots of stories about famous people,
larger colourful pictures, lexis is often emphatic with short and sensational words, news
stories are directly linked to people, the tone is conversational and dramatic, punctuation is
poorly used commas are often omitted, dashes make their style informal. Contrariwise,
broadsheets are considered to be serious-minded newspapers, where headlines are smaller,
there are great and detailed articles about international and national events, the photos used in
newspaper are small, lexis is more formal and specific, the tone is controlled, punctuation is
used traditionally and formally, dashes are less frequent. However, at present some
differences between tabloids and broadsheets are disappearing. Now, many broadsheets also
have stories about famous people, tabloids used to be cheaper than broadsheets; The Times
and the Independent have switched to a compact-size format.
Mediaknowall also states that the front page and therefore also the online home page
must have the same functions attract readers (to buy and read); demonstrate what the
attitude of the newspaper is towards the news of the day; reinforce the identity of the
newspaper through easily recognizable style features, and to show readers that their particular
24

edition of the newspaper contains certain stories, including exclusives, and have better
coverage of main stories that any other newspaper.
Mass media creates worldwide view about everything that is discussed within it. Media
as such and newspapers provides readers with information and facts about other cultures,
countries, their lifestyle, their problems etc., yet it is impossible to distinguish the real truth
from the opinion of a writer. This is the problem with newspapers, writers and editors, they
have their own opinion, and they might have a particular lifestyle, hold certain beliefs or
belong to a particular political party. Newspapers are owned by someone and that someone
may ask his/her employees to have a particular view of things and beliefs (Demirsoy et al.
2013: 4-11; Blokhin 2013: 54-60) .This should be borne in mind especially when the issues of
politics and gender are discussed in newspapers. Newspapers, as a part of mass reproduction
(term used by Lister et.al. 2009 to name the products of large quantities) have revolutionary
potential, too (Lister et.al. 2009: 77).
The author of the paper will use the division presented in thepaperboy and divide
newspapers into two groups the quality press or broadsheet newspapers and the popular
press or tabloids.

1.9.

Language of newspapers and its structure

Newspaper language is a written language and it has its own peculiarities. According to

Stanel (2006: 52), spoken texts have an aural or phonological level; written texts have a visual
or graphological level. Yet both have a word or lexical level, and all texts have a structural
and grammatical or syntactic level (Reah 2002: 55).
Crystal and Davy (1969, in Stanel 2006: 52) explain the difference between the
journalese and normal English. The example they present illustrates that verbs of speaking
either appear before the subject in the form said Dr. Mason in journalese English instead of
Dr. Mason said which is normal English. They also stress adverbials in empathetic clauseinitial position when they should be in normal post-verbal position. Additionally, Crystal
and Davy (1969) note many more pre- and post modifications and fewer commas than in
normal English usage (Crystal, Davy 1969, cited from Stanel 2006: 52). This means that in
journalese there is a lot of breaking of traditional and formal style of writing.
According to Prestin (2000: 165-168 cited from Stanel 2006: 57-59) the difference
between the hard news and the soft news should be made. Hard news stories are marked by
neutral style of writing; information is provided about the issue of what, who, when and
where and ones subjective evaluation and ambiguity should be avoided. Soft news stories
also are informative yet they are intended to entertain the reading audience and therefore such
25

linguistic devices and rhetorical figures as irony, metaphors are used to create informal style
of communication.
Moreover, Carter (1988 cited from Stanel 2006: 53) considers that British newspapers
are supposed to use less linguistic devices and rhetorical figures such as irony and metaphors,
which is in contrast with the expectations of a plain and normal style and more so-called core
or highly frequent vocabulary for better understanding of the content. Stanel (2006: 47) also
states that it is clear that irony is not an appropriate device for every existing newspaper
category, for example, it might hardly occur in a serious (non-satirical) obituary or in a
weather forecast.
According to Reah (2002), newspaper structure is based on nucleus and radiating
satellites that make up the body part. Nucleus part consists of headline, lead and wrap- up.
The headline and the lead are both the basis for story development, similar information might
be found in the body of the story as well. The lead is often in bold front and contains the main
idea of the news story. It focuses on what the story is about, and can begin at the point which
is thought to be of the greatest interest. The lead should provide some or all of the five Ws
questions who?, what?, where?, when? and why/how?. The wrap-up is an optional
paragraph which points out to a resolution, yet it is not a conclusion. The body consists of
satellites which may add information to the nucleus, reformulate that information, and provide
causes and conditions. The satellites of hard news stories are based on five Ws questions that
are crucial to news stories.
Stanel (2006: 54) considers headlines eye-catching and controversial, because their
main function is to catch the attention of the reader. Moreover, the writers of newspapers have
to consider the informative character of headings in order to select appropriate vocabulary, the
size of headings and the style of language. Reah (1998: 18 cited from Stanel 2006: 54) draws
attention to the most common language tools that are used in headings, which are : metaphors,
homophones, homonyms, polysemies and intertextuality.
For the most part, after the heading there goes the lead, which resembles the
introductory part and which complements the headline. The lead summarizes the following
text, presents the main ideas and provides the readers the motive to read further (Stanel 2006:
55).
Hartley (2004: 166) states that generally professionals justify the selection of stories no
by reference to news, but first by reference to the story itself. It means that the story needs to
be newsworthy and it has to satisfy publics curiosity. Hartley (Ibid.) also provides a helpful
list of news story values that are important considering newspaper articles. These news values
of stories are:
26

News values prioritise stories about events that are recent, unambiguous, relevant,
predictable, sudden and close (it is relevant to particular culture/class/location).
Priority is given to stories about industry and business, economy, foreign affairs and
domestic affairs, government politics either of conflict or human interest disasters and
sport.
Priority is given to elite nations (the US, the UK, Europe, etc.) and elite people
(celebrities).
News values often involve appeals to dominant ideologies and discourses. What is
cultural and/or historical will be represented as natural and consensual.
News stories need to appeal to readers/viewers so they must be commonsensical,
entertaining and dramatic (like fiction), and visual.
All newspapers are structured so that they would attract readers attention. Their
structure consists of graphical organization, such as lay-out, semantic, syntactic, rhetorical or
stylistic features of sentences and sentential connections, graphical organization, such as layout, and nonverbal properties of news, such as photographs and others (Dijk 1985: 69).
According to Dijk (1985: 69), analysing the discourse of newspapers they deal with a number
of formal categories, which determine the possible orderings and the hierarchical organization
of sentential and textual units. For example, the category of headline in a news discourse has a
fixed form and position in news items in the press. At the same time, this headline has a very
specific thematic function: it usually expresses the most important topic of the news item. The
scholar also assumes that there is a systematic relationship between news text and context.
Thus, it seems plausible that the structural forms and the overall meanings of a news text are
not arbitrary, but a result of social and professional routines of journalists in institutional
settings, on the one hand, and an important condition for the effective cognitive processing of
news text by both journalists and readers, on the other hand (Ibid.).
Language users, and hence also newspaper readers, have the important capacity to tell
what a text or conversation has been about, and they can summarize complex units of
information in one or a few sentences. These sentences are assumed to express the essence,
the theme, or the topic of the information provided (Dijk 1985: 74).

1.10. Irony in newspapers

According to Conboy (2007: 206), the most often used type of irony in journalism is
verbal irony. This form gives a writer a possibility to declare something that he himself does
not believe in with the hope that the reader will identify the inverted meaning within the given
text. Irony can be also used as a tool to make a moral point. Since irony is viewed as a
27

rhetorical device, it is assumed that the reader will understand the writers intention and
meaning.
Nevertheless, using irony is a risk because it can lead to misunderstanding and offend
people. Then, why do writers use irony in newspapers? The answer to this question might be
that irony creates and interesting bond between the audience and writers. It is believed that
there is a level of shared understanding, shared framework of references and shared moral
values that allows writers to play with words and create situations where it depends on
reader to understand the true meaning of what had been implied by the writer.

(Conboy

2007: 206).
In contemporary journalism, irony is used as a means of commenting on issues without
author being taken too seriously. It is essential for readers to be part of that special
constructed community to understand irony in contemporary media and newspapers since it
requires a certain level of detachment (Conboy 2007: 207).
Gibbs (2000: 12) states that verbal irony has several particular forms used in language,
such as sarcasm, rhetorical question, hyperbole, jocularity, and understatement. Usually,
ironic commentaries render the attitude and emotions that are shared by both speaker and
listener.
During the 17th century John Crouch used irony to show a version of English Civil War;
later Jonathan Swift used irony within journalism. Now it is used more and more by columnist
and political commentators to entertain or capture attention of the audience. Situational irony
can be created by adding a specific a photo or a video. For example, Conboy (2007: 207)
describes the situation when a mother of duck is leading her chicks across a pond and it is
used as an ironic commentary in the story about political leadership.
Montgomery (2007: 131) in Ways of reading states that verbal irony is a use of
language where we do not literally mean what we say; instead we imply an attitude of
disbelief towards the content of our utterance or writing. Since verbal irony is used in both
speech and written texts, authors of texts may use irony as a means of expressing not only
their feelings but also their disbeliefs.
Irony is used in headlines of articles and they indicate the opposite of what the readers
and newspaper rely on, they are meant to persuade readers or provoke shock and debate.
Articles are written to meet the readers expectations, to explain things, to give opinions etc,
which could explain why irony is used in newspaper articles.

28

2.

THE ANALYSIS OF IRONY AS USED IN BRITISH NEWSPAPER

ARTICLES
The present chapter introduces the discussion of the results of the empirical research on
verbal irony used in British broadsheet and tabloid newspaper articles. As it has been
mentioned, Reah (2002: 2) provides three categories of daily newspapers: the broadsheet
newspapers, the middle range tabloids and the tabloids. Nevertheless, it is important to
mention that different Internet sources present contradictory opinions about the categories
middle-range tabloid (or middle-market newspaper) and tabloid; both categories are
often merged, and this makes it at times difficult to state to which of these categories some
particular newspapers belong. In this paper, the division worked out in the theoretical part of
the research, is the following:
The broadsheet newspapers:
The Guardian
The Telegraph
The Independent
The tabloid newspapers:
The Daily Mail
Metro
The Daily Express.
As it has been mentioned before, irony is not an appropriate device for newspapers
(Stanel 2006). Based on this, the author of the research paper has selected six British daily
newspapers, three broadsheet newspapers The Guardian, the Telegraph, and the
Independent; and three tabloid newspapers the Daily Mail, Metro and the Daily Star. All
these newspapers are very popular and important representatives of mass-media in the United
Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. Online search webpage Paperboy focuses
primarily on how to help people to find information about newspapers, provides people with
the necessary statistics concerning the popularity, and the public importance of any particular
newspaper. The detailed data about every newspaper of our selection will be given in the
related subchapters.
Nowadays, all of the major UK newspapers have online websites, which is very useful
in order to do the research, because these websites provide the content published in their print
editions, and also they provide the audience with some additional material which technically
cannot be published in their print editions, i.e. video clips, audio interviews, etc. The
29

previously mentioned websites can be easily found through global search Google.com, which
has been used for the assistance to the research.
The articles to be examined are selected from different columns of newspapers,
including those that are sometimes called articles of opinion, business, life and style,
culture, etc. These newspapers are taken from different categories and therefore of different
purposes, they may reflect one and the same news from different points of view, hence
creating more complete perspective on the matter.
In the following subchapters the examples of irony elicited from British newspapers
will be presented and described in detail; the two subchapters will also provide the description
of every given newspaper and the examples of irony found in each of them. The first
subchapter will present the information concerning British broadsheet newspapers but the
second subchapter will focus on the data British tabloid newspapers. As it has been
mentioned, headlines are also very important in the identification of irony, therefore if it is
necessary, headlines and subheadings are provided to prove that irony is used in the article,
since the context is an important aspect of detecting irony.
The examples will be analysed taking into account two criteria the function of irony
and its markers. Therefore it will be explained how one or more functions of irony can be
identified and what the indicators or markers of irony in a sentence are.

2.1

Irony in the broadsheet newspapers The Guardian, the Telegraph and the

Independent.

The Guardian
According to research web-page thepaperboy, The Guardian, once known as The
Manchester Guardian was founded by John Edward Taylor 1821, is a British national daily
newspaper in Berliner format. The Observer (UK Sunday paper) and The Guardian Weekly
(distributed internationally) are The Guardian Sister Papers. Nowadays it is owned by the
Scott Trust, via the Guardian Media Group. The paper identifies with centre-left liberalism
and its readership is generally on the mainstream left of British political opinion. The
newspapers reputation as a platform for liberal and left-wing opinions has led to the use of
the epithet Guardian reader as a label for people holding such views. Financially, the
Guardian has consistently made large losses in recent years despite the popularity of its
online version. The Guardian newspaper is a broadsheet newspaper which is available online
without paywall http://www.theguardian.com/uk .

30

The columns of the Guardian are: News, Sport, Comment, Culture, Business, Money,
Life&Style, Travel, Environment, Tech, TV, Video, Dating, Offers and Jobs. Each column
provides a sub columns according to its main column.
The restaurant's name is Flesh & Buns. With a name like that I suppose we should
have known better, though being a restaurant that specialises in steamed hirata buns,
youd be forgiven for thinking it pertained merely to the food.
Hey, hipster sexists get your pornographic filth out of my loo by Rhiannon Lucy
Cosslett, Friday 20 December 2013
The author of the article indicates towards the misunderstanding of the name of the
restaurant since buns are small round cakes which in this case are not what is indicated by
the name of the place. Buns according to thefreedictionary.com means the fleshy part of
the human body that you sit on in this sentence. The function of irony is evaluation since the
author expresses her personal opinion and feelings about this restaurant, and what points to
irony in this case is the marker of irony alluding (according to Neshkovska(2013: 200)
alluding (to failed expectations), which means that the name of the restaurant implies that
buns are meant as food and not as the part of the human body.
So David Cameron is not a feminist. Well, knock me down with a feather
Times columnist and excellent feminist Caitlin Moran responded by saying: I don't
think it's incompatible with being a feminist, but I do think it's incompatible with being
a decent human being." Of course, you can't really be one without the other, and more
and more women in this country are in the process of realising that. Clearly no one
seems to have briefed Cameron on this "fourth wave", and he's still possibly terrified
of the term, believing it to connote man-hating harpiedom, in a way that many women
no longer are. I find that hard to believe of someone with first class honours in PPE
from Oxford University, though I suppose if you told me that gender equality didn't
form a huge part of the syllabus then I wouldn't be all, "well, knock me down with a
feather!, either.
So David Cameron is not a feminist. Well, knock me down with a feather by
Rhiannon Lucy Cosslett, Friday 27 September 2013
The author shows irony in her attitude towards the situation when David Cameron was
interviewed about feminism. First irony is seen in the headline knock me down with a
feather because, according to Oxford Advanced Learners Dictionary, 8th edition you could
have knocked me down with a feather is an informal phrase used to express surprise. The
function of irony in the headline is to be humorous and reinforcing. The surprise expressed by
the author is exaggerated because later on she mocks David Cameron who clearly [..] is
31

terrified of the term [feminism], believing it to connote man-hating harpiedom [..].. In this
example the function of irony is evaluation because the attitude is expressed through the
authors opinion and the interpretation of the situation. The author is obviously using irony to
laugh about David Cameron since he has graduated from Oxford University and gender
equality is forming a significant part of the syllabus. Here the function of irony is rhetorical
because the author is commenting on something very obvious but not saying it directly. The
irony markers are the idiom and echoing which are used to reinforce, evaluate and create
humorous situation.
Santa gang rob Albanian jewellery store
Special unit hunts Father Christmases after men in Santa gear hold up Tirana
jewellers and flee with full sacks on Christmas Eve
Maybe their excuse is that their sleighs had run out of presents, but four armed
Santas who robbed a jewellery shop in the Albanian capital, Tirana, are the targets of
a nationwide police hunt.[..]. They [..] fled the scene of the crime in a Mercedes,
which they then drove off the road.
Santa gang rob Albanian jewellery store by John Hooper, Thursday 26 December
2013
The author of the article makes suggestion that Santas had run out of presents and
therefore had robbed a jewellery shop on Christmas Eve. However, it is believed that these
Santas left the shop in a Mercedes. Irony is found in the fact that men dressed as Santa
Clauses robbed a jewellery shop on Christmas Eve and disappeared in a Mercedes while the
author uses a phrase their sleights. The function of the irony in the given example is
sophistication and distancing because it is humorous and it offers a new perspective to readers
of why the robbers robbed the shop. The marker of the irony in this example is echoing since
first the author makes an assumption that robbers run out of their presents [in their sleighs]
while in fact they drove away in Mercedes.

The Independent
According to thepaperboy The Independent is national morning newspaper published in
London by Independent Print Limited. Since 2010 The Independent is owned by the former
KGB officer Alexander Lebedev. Newspaper has its nickname the Indy, while its Sunday
edition, The Independent on Sunday, is the Sindy. It is one of the youngest UK national daily
newspapers launched in 1986. The Indy is well known for its unorthodox and campaigning
front pages, which rely on bold images, graphics or lists rather than traditional headlines and
written news content. The Independent is regarded as leaning to the left politically, making it
32

primarily a competitor to The Guardian, even though it still features some conservative
columnists and tends to take a classical liberal, pro-market, stance on economic issues. The
Independent is a broadsheet newspaper which is available online without paywall at:
http://www.independent.co.uk/ .
The columns on the main webpage of the Independent are: News (also the main page of
the website), Voices, Sport, Tech, Life, Property, Arts & Ents, Travel, Money, Indybest,
Blogs, Student and Offers. Each column is divided into many sub-columns, and many news
articles are recognized to be overlapping two or more columns.
Comic Relief scandal: There are red faces behind the red noses
Comic Relief scandal: There are red faces behind the red noses by Paul Valley,
Sunday 15 December 2013
The author of the article uses the phrase red faces behind red noses in its headline, the
first part red face indicates that they are ashamed, and the other part red noses indicates
towards the Red Nose Day. Red Nose Day has become something of a British institution. It is
the day every two years, when people across the land can get together and do something
funny for money at home, school and work. Comic Relief spends the money raised by Red
Nose Day to help people living tough lives across the UK and Africa. In the headline, the
irony is marked by the metaphor which is used to indicate that there are red faces behind the
red noses. The function of the irony in the headline is complicating since ambiguous.
Comic Relief is doing something funny with your money. Or should I say our money,
since I, too, invariably pick up the phone after one of the heart-tugging films in which
Red Nose Day specialises and which this year raised 100m for good causes. [..]the
charity has some cash invested in companies which manufacture cigarettes, alcohol
and armaments [..].
The author uses also the word funny which, according to Oxford Advanced Learners
Dictionary, 8th edition, means making you laugh; amusing. It is clear that in this article funny
is meant ironical not literal since it is not funny for people to find out that their charity money
is invested in tobacco and alcohol companies. Moreover, the whole sentence about money is
ironical since the text is exaggerating, and stating that it was raised for good causes, yet as
it was stated before charity organization invests in tobacco and alcohol. In this example the
irony marker is alluding since it fails to its expectations. The functions of the irony are
evaluation (indicating personal feelings) and retractability (criticizing in a friendlier way).
Its investment in tobacco companies, however, is deeply controversial. It has 2.7m
invested in an industry that heavily promotes cigarettes in the developing world.

33

Comic Relief supports a charity called Target Tuberculosis, which calculates that
smoking may be responsible for more than 20 per cent of TB cases worldwide.
Here, the author shows irony in the fact that charity supports an organization which
states that smoking is responsible for people getting ill with TB by 20% but at the same time
it has invested 2.7 million pounds in industry which promotes cigarettes to the world. Here it
can be seen that the irony is created by echoing to what a charity organization should or
should not do and invest in. And again it is found that the function of irony in this article is
evaluation.
In fact, it's way too little, way too late.
Is it too to get auto enrolment on target? by Julian Knight, Saturday 02 November 2013
The author of the articles J. Knight uses a figurative device, namely, the repetition way
too to emphasise the fact that it is indeed too little and too late. Accordingly, the function of
irony in this sentence is reinforcing. The marker of the irony in this sentence is the usage of
rhetorical device repetition.
As a result hedge funds, investment banks and private investors will enjoy an instant
profit of as much as 25 per cent.
Last minute rush to buy 'undervalued' Royal Mail shares as investors sense instant
profit by Lucy Tobin, Nigel Morris, Tuesday 08 October 2013
The authors of the article use the verb enjoy indicating that those who invest will get
an instant profit; however, due to the context the amount of profit the invertors will get is so
small that there is nothing they could enjoy; thus the marker of the irony is contextual it
differs from the true statement. The phrase as much as also shows the humour, that the
authors laugh about the amount of the instant profit which is also a marker of irony.
Therefore, the functions of irony are humorous and reinforcing since the authors also
emphasise how big the instant profit is.

The Daily Telegraph

The Daily Telegraph was established in 1885 and now is owned by David and Frederick
Barclay. The Daily Telegraph is of the centre-right political orientation and adopts a
traditionalist political orientation. It is the best selling broadsheet paper and on 15 November
1994 their webpage was launched under the name of Electronic Telegraph at midday which
was the first daily web-based newspaper in Europe. The Daily Telegraph is also available in
online without paywall http://www.telegraph.co.uk/ . (the paperboy www.thepaperboy.com )
The columns on the main webpage of The Daily Telegraph are: Home, News, World,
Sport, Finance, Comment, Culture, Travel, Life, Women, Fashion, Luxury, Tech, Cars,
34

Dating and Offers. Each column is divided into many sub-columns providing information
according to its main column.
Buy a calendar. Go on, Cliff Richard has to live off something.
New Year resolutions every student should make by David Ellis, 31 Dec 2013
Cliff Richards calendars are the all-time best-sellers when it comes to Danilo's
calendars. With total sales of more than 1.50 million calendars over the years, more than
David Beckham. Irony is seen in the fact that Richard has to live off something while it is
clear that he is all-time best-seller of Danilos calendars. Therefore the function of irony in
this example is humorous while the marker of irony is contextual.
Despite everything, life keeps getting better
Yet we are reluctant to extrapolate from our own circumstances. We are haunted by
a sense of decline, of imminent catastrophe. We are killing the planet! Our debts are
unsustainable! Immigration will overwhelm us! The world is frying! Were overdue
for an ice-age! Were overdue for an epidemic! Were overdue for an asteroid-strike!
Despite everything, life keeps getting better by Daniel Hannan, December 27th, 2013
The headline of the article suggests that life keeps getting better, yet in the article
itself there is the whole paragraph that carries the meaning opposite to the headline of the
article. The marker of the irony in the headline is contextual since it has the opposite meaning
of better. The function is complicating because the word better is used to create ambiguity.
Time is running out to deal with climate change, Steven Guilbeault of Greenpeace
said in 2006. Ten years ago, we thought we had a lot of time. We did? We thought
we had lots of time? Hmm.
The author uses irony to echo what Guilbeault has said about time and human race
thinking about it We did? We thought we had lots of time? Hmm. Thus the function of the
irony is echoing, yet at the same time it is also reinforcing by emphasizing and repetition
which is a marker of irony through figurative speech.

2.2

Verbal irony in British tabloid newspapers the Daily Mail, Metro and the

Daily Express

The Daily Mail

The Daily Mail was first published in 1896 by Lord Northcliff; and in the United
Kingdom it is the second biggest selling daily newspaper after The Sun. The Daily Mail is a
British tabloid newspaper and currently it is owned by the Daily Mail and General Trust plc.
It was the first daily newspaper which was aimed at the newly-literate lower middle class
35

market resulting from mass education, combining a low retail price with plenty of
competitions, prizes and promotional gimmicks. Daily Mail was the first British newspaper
which sold a million copies a day, and it was pitched at women and even nowadays 50% of its
readers are females. Daily Mail is a conservative slant, frequently its sensationalist,
conservatively biased headlines provoke strong reaction among the liberals who have named
Daily Mail a Daily Fail. They are Right-Wing, Pro-Conservative, and Eurosceptic. Since
2011, Daily Mail has its online version http://www.dailymail.co.uk/ and it is the most popular
newspaper web-page in the UK. Their online version can be viewed freely without paying as
other tabloid newspapers like The Daily Express. (thepaperboy)
The main webpage of the Daily Mail consists of 13 columns: Home, News, U.S.,
Sport, TV&Showbiz, Femail, Health, Science, Money, Video, Coffee Break, Travel and
Fashion Finder. Just as any other newspaper, the Daily Mail has sub-columns of their main
columns.
Banksy in the ranks-y: Prince Michael of Kent inspects female soldier at passing out
parade... but fails to notice her rebellious 'Molotov cocktail' tattoo
Banksy in the ranks-y: Prince Michael of Kent inspects female soldier at passing out
parade... but fails to notice her rebellious 'Molotov cocktail' tattoo by Daily Mail reporter, 7
March 2014
The rhyme in the headline is used to indicate irony, the other marker of irony is the
dots (syntactic marker) that are used to create a pause and emphasize the fact that a female
soldier had a tattoo of Molotov cocktail on her leg. The function of the irony used in this
headline is complicating since it creates ambiguity.
But there was just one thing spoiling this young female soldier's look at her passing
out parade yesterday - the whopping great Banksy tattoo on her left leg.
In this example, irony is achieved by echoing, since for soldiers it is not allowed to have
any visible tattoos, yet the female soldier had a big tattoo on her leg, in a visible place. The
function of the irony in this example is reinforcing which means that the fact of tattoo being
on females leg is emphasized.
Verdict: Relentless whizz-bangery
Thor, blimey! What a lot of noisy nonsense by Brian Viner, 28 October 2013
The author of the article uses a different register: in this case slang word whizz to
indicate something awesome and great while the article itself implies the opposite opinion,
which shows that the marker of irony in this sentence is the different register. The function of
irony is complicating because the sentence creates ambiguity.
It must have seemed like the perfect place for a catnap.
36

Curiosity almost killed the cat: Family pet survives 20 minute hot-spin after he
climbed into tumble dryer full of bedding by Aaron, Sharp and Inderdeep Bains, 11
December 2013
The author uses the context to create irony, since the perfect place is a tumble dryer.
Thus, the marker of irony in this example is contextual as it expresses the opposite meaning
of a perfect place. The sentence creates ambiguity about the perfect place, therefore the
function of irony is complicating.

Metro
According to Metro webpage, it was launched in March 1999, as Londons only free
newspaper. It was made for urbanites on the commute, filled with bite-sized news and local
information for them to consume whilst on the move. Metro is the newspaper for busy city
dwellers, who are constantly on the move and need to be in contact with everything that is
happening in the world. The main goal of the newspaper is to fuel their (readers)
conversations and help them get more from city life. Nowadays Metro distributes around 1.4
million copies across 50 UK urban centres every weekday morning and is the third largest
newspaper in the UK and the worlds biggest free newspaper with over 3.3 million daily
readers. Metro is viewed online for free at http://metro.co.uk/.
The columns of Metro are: News, Sport, Guilty Pleasures, Entertainment and
Life&Style.
Football is dead: Just make it a non-contact sport and put the final nail in the coffin
Football is dead: Just make it a non-contact sport and put the final nail in the coffin by Ross
McGuinness, Wednesday 12 Mar 2014
According to CID the final nail in the coffin is an idiom denoting an event which
causes the failure of something that had already started to fail. The author uses evaluation and
distancing in the headline of the article. The marker of the irony in the headline is contextual.
Falling over at the slightest touch from an opposing player has become an art form.
Like a deft slide of a paintbrush, the cunning dive requires skill. Its current van Gogh
is the bald bullet Arjen Robben, a man so determined to trip over himself its actually
almost endearing, like a little kid in a park who just wants attention.
The author uses irony to indicate that the cunning dive requires skill and that Robben
is so determined to trip over himself that its actually almost endearing. Almost
endearing shows irony because almost, according to Oxford Advanced Learners
Dictionary, 8th edition, means not quite, nearly which accordingly indicates that Robbens
actions are not endearing. In this example the author uses the function of reinforcing to
37

emphasize that the act of Robben tripping over himself is not endearing. The marker of the
irony in this case is the verbal one the adjective actually marks the irony.
Arjen Robben great player, great at falling over
The picture which is attached to the article shows football players who are falling,
accompanied by the sentence provided. Robben is a football player, yet in this sentence the
author has used irony to indicate that Robben is not a football player but a great player at
falling over [himself]. This sentence contains two markers of irony, the first is the syntactic
marker the dots, and the other is a verbal marker the adjective great that is repeated
twice to emphasize at what Robben is great. Therefore there can be more than one function of
irony found in this example, one is reinforcing as we see to emphasize at what he is great, and
other is complicating because great player, great at falling creates ambiguity, since only
people who actually know that Robben is a football player will understand at what kind of
falling the author implies.
Oh great, an article about sarcasm I am really looking forward to reading it
Wow, what a terrific intro to this article. It really is brilliant.
Oh great, an article about sarcasm I am really looking forward to reading it by Ross McGuinness,
Tuesday 9 Jul 2013.
The author uses the irony on purpose, i.e. to attract readers, using such phrases as Oh, great, I am
really looking forward to reading it, Wow, what a terrific intro to this article., It really is brilliant. in this
article. All these adjectives are markers of irony. Oh, great and wow are ironical because they indicate
that this is exactly what every single reader has been expecting to read and here irony is achieved using a
different register. Wow, what a terrific intro to this article is a mockery of the headline showing that the
headline is everything a reader should be waiting for. It really is brilliant also shows irony because
brilliant means outstanding and exceptional which the headline is not (CED The functions of
the irony in the first sentence are to produce humour and reinforcing as it has been stated
before. And the functions in the second sentence are reinforcing and complicating.

The Daily Express

According to Encyclopaedia Britannica, the Daily Express, also called Express, is a
morning newspaper in London known for its dramatic treatment of news and for its detailed
coverage of international events. The Sunday edition is published as the Sunday Express. The
newspaper was founded in 1900. In contemporary Britain the Daily Express eagerly promotes
British products and symbols of national identity while maintaining an independent politic
stance. The Daily Express is a tabloid newspaper, but the Sunday Express is published in a
combined broadsheet and tabloid newspaper format. By the end of the 20th century, its
38

circulation had reached about one million. The London publishing company founded by
Richard Desmond Northern & Shell bought the paper in November 2000. The Daily Express
is viewed online for free at http://www.sundayexpress.co.uk/
The columns of The Daily Express are Home, News, Sport, Comment, Finance, Travel,
Entertainment, Life&Style and Pictures.
The move away from Welford Road will end a six-year association for Flood at
Leicester, and also means England head coach Stuart Lancaster looks likely to be
without the experienced fly-half ahead of the 2015 World Cup, unless Flood has an
international release clause built into his contract.
Flood to leave Leicester, by the Daily Express reporter, December 21, 2013
The function of irony in this sentence is rhetorical since it states something which could
never be true and everyone understands it. The marker of irony in this example is contextual
because it states something which is not true and is not possible.
That is very smart from the players. Even Roger Federer is not happy with 17 Grand
Slams. Imagine! He wants to improve and that speaks for him and his motivation and
his desire.
Novak Djokovic turns to Boris Becker as he seeks further glory in Australia by Bob
Mckenzie, January 13, 2014
The author of the article uses a different register and the exclamation mark to make the
article humorous and at the same time to reinforce the fact that it is not enough for Federer
with 17 Grand Slams, he needs more. The markers of the irony in this sentence are syntactic
marker (the exclamation mark) and the different register. The functions of irony are
humorous and reinforcing as it has been explained before.
It was a bright start by both sides.
Gunners bag bragging rights, by Daily Express reporter, January 4, 2014
The author uses the word bright in the sentence to indicate the opposite of bright
which makes the marker of the sentence contextual. The author uses this contextual irony
marker to create ambiguity and thus the function of the irony in this sentence is complicating.
The Baby hitmaker found himself under fire in the press throughout 2013 as he hit
headlines for everything from showing up late at concerts, to urinating in restaurant
mop buckets and defacing walls with graffiti.
Justin Bieber's grandmother defends singer against media 'lies', by Daily Express
reporter, December 21, 2013
The author of the article indicates that Justin Bieber is a Baby hitmaker and the irony
in this sentence is found in the word baby which creates ambiguity Bieber is both too
39

young and not smart enough, and in the show business he is just a baby. Therefore the
marker of irony in this sentence is the different register, and the function of irony is
complicating.

40

Conclusions
Having done the research and written the paper Irony in British Newspapers of Various
Types, the following conclusion can be drawn.
The use of different figures of speech in newspapers is a perspective theme for research.
Not only newspapers but the media as such are very influential. Newspapers, reporters and
editors provide the society with various kinds of information, from serious local matters to
international gossip.
Summarizing the results of the study, we can claim that from all the articles that have
been studied the use of irony in the body of the article is detected more frequently in British
tabloid newspapers than in the broadsheets.
Irony has been found in 82 articles out of 1200 (600 tabloid newspaper articles and 600
broadsheet newspaper articles) which make only 7 % of all the articles. The majority of
examples have been elicited from tabloid newspapers Metro, the Daily Mail and the Daily
Express which contained 55 articles out of 600. The three broadsheet newspapers the
Guardian, the Independent and the Daily Telegraph have provided only 27 articles out of 600
that contain irony. See Appendix 3, Table 1.
The research question of the present paper was to find out which British newspapers
(broadsheet or tabloid) exploited irony more frequently, how and for what purpose it was
created and used. It has already been mentioned that even though British broadsheet
newspapers are considered to be serious- minded newspapers and in their articles no irony
might be expected, it has been clarified that all the three British broadsheet newspapers
considered, namely, the Guadrian, the Independent and the Daily Telegraph contain
sentences that express irony. Although the amount of the articles studied is limited and
randomly selected, it can be said that in comparison to British tabloid newspapers, broadsheet
newspapers use irony less frequently than tabloids. However, due to this research it appears
that the Guardian uses as much irony in their articles as tabloid newspapers do; irony has
been found in 12 articles with 21 examples, thus placing it in the second place as to the
instances of the use of irony (20%), see Appendix 3, Chart 1. The Daily Mail has yielded 21
articles with 27 examples of irony, which puts the Daily Mail in the first place as to the
instances of irony encountered. The third place is taken by the Daily Express with 16
sentences containing 20 examples thus making up 19% of the total examples elicited.
Since the sentences have been analyzed taking into account the function of irony and its
markers, the results of the analysis testify to the fact that two functions of irony have occurred
in 47 examples out of 1 200 articles making them the most frequently used functions in
British newspapers. These functions are reinforcing and complicating. All in all they make up
41

50% of all the irony functions that have been identified in British tabloid and broadsheet
newspaper articles. The second place is occupied by the function of evaluation with 27
examples (14%). For more data see Appendix 3, Chart 3.
The most widely used marker of irony in both British broadsheet and tabloid
newspapers is contextual. It has been identified in 52 examples out of 120 (33%) examples
which contained irony. Different syntactic markers such as dots, exclamation marks, brackets,
etc., take the second place with 18% within 29 examples. For more data see Appendix 3,
Chart 4.
Therefore, the hypothesis of the present paper has been partly proved: irony is used
more frequently in British tabloid newspapers; the main functions of irony used in British
tabloid newspapers are reinforcing and complicating, which has been encountered in 47
examples making up 50% of all the examples of irony elicited. Mostly the function of
reinforcing was used to emphasise the statement, while complicating was made to create
ambiguity. The most frequently used marker that indicates the presence of irony in both
British broadsheet and tabloid newspapers is contextual. This can be explained by the fact that
the context and the comprehension are the factors that should be born in mind and the authors
of articles rely on readers knowledge and understanding of the contextual meaning.

42

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21. Hutcheon, L. (1995) Ironys Edge. The Theory and Politics of Irony. New York, 1204.
22. Keller,

J.

Irony,

The

University

of

Chicago,

accessed

on

16.02.2014.

http://csmt.uchicago.edu/glossary2004/irony.htm
23. Knox, N. (1961) The word irony and its context, 1500-1755. Durham, N.C.: Duke
University Press.
24. Kreuz, R. J. , Link, K.E.(2002) Asymmetries in the use of verbal irony, journal of
language and social psychology vol. 21 no. 2, June 2002 127-143, Sage Publications.
25. Kreuz, R. J., Long, D. L., Church, M.B.(1991), On Being Ironic: Pragmatic and
Mnemonic Implications, Metaphor and Symbolic Activity, Volume 6,Issue 3, pages
149-162, Routledge, Taylor and Francis group
26. Lister, M. (2003) New media. London: Routledge.
27. Long, M. (2010) Derrida and a Theory of Irony: Parabasis and Parataxis, Available
at Durham E-Theses Online: http://etheses.dur.ac.uk/665/.
28. Macmillan Publishers Limited Newspaper definition, accessed on 27.01.2014.
http://www.macmillandictionary.com/
29. Montgomery, M. (2007) Ways of reading. London: Routledge.
30. Mounts, Joel(2012) A History of Sarcasm: Effects of Balanced Use of Sarcasm in a
Relationship, Honors Projects.
31. Neshkovska, S.,(2013) Young Linguists Insights: Taking interdisciplinary approaches
to the fore, Pozna, pp. 197-203, MARKERS OF VERBAL IRONY IN MACEDONIAN
AND ENGLISH NEWSPAPER HEADLINES
32. Oxford, D. (2000) OXFORD Advanced Learners Dictionary. Oxford University
Press: Cornelsen.
33. Reah, D. (1998) The Language of Newspapers. London and New York: Routledge.
44

34. Sedgewick, G. G. (1948) Of irony. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.

35. Stanel, T. (2006) Linguistic Approaches to Irony. Chemnitz.
36. Timothy, B.J. (2003) The Psychology of Language. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey:
Pearson Education.
37. The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica Daily express, accessed on 8.04.2014.
http://www.britannica.com/
38. The

Paperboy,

UK

Newspaper

Guide,

accessed

on

30.03.2014,

http://www.thepaperboy.com/uk/uk-newspaper-guide.cfm
39. Wilson, D. and Sperber, D. (1992) On verbal irony, Lingua 87, pp.53-76
40. Wilson,

K.

Analysing

Print

Media,

accessed

on

http://www.mediaknowall.com/Basics/basics.php?pageID=printstudy
Lexicographic sources
41. CID Cambridge Idioms Dictionary (2006) Cambridge University Press.
42. CED Collins English Dictionary (2011) HarperCollins Publishers.

45

25.03.2014.

APPENDICES
Appendix 1
The Guardian
Nr.
1.

2.

3.

Article
So David Cameron is not a feminist.
Well, knock me down with a feather
by Rhiannon Lucy Cosslett, Friday 27
September 2013
So David Cameron is not a feminist.
Well, knock me down with a feather
by Rhiannon Lucy Cosslett, Friday 27
September 2013
So David Cameron is not a feminist.
Well, knock me down with a feather
by Rhiannon Lucy Cosslett, Friday 27
September 2013

4.

Santa gang rob Albanian jewellery

store by John Hooper, Thursday 26
December 2013

5.

Hey, hipster sexists get your

pornographic filth out of my loo by
Rhiannon Lucy Cosslett, Friday 20
December 2013
Weirdest sports highlights of 2013
video by The Guardian, Monday 23
December 2013

6.

Example
Marker
So David Cameron is not a feminist. Well, knock me down Idiom
with a feather

Function
Humorous
Sophistication
Reinforcing

Clearly no one seems to have briefed Cameron on this Echoing

"fourth wave", and he's still possibly terrified of the term,
believing it to connote man-hating harpiedom,[..]

Evaluation

I find that hard to believe of someone with first class

honours in PPE from Oxford University, though I suppose
if you told me that gender equality didn't form a huge part
of the syllabus then I wouldn't be all, "well, knock me down
with a feather!", either.
Maybe their excuse is that their sleighs had run out of
presents, but four armed Santas who robbed a jewellery
shop in the Albanian capital, Tirana, are the targets of a
nationwide police hunt.[..]. They [..] fled the scene of the
crime in a Mercedes, which they then drove off the road.
The restaurant's name is Flesh & Buns. With a name like
that I suppose we should have known better, though being
a restaurant that specialises in steamed hirata buns, youd
be forgiven for thinking it pertained merely to the food.
We take at look at some of the 'best' the weird sporting
year had to offer.

Echoing

Rhetorical

Echoing

Sophistication,
Distancing

Alluding

Evaluation

Syntactic marker Humorous

inverted
commas ,

William and Kate just like us? We d During the royal sex scandals and divorces of the 1990s,
prefer them to act like by Victoria many people asked whether the monarchy could survive.
Coren Michell, Sunday 2 March 2014 It's in far greater danger now. Those juicy plot twists were
never a threat; if the new generation actually succeeds in
becoming "just like the rest of us" then republicans will not
be placated and royalists might just stop caring.
8. Animal rights campaigners protest as Naomi Campbell appeared naked in 1994 in an advert for
fur comes back into fashion by Tracy Peta under the strapline "I'd rather go naked than wear
McVeigh, Saturday 1 March 2014
fur"; 15 years later she caused consternation by becoming
the face of a furrier firm.
9. Animal rights campaigners protest as Shortly after Tony Blair's government signed into law a
fur comes back into fashion by Tracy bill banning fur farming in the UK which came into effect
McVeigh, Saturday 1 March 2014
in 2003 his wife, Cherie, was unhelpfully photographed
while wearing a rabbit-fur coat.
10. William and Kate just like us? We'd If you are actually ordinary, the only way to give royal
prefer them to act like royalsby status meaning is to live an extraordinary life.
Victoria Coren Mitchell, Sunday
March 2 2014
11. Video games and art: why does the And yet here we are again (again!), with a respected
media get it so wrong? by Keith critic claiming to know what art is or can ever be, and
Stuart, Wednesday 8 January 2014
suggesting that video games cannot be included.
7.

12. Shia LaBeouf: the most messed-up Mr LaBeouf, we salute you

former Disney star de nos jours by

Marina Hyde, Thursday 9 January
2014
13. Shia LaBeouf: the most messed-up
former Disney star de nos jours by
Marina Hyde, Thursday 9 January
2014

At present, alas, the artist in question is still at the stage

of being misunderstood and unappreciated in his own
lunchtime, but that will surely change soon soon! as
Shia's personal narrative continues its endlessly intriguing
progress.

Contextual
Contextual,
Inverted commas,

Evaluation,
Self-protective,

Contextual,
Echoing

Evaluation,
Assailing ,
Retractability

Echoing

Evaluation,
Assailing

Contextual

Reinforcing

Figurative speech
repetition,
Syntactic markerexclamation mark
Syntactic marker
dots,
Contextual

Evaluation,
Reinforcing

Complicating,
Provisional

Syntactic marker Reinforcing

exclamation
mark
Different register,
Figurative speech

-repetition
14. Shia LaBeouf: the most messed-up Aha! Ah yes! What audacity: to take the most ignoble of Different register- Reinforcing

15.

16.

17.

18.

19.

20.

former Disney star de nos jours by

Marina Hyde, Thursday 9 January
2014
Obama announces new limits on
NSA surveillance programs live
reaction by Tom McCarthy, Friday
17 January 2014
Obama announces new limits on
NSA surveillance programs live
reaction by Tom McCarthy, Friday
17 January 2014
Obama announces new limits on
NSA surveillance programs live
reaction by Tom McCarthy, Friday
17 January 2014
31 January is self-assessment
deadline day have you filed your tax
return? by Hilary Osborne, Tuesday 7
January 2014
Syrian regime document trove shows
evidence of 'industrial scale' killing of
detainees by Ian Black, Tuesday 21
January 2014
Obama's NSA 'reforms' are little
more than a PR attempt to mollify the
public by Glenn Greenwald, Friday
17 January 2014

everyday objects, an item of sanitary equipment and slang,

declare it art.
Guardian Washington bureau chief Dan Roberts finds Syntactic marker Evaluation,
protesters some protesters outside the department of insertion
Complicating
justice in advance of the president's speech.
The president has arrived at the department of justice. Different register
Speech to begin shortly. Oh there he is now

Reinforcing

Obama arrives at his "there have been no abuses" bit

Reinforcing,
complicating

Contextual

The death of your pet goldfish will not be accepted as an Contextual

excuse for a late return.

Humorous

These photos if authentic suggest that we may have Syntactic marker Evaluation
only scratched the surface of the horrific extent of torture - inversion
in Syria's notorious dungeons.
A public advocate in the Fisa court, a loosening of "gag Syntactic marker Humorous,
orders" for national security letters, removing metadata brackets
Evaluation,
control from the NSA, stricter standards for accessing
Reinforcing
metadata, and narrower authorizations for spying on
friendly foreign leaders (but not, of course, their
populations) can all have some marginal benefits.

21. Obama's NSA 'reforms' are little

But even there, Obama's speech was so bereft of specifics Echoing

more than a PR attempt to mollify the what will the new standards be? who will now control
public by Glenn Greenwald, Friday Americans' metadata? that they are more like slogans
17 January 2014
than serious proposals.

The Independent
Nr.
Article
1. Comic Relief scandal: There are red
faces behind the red noses by Paul
Valley, Sunday 15 December 2013

Example
Comic Relief is doing something funny with your money.
Or should I say our money, since I, too, invariably pick up
the phone after one of the heart-tugging films in which Red
Nose Day specialises and which this year raised 100m for
good causes. [..]the charity has some cash invested in
companies which manufacture cigarettes, alcohol and
armaments [..].
Its investment in tobacco companies, however, is deeply
controversial. It has 2.7m invested in an industry that
heavily promotes cigarettes in the developing world. Comic
Relief supports a charity called Target Tuberculosis, which
calculates that smoking may be responsible for more than
20 per cent of TB cases worldwide.
Comic Relief scandal: There are red faces behind the red
noses

2.

Comic Relief scandal: There are red

faces behind the red noses by Paul
Valley, Sunday 15 December 2013

3.

Comic Relief scandal: There are red

faces behind the red noses by Paul
Valley, Sunday 15 December 2013
Ancient tomb found in Perus capital An archaeological site in the midst of Perus bustling
by Agency, Friday 25 October 2013
capital has yielded yet another pre-Incan prize, an
undisturbed tomb containing two corpses wrapped in
ceremonial fabric, archeologists said yesterday.
Last minute rush to buy 'undervalued' As a result hedge funds, investment banks and private
Royal Mail shares as investors sense investors will enjoy an instant profit of as much as 25 per
instant profit by Lucy Tobin, Nigel cent.
Morris, Tuesday 08 October 2013

4.

5.

Evaluation

Marker
Alluding

Function
Evaluation
Retractability

Echoing
Contextual

Evaluation,

Figurative speech, Complicating

metaphor
Contextual

Complicating

Contextual,
Idiom

Humorous,
Reinforcing

But there was more to come, for when the disgraced

financier subsequently claimed that he had acted alone,
everybody was left wondering how one man could have
perpetrated such an immense fraud over so many years.
7.
And yet still the pro-Morsi constituency appears able to
court the support of the many thousands who rallied in the
streets on Sunday.
8.
But now, after Batista slid off the worlds list of
billionaires, he has been left with little to show for his selfprofessed financial discipline, or lack thereof.
9. Is it too to get auto enrolment on Finances can be very tough outside football's moneybags
target? by Julian Knight, Saturday 02 Premier League just ask the directors of Ipswich Town
November 2013
Football Club.
10. Is it too to get auto enrolment on In fact, it's way too little, way too late.
target? by Julian Knight, Saturday 02
November 2013
11. Sociable people have 'bigger' brains Alternatively, it is possible that people who were born
by Heather Saul, Wednesday 13 with brains better wired to connect with others are
November 2013
predisposed to developing larger social networks.
12. David Dimbleby: A tattoo? At his And more pertinently, isn't Dimbleby, at 75 years old, a
age? by Samuel Muston, Tuesday 12 bit too long in the tooth to sit in the tattooist's chair and
November 2013
have his skin punctured 150 times a second?
6.

Did Bernie Madoff act alone in Ponzi

scheme fraud? Trial of five former
employees begins by Nikhil Kumar,
Monday 07 October 2013
Egypts Islamist fightback grows as
insurgent strikes kill nine by Alastair
Beach, Monday 07 October 2013
Postcard from... Brazil by Janet Tapin
Coelho, Saturday 02 November 2013

The Daily Telegraph

Nr.
Article
1. 'Midsomer' murder: mystery deepens
over how Valerie Graves met her death
by Gordon Rayner, Chief Reporter, 01
Jan 2014
2.
Despite everything, life keeps getting
better by Daniel Hannan, December
27th, 2013

Example
Bosham featured in an episode of the crime drama
Midsomer Murders called Written in Blood, in which a
male victim was found bludgeoned to death in his
bedroom.
Yet we are reluctant to extrapolate from our own
circumstances. We are haunted by a sense of decline, of
imminent catastrophe. We are killing the planet! Our debts

Alluding

Reinforcing

Different register

Reinforcing

Alluding

Reinforcing,
Complicating

Alluding

Retractability

Figurative speech Reinforcing

- repetition
Contextual

Complicating

Figurative speech Complicating

rhetorical
question

Marker
Contextual

Function
Complicating

Contextual,
Syntactic
markers-

Reinforcing

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.
9.

are unsustainable! Immigration will overwhelm us! The

world is frying! Were overdue for an ice-age! Were
overdue for an epidemic! Were overdue for an asteroidstrike!
'Midsomer' murder: mystery deepens 'Midsomer' murder: mystery deepens over how Valerie
over how Valerie Graves met her death Graves met her death
by Gordon Rayner, Chief Reporter, 01
Jan 2014
New Year resolutions every student Buy a calendar. Go on, Cliff Richard has to live off
should make by David Ellis, 31 Dec something
2013
Despite everything, life keeps getting Despite everything, life keeps getting better
better by Daniel Hannan, December
27th, 2013
Despite everything, life keeps getting Time is running out to deal with climate change, Steven
better by Daniel Hannan, December Guilbeault of Greenpeace said in 2006. Ten years ago,
27th, 2013
we thought we had a lot of time. We did? We thought we
had lots of time? Hmm.
The best exhibitions of 2014 by I dont know about you, but whenever I switch channels
Richard Dorment, 31 Dec 2013
after watching a few minutes of another vacuous TV
programme on art (which is almost daily) it all comes back
to me: the sheer excitement of seeing Civilisation for the
first time and how at the end of every programme I could
hardly wait for next week to come around.
The best exhibitions of 2014 by I have nothing against either artist, but are they really so
Richard Dorment, 31 Dec 2013
good that we have to see these paintings yet again?
The Victorian philanthropists have Anyone know the phone number of David Beckham...?!
modern counterparts by Philip
Spedding, 15 Dec 2013

exclamation
marks

Syntactic marker Complicating

inverted
commas,
Contextual
Contextual
Humorous

Contextual

Complicating

Figurative
Echoing,
speechReinforcing,
repetition,
Different register
Syntactic marker Reinforcing
brackets

Contextual

Echoing,
Complicating
Syntactic marker Humorous,

dots, Complicating
exclamation and
question mark

Appendix 2
Metro
Nr.
1.

2.

3.

4.

Article
Football is dead: Just make it a non-contact
sport and put the final nail in the coffin by
Ross McGuinness, Wednesday 12 Mar
2014
Football is dead: Just make it a non-contact
sport and put the final nail in the coffin by
Ross McGuinness, Wednesday 12 Mar
2014

Example
Marker
Football is dead: Just make it a non-contact sport and put the final Contextual
nail in the coffin

Falling over at the slightest touch from an opposing

player has become an art form. Like a deft slide of a
paintbrush, the cunning dive requires skill. Its current van
Gogh is the bald bullet Arjen Robben, a man so determined
to trip over himself its actually almost endearing, like a
little kid in a park who just wants attention.
Football is dead: Just make it a non-contact Arjen Robben great player, great at falling over
sport and put the final nail in the coffin by
Ross McGuinness, Wednesday 12 Mar
2014
Oh great, an article about sarcasm I am Oh great, an article about sarcasm I am really looking forward to
really looking forward to reading it by Ross reading it
McGuinness, Tuesday 9 Jul 2013

Verbal marker Reinforcing,

adjective

actually

Syntactic marker
-dots,
Verbal marker
adjective
Verbal marker
adjective,
Different register
slang?
Wow, what a terrific intro to this article. It really is Verbal marker
brilliant
adjective,
Different register
(slang)
Nelson Mandela had died, for flips sake.
Different registerslang

5.

Oh great, an article about sarcasm I am

really looking forward to reading it by Ross
McGuinness, Tuesday 9 Jul 2013

6.

In todays multi-channel age, the BBC

was wrong to interrupt Mrs Browns
Boys with Nelson Mandelas death by
Ross McGuiness, Monday 9 Dec 2013
In todays multi-channel age, the BBC There is also a magical thing called the internet, where Syntactic marker
was wrong to interrupt Mrs Browns people can find out all sorts of information.
inverted commas,

7.

Function
Evaluation,
Distancing

Humorous,
Complicating,
Reinforcing
Humorous,
Reinforcing,
Ludic,
Reinforcing,
Complicating,

Evaluation,
Reinforcing

Reinforcing,
Self-protective

8.

Boys with Nelson Mandelas death by

Ross McGuiness, Monday 9 Dec 2013
In todays multi-channel age, the BBC
was wrong to interrupt Mrs Browns
Boys with Nelson Mandelas death by
Ross McGuiness, Monday 9 Dec 2013
Designer
clothes
and
five-star
holidays: Meet the toddlers too posh for
Primark by Nicole Le Marie, Monday
17 Mar 2014

Different register
colloquial words
In case the BBC hadnt noticed, we dont live in 1965 any Echoing
Reinforcing
more.

Mrs Jacobs seems proud her daughter is a shoe girl, too,

adding: We bought her Cinderella shoes and she hated
them because they werent expensive enough. [..]I always
knew friends that were spoilt and I remember thinking
when I have children I really dont want that.
10. A symbol of democracy or a noisy rabble: Do Babysitting is a difficult job. Just ask John Bercow he
we really need PMQs? by Ross does it every Wednesday lunchtime.
McGuinness, Wednesday 11 Dec 2013

Contextual,
Echoing

Provisional
(duplicitous)

Contextual,
Alluding

Ludic,
Complicating,
Evaluation

11. World Cup 2014: Why a tough draw would

be good for England by Ross
McGuinness, Wednesday 4 Dec 2013
12. World Cup 2014: Why a tough draw would
be good for England by Ross
McGuinness, Wednesday 4 Dec 2013

Echoing

Reinforcing,
Oppositional

Echoing,
Contextual,

Aggregative
(elitist in-group),
Reinforcing,
Evaluation,
Assailing

Different register,
Contextual,
Echoing

Reinforcing,
Evaluation

Contextual

Evaluation

9.

13. World Cup 2014: Why a tough draw would

be good for England by Ross
McGuinness, Wednesday 4 Dec 2013

14. 12 Years a Slave: the most appalling

thing I've ever seen by Hattie

To be fair to the England manager, he is more worried

about climate control, insisting its where his team play not
who they play that matters.
To be fair to the England manager, he is more worried
about climate control, insisting its where his team play not
who they play that matters. Its a good message to send
out, and one that has been a mainstay of football draws
since Sir Bert Millichip used to pull wooden balls out of a
bag to decide who played who in the FA Cup.
If written truthfully, they would go something like,
GERRARD: WE FEAR NO ONE EXCEPT SPAIN,
HOLLAND, GERMANY, ITALY, BRAZIL, ARGENTINA
AND, UH, PRETTY MUCH ANY SOUTH AMERICAN
TEAM REALLY and ROO: BRING ON THE
HONDURANS.
I was lucky enough to attend a screening of Steve
McQueens hotly anticipated film 12 Years a Slave last

Chamberlin, December 19th, 2013

15. Paul Lamberts January shortlist: Five players
to improve Aston Villas defence by
Andrew Raeburn, Tuesday 31 Dec 2013
16. Keith Downing faces difficult Nicolas
Anelka decision after Neo-Nazi
celebration by Scott Bytheway,
Bradley Poole, Craig Punfield, Joe
Chapman and Richard Dayus 31 Dec
2014
17. Keith Downing faces difficult Nicolas
Anelka decision after Neo-Nazi
celebration by Scott Bytheway,
Bradley Poole, Craig Punfield, Joe
Chapman and Richard Dayus 31 Dec
2014
18. Man dresses up as Gandalf to recreate Lord of
the Rings scene with a tram by Ann Lee,
Monday 23 Dec 2013
19. Wilfried Bony turns the tide but now
he must inspire Swansea to a league
revival by Phil Sumbler, Sunday 26
Jan 2014

night.
So, taking the attitude of if you cant beat em, join em, Contextual
heres who might be on Paul Lamberts shopping list over
the next few weeks.
Two points dropped, or another point gained at Upton Contextual
Park on Saturday?

Come on you Baggies!

Contextual

The fake Gandalf even had some mates on hand to play Contextual
Frodo and his group of friends.

He certainly made the difference yesterday and his two

goals in three minutes changed the Swans viewpoint of
concentration on the league (and Europe) into looking
forward to the draw to the last 16 of the competition with
most of the bigger teams still in the competition which
always makes for interest (although I suspect I am not the
only one wanting a home tie against Charlton, Sheffield
Wed, Brighton or Wigan!)
20. Wilfried Bony turns the tide but now Wouldnt that be nice?
he must inspire Swansea to a league
revival by Phil Sumbler, Sunday 26
Jan 2014

Complicating

Humorous

Complicating

Humorous

Syntactic marker- Complicating

inverted commas,
exclamation mark

Rhetorical
question

Complicating

21. The world needs Nintendo Readers Third party support is quite sparse on the Wii U, so Id
Feature by GameCentral, Sunday 26 Jan like to see them trying to buy EA, Rockstar, Konami, or
2014
even Sega (unlikely I know!), if possible as well, to bolster
third party titles.
22. American woman spends $15,000 on surgery Because as we all know, all that really matters in life is
to look Photoshopped
by Siam taking the perfect picture.
Goorwich, Wednesday 23 Apr 2014
23. Centipede tears through vipers stomach after Did I ever tell you about that time I ate a giant centipede
being swallowed alive by Mark Molloy, whole?
Friday 18 Apr 2014
24. As Uruguay moves to legalise cannabis, is the Theres no third option in which drugs magically
war on drugs finished? by Graeme disappear.
Green, Monday 20 Jan 2014
25. Barman, pour me a real whale: Brewery The brew doesnt go on sale until later this month so we
angers animal rights groups by putting havent been able to try it for ourselves but Stedji boss
mammals meat into new beer by Kerry Dagbjartur Ariliusson insisted perhaps unsurprisingly
McQueeney, Daniel Binns, Wednesday that it was delicious.
8 Jan 2014
26. Sherlock was perhaps too clever for its own Sherlock is clever but by golly it enjoys showing that off.
good by Keith Watson, Sunday 5 Jan
2014
27. Women kiss 15 men and have their hearts And ladies, it seems mother was right when she said you
broken twice before meeting The Oneby have to kiss plenty of frogs to find your prince.
Metro reporter, Thursday 2 Jan 2014
The Daily Mail
Nr.
Article
1. Banksy in the ranks-y: Prince Michael of
Kent inspects female soldier at passing out
parade... but fails to notice her rebellious
'Molotov cocktail' tattoo by Daily Mail
reporter, 7 March 2014

Syntactic marker Reinforcing

inverted
commas,
exclamation mark
Contextual
Humorous

Contextual

Reinforcing ,
Complicating

Verbal marker - Reinforcing

adjective
Syntactic marker Reinforcing
insertion,
Contextual

Different register

Reinforcing,
Complicating

Contextual

Humorous

Example
Banksy in the ranks-y: Prince Michael of Kent inspects
female soldier at passing out parade... but fails to notice
her rebellious 'Molotov cocktail' tattoo

Marker
Function
Rhyme,
Complicating,
Syntactic markerdots,

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

Banksy in the ranks-y: Prince Michael of

Kent inspects female soldier at passing out
parade... but fails to notice her rebellious
'Molotov cocktail' tattoo by Daily Mail
reporter, 7 March 2014
Candy is the biggest thing haunting you
this Halloween: Almost ALL children will
eat sweets today, compared to half of
adults by Ashley Collman, 31 October
2013
America's most haunted: A fifth of
people claim to have seen a ghost while
29% 'have made contact with the dead'
by Daily Mail reporter, 31 October, 2013
You don't have to be Einstein, AVB!
Spurs should embrace playing two strikers
(even if that means recalling Adebayor)
by Dan Ripley, 11 November 2013

But there was just one thing spoiling this young female Echoing
soldier's look at her passing out parade yesterday - the
whopping great Banksy tattoo on her left leg.

Reinforcing

If the statistics are right, most Americans will be sleeping Alluding

tonight on a sugar crash.

Complicating

Is there anyone there? Almost a third of Americans claim Rhetorical

to have contacted the dead
question

Complicating

According to Einstein, doing the same thing over and Contextual

over again and expecting different results is the definition
of insanity.Unfortunately for Tottenham fans this well
known phrase seems to have dodged the attention of
manager Andre Villas-Boas, who having bought over half
a team in the summer simply cannot get them to play.
Adorable! Imogen Thomas enjoyed her Adorable! Imogen Thomas enjoyed her gorgeous Contextual
gorgeous daughter Ariana's christening, daughter Ariana's christening, but father Adam Horsley is
but father Adam Horsley is nowhere to be nowhere to be seen.
seen by Judy Cogan, 11 November 2013

Reinforcing,
Complicating

Adorable! Imogen Thomas enjoyed her

gorgeous daughter Ariana's christening,
but father Adam Horsley is nowhere to be
seen by Judy Cogan, 11 November 2013
'We will remember them (but I was too
drunk to recall if I smoked crack)':
Scandal-hit Toronto mayor tries to find
some dignity at Remembrance Day

Humorous

Pink to make the boys wink: Imogen posted a photo of the Rhyme
large pink christening cake made by Jenkins Bakery in
Port Talbot and ordered by her sister Alana.

Reinforcing,
Complicating

'We will remember them (but I was too drunk to recall if I Different register, Evaluation,
smoked crack)': Scandal-hit Toronto mayor tries to find Syntactic marker Complicating
some dignity at Remembrance Day service.
brackets.

9.

10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

service by Marie Louise Olson, 11

November 2013
'We will remember them (but I was too
drunk to recall if I smoked crack)':
Scandal-hit Toronto mayor tries to find
some dignity at Remembrance Day
service, by Marie Louise Olson 11
November 2013
Come on Gaga, this is getting silly now!
Wacky star wears towering dreadlocks
and broken spectacles to arrive at SNL
rehearsals by Cassie Carpenter, 12
November 2013
Come on Gaga, this is getting silly now!
Wacky star wears towering dreadlocks
and broken spectacles to arrive at SNL
rehearsals by Cassie Carpenter, 12
November 2013
Could this app save you from nuclear
death? Software detects RADIATION
within seconds and alerts you if there is
danger by Victoria Woollaston, 11
November 2013
Thor, blimey! What a lot of noisy
nonsense by Brian Viner, 28 October
2013
Thor, blimey! What a lot of noisy
nonsense by Brian Viner, 28 October
2013
Ouch! Ice hockey star Dupuis pulls out
his own tooth after taking a stick in the
face... and he played on! by Daily Mail

Ford said previously that he was shocked when Lisi was Contextual
arrested earlier this month, calling him a 'good guy'.

Evaluation

Mother Monster will host and serve musical guest duties Alluding,
for the November 16 episode, but it's unclear what she has Contextual
in store for the late-night series.

Complicating

Perhaps R&B legend R. Kelly will stop by to help Gaga Alluding

perform her latest hit, Do What U Want.

Complicating

Could this app save you from nuclear death? Software Rhetorical
detects RADIATION within seconds and alerts you if there question
is danger.

Oppositional

Thor, blimey! What a lot of noisy nonsense.

Different register Reinforcing

- slang

Verdict: Relentless whizz-bangery.

Different register Complicating,

- slang

Likely thanks more to his athleticism than to his dentistry Contextual

skills, Dupuis' Penguins managed to gain a win against the
Boston Bruins 3 to 2.

Humorous

reporter, 1 November 2013

16. Ouch! Ice hockey star Dupuis pulls out
his own tooth after taking a stick in the
face... and he played on! by Daily Mail
reporter, 1 November 2013
17. It's Donkey Sam! Jennifer Garner and
Ben Affleck look on as Violet and
Seraphina teach their little brother to trick
or treat by Juliet Paylor, 1 November
2013
18. True BROOD: TV star star Anna Paquin
enjoys quality family time with husband
and children in New York's trendy East
Village by Daily Mail reporter, 11
November 2013
19. Uh oh... she's discovered body paint!
Miley Cyrus covers her naked form in
metallic silver for Future's Real & True
video by Daily Mail reporter, 11
November 2013
20. Uh oh... she's discovered body paint!
Miley Cyrus covers her naked form in
metallic silver for Future's Real & True
video by Daily Mail reporter, 11
November 2013
21. Curiosity almost killed the cat: Family
pet survives 20 minute hot-spin after he
climbed into tumble dryer full of bedding
by Aaron Sharp, Inderdeep Bains, 11
December 2013
22. Dinner is not served! Lobster diver
catches 18-pound spiny crustacean off

Yep, that's mine: After prying it free with his bare hands, Different register Humorous,
the Quebec native inspected the tooth and showed off his - slang
Complicating
new gap.
It's Donkey Sam! Jennifer Garner and Ben Affleck look on Contextual
as Violet and Seraphina teach their little brother to trick or
treat.

Humorous

True BROOD: TV star star Anna Paquin enjoys quality Alluding,

Complicating
family time with husband and children in New York's Syntactic markertrendy East Village.
capital letters
Uh oh... she's discovered body paint! Miley Cyrus covers Different register
her naked form in metallic silver for Future's Real & True slang,
video.
Syntactic markerdots,
Contextual
God help me: Future is seen holding his hands in prayer Different registerat one point in the 33-second clip.
colloquial,
Alluding

Reinforcing,
Rhetorical

It must have seemed like the perfect place for a catnap.

Contextual

Complicating

Dinner is not served! Lobster diver catches 18-pound Contextual

spiny crustacean off California coast but his mom doesn't

Complicating

Assailing,
Complicating

23.

24.

25.

26.

California coast but his mom doesn't have

a pot big enough to cook it by Daily Mail
reporter, 11 December 2013
Beauty and the bump! Heavily pregnant
Emily Blunt pampers herself with a trip to
the salon as her due date edges nearer by
Daily Mail reporter, 11 December 2013
Sunny side up! Kim Kardashian goes
overboard in a yellow coat and matching
satin dress on red carpet by Jade
Watkins, 11 December 2013
Sunny side up! Kim Kardashian goes
overboard in a yellow coat and matching
satin dress on red carpet by Jade
Watkins, 11 December 2013
Sunny side up! Kim Kardashian goes
overboard in a yellow coat and matching
satin dress on red carpet by Jade
Watkins, 11 December 2013
Innocent eyebrows raised as MPs
discussed salaries by Quentin Letts, 11
December 2013

have a pot big enough to cook it.

Beauty and the bump!

Alluding

Control: Thankfully Kim appeared to be wearing a bra Contextual

underneath her silky ensemble

Complicating

Complicating,
Reinforcing

I'm here everyone! But it wasn't too long before she was Syntactic marker- Reinforcing
trying to steal the attention away from Kim again.
exclamation mark
Life is not complete without a selfie: Of course Kris Contextual
whipped out the camera to do a selfie with daughters Kim
and Khloe, Kanye and good friend Demi Lovato.

Humorous

Mr Cameron, equally, was agin the rise and determined Different register Assailing
that Mr Miliband should not gain any impetus on the - slang
issue. My door is always open to him, said Mr Cameron.
Ha!
Alluding,
Reinforcing,
28. Innocent eyebrows raised as MPs Innocent eyebrows raised as MPs discussed salaries.
discussed salaries by Quentin Letts, 11
Contextual
Humorous
December 2013
Humorous
29. She's nailed it! Kylie Jenner dresses up She's nailed it! Kylie Jenner dresses up her casual Alluding
her casual charcoal outfit with VERY long charcoal outfit with VERY long blue talons as she leaves
blue talons as she leaves the beauty salon the beauty.
by Louise Saunders, 11 December 2013
Humorous,
30. Off day? Fashion forward Katy Perry Well wrapped: Katy kept herself covered with a beige Alluding
gets a thumbs down as she steps out in an trench on a foggy day in the capital.
Complicating
27.

unflattering Argyle mini-dress and black

loafers by Jason Chester, 11 December
2013
31. The mobile phone that lets you send 320 Get a whiff of this: a French research, art and design Figurative speech Evaluation
different SMELLS by Martha de Lacey, centre have created a gizmo, similar to a mobile phone,
21 January 2014
that enables the user to send up to 320 different smells to
other devices of its kind.
32. The mobile phone that lets you send 320 Would you send nice smells.... or would you send Syntactic marker Humorous,
different SMELLS by Martha de Lacey, unpleasant ones?
- dots
Complicating
21 January 2014
The Daily Express
Nr.
Article
Example
1. Panto's behind us? Oh no it's not! by ONCE YOU know the template, the fun can begin, as Eric
Jane Clinton, December 8, 2013
Potts, actor and prolific pantomime writer (he has written
10 this year for pantomime production company First
Family Entertainment) explains.
2. Panto's behind us? Oh no it's not! by THIS YEAR there are, says Potts, the inevitable Great
Jane Clinton, December 8, 2013
British Bake Off gags and the odd soggy bottom.
3. Great news: Dementia is in decline by Cheering, isn't it? But plus a change and all that.
Richard and Judy, December 14, 2013

Marker
Function
Syntactic marker Complicating,
capital letters
Reinforcing

Different register

Rhetorical
question,
Echoing
It is strange but I always thought that with the coming of Contextual,
the digital age and increasingly easy access to news
sources, historical documents and factual records, we
would be ever-better and more reliably informed.
However complicated that is the truth - and we deserve to Echoing
be told it not served up sloppy, inaccurate groupthink.

4.

The real truth about Maggie Thatcher

and Nelson Mandela by:Richard and
Judy, December 21, 2013

5.

The real truth about Maggie Thatcher

and Nelson Mandela by:Richard and
Judy, December 21, 2013
Emmerdales wedding of the year! Soap weddings at Christmas almost always end in tears Contextual
Natalie Anderson's Alicia finally walks ho ho ho invariably turns to boo hoo hoo long before
down the aisle by: Vicki Power, the bridal bouquet is thrown.

6.

Complicating
Rhetorical,
Evaluation
Reinforcing,

Evaluation,
Reinforcing
Oppositional

7.

8.

9.

December 21, 2013

Emmerdales wedding of the year!
Natalie Anderson's Alicia finally walks
down the aisle by: Vicki Power,
December 21, 2013
Flood to leave Leicester, by Daily
Express reporter, December 21, 2013

Justin Bieber's grandmother defends

singer against media 'lies', December
21, 2013

10. Lady Victoria Hervey shows off her

slender figure in bikini as she holidays
in Barbados by Kelby McNally,
December 24, 2013
11. Did you know that Christmas trees are
edible? by Simon Edge, December 24,
2013

And as sure as Rudolph has a red nose, Emmerdales

wedding of the year does not go to plan, says Natalie
Anderson with a laugh when we meet to discuss her
characters big day.
The move away from Welford Road will end a six-year
association for Flood at Leicester, and also means
England head coach Stuart Lancaster looks likely to be
without the experienced fly-half ahead of the 2015 World
Cup, unless Flood has an international release clause built
into his contract.
The Baby hitmaker found himself under fire in the press
throughout 2013 as he hit headlines for everything from
showing up late at concerts, to urinating in restaurant mop
buckets and defacing walls with graffiti.
The 37-year-old headed to the Caribbean country for the
Christmas period, and it certainly looked as though she
was having a whale of a time as she took to the sea with a
hunky male instructor.
FULL of fascinating but utterly useless facts, a new book
reveals everything you ever wanted to know about the
festive season.

Contextual

Complicating,
Oppositional

Contextual

Rhetorical,
Oppositional

Different register

Humorous,
Oppositional

Different register

Oppositional

Syntactic marker- Evaluation,

capital letters,
Reinforcing
Verbal markeradjective,
Contextual
Evaluation
12. More flooding misery in store by On the plus side, it will feel much milder than usual for Contextual
Nathan Rao, December 27, 2013
this time of year.
Evaluation,
13. The Secret Life Of Walter Mitty - Theres plenty to enjoy, especially in the first half as we Contextual
review and trailerby Henry Fitzherbert, witness the dreary existence of the loveless Mitty (Stiller)
Reinforcing
December 27, 2013
punctuated by his wild fantasies of being heroic and
standing up to his sneery new boss (Adam Scott) who is
overseeing a downsizing programme.

14. Myths about the First World War must But while that war has been immortalised with tales of
be tackled by Stephen Pollard, January derring-do, the First World War is mainly commemorated
4, 2014
by the likes of Blackadder, The Monocled Mutineer and
Oh! What A Lovely War.
15. Myths about the First World War must
be tackled by Stephen Pollard, January
4, 2014
16. Teen hellraiser banned from town
centre unless he is with his MOTHER
by Max Evans, January 4, 2014
17. Britain sends 2million in aid to
Argentina and what do we get... a
FIVE-PAGE
rant
by
Dion
Dassanayake, January 4, 2014

Contextual,
Evaluation
Different register,
Syntactic
markers- Capital
letters,
exclamation mark
WE ARE only a few days into 2014 but the centenary of Syntactic marker- Reinforcing
the start of the First World War, which will be marked this capital letters,
summer, has already started causing controversy.
POSING SWEETLY in his school blazer, this is teen Syntactic marker Complicating
hellraiser Keiran Stott, who has just been banned from his capital letters
local town centre unless he is accompanied by his
mother.
As a corollary to a year in which the British Government Alluding
Reinforcing,
issued threats to several independent countries, to such an
Complicating
extent that the British Parliament itself had to reject its
attempts to launch military actions in the Middle East, the
British Government devoted a paragraph of its Christmas
address to the military defence of the Malvinas Islands,
forgetting if the British Government was ever able to
appreciate it the peace message that Christmas should
inspire.
As she strolled on the beach she was clutching a Syntactic marker Complicating
refreshing drink a slimline tonic, no doubt...
dots,
Figurative speech
It was a bright start by both sides.
Contextual
Complicating

18. Apprentice star Luisa Zissman reveals

AMAZING bikini body while on
holiday in Dubai , December 30, 2013
19. Gunners bag bragging rights, January
4, 2014
20. Novak Djokovic turns to Boris Becker That is very smart from the players. Even Roger Federer
as he seeks further glory in Australia is not happy with 17 Grand Slams. Imagine! He wants to
by Bob Mckenzie, January 13, 2014
improve and that speaks for him and his motivation and his
desire.

Different register, Reinforcing,

Syntactic marker Humorous

exclamation
mark

Appendix 3

Chart Nr. 1 Newspaper articles

2%

5%
Broadsheet newspaper articles
which contain irony
Tabloid newspapers which
contain irony
Articles without irony

93%

Bakalaura darbs Ironija dada veida laikrakstos Lielbritnij

izstrdts
DAUGAVPILS UNIVERSITTES
HUMANITR FAKULTT
ANGU FILOLOIJAS KATEDR

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Zanda Mauria

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Rekomendju darbu aizstvanai
Darba zintnisk vadtja: Dr. philol, Ilze Oehnovia
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Darbs aizstvts Gala/Valsts prbaudjumu komisijas sd

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