CULT AND VOTIVE

MONUMENTS
IN THE ROMAN
PROVINCES
PROCEEDINGS
OF
TH
THE 13 INTERNATIONAL
COLLOQUIUM ON ROMAN
PROVINCIAL ART
CORPUS SIGNORUM
IMPERII ROMANI

Cult and Votive Monuments

in the Roman Provinces
Proceedings of the 13th International Colloquium on Roman Provincial Art
Bucharest Alba Iulia Constana, 27th of May 3rd of June 2013
within the framework of Corpus Signorum Imperii Romani

Editor
Cristina-Georgeta Alexandrescu

Mega Publishing House

ClujNapoca
2015

Imgines
Studies in ancient arts and iconography
3
Series editor Cristina-Georgeta Alexandrescu
Printed with the financial support of the Romanian Academy.
Editor: Cristina-Georgeta Alexandrescu.
Editorial board: Cristina-Georgeta Alexandrescu, Liana Oa, Mihaela Mnucu-Adameteanu.
Front cover: Fortuna relief found reused in the baths of the Roman auxiliary camp of Iliua, Bistria-Nsud County
(Complexul Muzeal Bistria-Nsud, Bistria, inv. no. 23022; photo C.-G.Alexandrescu, ArheoMedia).
Back cover: Detail of the Fortuna and Pontos statue from Tomis (Muzeul de Istorie Naional i Arheologie Constana
inv. no. 2001; photo O. iei).
First published 2015.
Institutul de Arheologie Vasile Prvan & the authors.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic,
mechanical or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any
information storage or retrieval system, without the permission in writing from the author and editor.
This book is not for sale. The distribution of printed volumes is to be made through publication exchange and gift.

Descrierea CIP a Bibliotecii Naionale a Romniei

INTERNAIONAL COLLOQUIUM ON ROMAN PROVINCIAL ART (13 ; 2013 ; Bucureti ; Alba
Iulia ; Constana)
Cult and votive monuments in the Roman province : Proceedings of the 13th Internaional
Colloquium on Roman provincial art : Bucharest - Alba Iulia - Constana, 27th of May - 3rd June
2013 : within the frame of Corpus Signorum Imperii Romani / ed.: Cristina-Georgeta Alexandrescu.
- Cluj-Napoca : Mega, 2015
Bibliogr.
ISBN 978-606-543-592-6
I. Alexandrescu, Cristina-Georgeta (ed.)
902/904(063)

Editura Mega | www.edituramega.ro

email: mega@edituramega.ro

CONTENT

8
9

13

23

33

43
55

63
73
87

97

107

Abbreviations and used guidelines within the volume

Foreword

CULT AND VOTIVE MONUMENTS CASE STUDIES

OF PARTICULAR DIVINITIES AND SITES
Claudina Romero Mayorga
A new interpretation of a mithraic sculpture in Augusta Emerita, Hispania

Jasna Jelii-Radoni
The Cult of Dionysus or Liber Votive Monuments in Salona

Marija Kolega
Sculptures and votive monuments of deities in Aenona

Ante Rendi-Mioevi
A reconstruction of the central part of the Nymphaeum (fountain) at Varadinske Toplice (Aquae
Iasae) with a relief depiction of Nymphs

Adriana Antal
Consecratio in formam Veneris in Roman Dacia

Iphigeneia Leventi
The relief statue base of Nummius Nigreinos, sacred herald of the Eleusinian mysteries. The
iconography of Eleusinian cult initiates and officials in Roman Imperial times

Georgia Aristodemou
Mars Victor, Victoria and Nemesis Invicta. Three votive reliefs from the ancient theatre of Philippi
(Kavala) reconsidered

Aleksandra Nikoloska
The world of Dionysos on monuments from the Republic of Macedonia

Exhlale Dobruna-Salihu
Three significant reliefs of grapevine and forest deities in Dardania

Wolfgang Wohlmayr
Gottheiten und Kulte im nrdlichen Teil Noricums nach Aussage der Weihedenkmler. Ein Blick auf
Iuvavum (Salzburg) und sein Umland

Iconography & Symbolism

121

129

139

Ilona Skupinska-Lvset
Incense Altars and Visualization of Incense Offerings in Roman Syria

Sorin Nemeti
I rilievi dei Cavalieri Danubiani. Spunti per linterpretazione diacronica delle varianti regionali

Mirjana Sanader
Der Januskult in den Provinzen des Rmischen Reiches unter besonderer Bercksichtigung der
Ikonographie zweier Reliefs aus Dalmatien und Dakien

149
163
173

191

201
211

223
233

Nade Proeva
Les croyances funraires des Macdoniens: lhrosation et la divinisation des dfunts lpoque
romaine

Delphine Seigneuret
Les panneaux sculpts de Khirbet edh-Dharih (Jordanie centrale): remarques sur la restitution, la
technique et liconographie

Luca Bianchi
Edifici in miniatura ed esigenze dapparato: ledicola funeraria pannonico-dacica

Maria Weiss
Der brtige Ruhende auf den Seitenregistern der Mithrasmonumente

Afterlife of cult and votive monuments

Piotr Dyczek
Sculptures from the templum Aesculapii et Hygiae in the Legionary Hospital at Novae (Moesia
Inferior)

Jutta Ronke
Fortuna-Fragmente aus der Germania superior. Zur antiken Glcksgttin von der Baustelle

context & display. Architectural decoration

Walburg Boppert Christine Ertel

Ein frhkaiserzeitliches Konsolengesims aus dem Theater in Mogontiacum (Mainz, Germania
superior)

Klaus Stefan Freyberger

Funktion und Bedeutung monumentaler Steinmale in Heiligtmern der stlichen Mittelmeerwelt aus
rmischer Zeit

Varia/disputationes

253

Florina Panait Brzescu

Local cult statues or itinerant coin-types? Some remarks on the iconography of the Western-Pontic
coinage

263

Manfred Hainzmann
SAGUM Zu problematischen Datierungsanstzen eines keltisch-rmischen Kleidungsstckes

277

Lea Stirling Nejib Ben Lazreg

A new portrait of Septimius Severus in the Muse Archologique de Lamta (Tunisia)

287

295
305

315

new finds & projects

Fulvia Ciliberto
Un rilievo con zodiaco nabateo a Gerusalemme

Irina Nemeti Luminia Ssran Emanoil Ssran

Monumenti scultorei nelle collezioni del Museo Nazionale di Storia della Transilvania. Studio sulle
officine e le cave di pietra della Dacia Porolissensis

Alexandru Gh. Sonoc Mihai Chiriac

Brief comments on some Roman provincial sculptures from the Sibiu County

Adam Jakub Jarych

How the Romans looted works of art from the third to the first century B.C. the case of Ambracias
plunder in 189 B.C.

321
329

343

359

375

378

379

Filomena Limo Miguel Pessoa

Sculpting Space The iconography of the architectural sculpture in the Roman Villa of Rabaal
(Portugal)

Judit Zldfldi
Conditions for successful provenance studies on marble

Paola Ventura Annalisa Giovannini

Sorelle, spose, madri. Il mondo al femminile nei monumenti funerari di Aquileia

Guntram Koch
Some Considerations on the Sarcophagi of Roman Imperial Times in the Provinces of the Balkans,
especially Moesia Inferior
Program of The 13th International Colloquium on Roman Provincial Art
Organisers
List of participants

Abbreviations and used guidelines within the volume

The works of ancient writers are quoted using the recommendations in Der Neue Pauly III (1997) S.
XXXVIXLIV and Thesaurus Linguae Latinae Index (1900).
The abbreviations are using the guidelines of the German Archaeological Institute published on
http://www.dainst.org/publikationen/publizieren-beim-dai/richtlinien.
Further bibliographical abbreviations are listed at the end of each contribution.
Online sources:
EDH
Epigraphische Datenbank Heidelberg


http://www.epigraphische-datenbank-heidelberg.de/
uel
ubi-erat-lupa
http://www.ubi-erat-lupa.org/
ArheoMedia
http://www.arheomedia.ro/monumente/.

Mars Victor, Victoria and Nemesis Invicta. Three votive reliefs

from the ancient theatre of Philippi (Kavala) reconsidered
Georgia Aristodemou

Rsum: Cet article se concentre sur trois bas-reliefs votifs sculpts sur les pilastres de la parodos occidentale du
thtre antique de Philippes (rgion de Kavala). L'inscription ddicatoire nomme un certain M. Velleius Zosimus, le
prtre de Nmsis et le dedicant des reliefs. Ces bas-reliefs reprsentent les figures de la triade triomphante de Mars
Victor, Victoria et Nemesis Invicta celle-ci tant identifie dans deux reliefs de plus dans le mme thtre. Ces bas-reliefs ont t sculpts aprs la construction de l'arche d'entre et ils sont associ d'une phase tardive du thtre o au
cours du deuxime sicle aprs J.-Chr. l'orchestre a reu transformations afin d'abriter les combats de gladiateurs
et divers ludi scaenici. La desse Nmsis, ainsi que Mars, sont prsents aussi au thtre de Thasos, reprsents en
bas-reliefs de la mme priode. Leur prsence rvle non seulement leur connexion aux les jeux de gladiateurs, mais
elle reflte aussi l'existence de leurs cultes dans la rgion de Kavala et Thasos et le rle qu'ils ont tenu dans la rgion
au cours du deuxime sicle aprs J.-Chr.

The ancient theatre of Philippi (fig.1a and 1b) was firstly constructed at the age of Phillip II (fourth
century B.C.)1. During the second century A.D. it was converted into a monumental Roman theatre with a
three storied scaenae frons2. Around the late second or early third century A.D. the orchestra (fig.2) was converted into a Roman arena for gladiatorial combats and hunts3. It was abandoned around 400 A.D.

HELLENI
STI
C PERI
OD
ROMAN PERI
OD
OTTOMAN PERI
OD

Fig.1a Philippi, View of the theatre towards the

Eastern Parodos (G. Aristodemou).

Fig.1b Philippi, Theatre. Ground

plan and architectural phases (by G.
Karadedos. G. Aristodemou Archive).

Collart 1928; Collart 1937, 17577, pl. 25, fig. 21; Lazarides 19611962, 240; Lazarides 1963, 256; KoukouliChrysanthaki Karadedos 1999, 6986; Sear 2006, 423, plan 450; Karadedos Koukouli-Chrysanthaki 2007, 273290;
Koukouli-Chrysanthaki Karadedos 2012, 193207, 208219 (on the restoration project). For detailed bibliography, see,
http://www.diazoma.gr/en/Page_04-01_AT-007.asp.
2
On the scarce architectural remains of the Hellenistic scene building, see Koukouli-Chrysanthaki Karadedos 1999,
74, plan 23, fig. 6. According to the excavators (Karadedos Koukouli-Chrysanthaki 2007, 276) excavations produced
new evidences, leading to an earlier dating of the first Roman phase, into the first century AD. This remains to be further
investigated: Koukouli-Chrysanthaki Karadedos 2012, 195199, figs. 2a-b, 3a-b, 10.
3
A huge underground space used for keeping the beasts before the venationes was unearthed during recent excavations:
Karadedos Koukouli-Chrysanthaki 2007, 276; Koukouli-Chrysanthaki Karadedos 2012, 199203, figs 3a-b, 4a-c, 5a-b.
1

PROCEEDINGS OF THE 13TH INTERNATIONAL COLLOQUIUM ON ROMAN PROVINCIAL ART 2013 (2015), 7385

Georgia Aristodemou

This paper discusses a group of three votive reliefs (fig.3) located on the south and north pilasters of the western parodos of the ancient theatre4. They were carved after the construction of the arch
and are related to a later phase of the theatre when the orchestra received transformations in order to house
gladiatorial combats and hunts. These reliefs depict Nemesis, Victoria and Mars; all figures are made of the
same gross grained marble from Philippi and their surfaces are worn due to weather conditions. They are
all sculpted inside a rectangular concave frame. The same (with minor differences) dedicatory inscription is
carved on the bordure above the figures5:
. [ | []| [] |||
|| | | | ||
(Transl.: M. Velleius Zosimos, priest of the invincible Nemesis, on behalf of the friends of hunting he
made the images of gods by his own means).

Fig.2 Philippi, Theatre. The underground fossa bestiaria (G. Aristodemou).

Nemesis is depicted in frontal view (fig.4a), standing and leaning on her left foot6. She is dressed
in a long peplos, belted under the chest and forming a kolpos. On her left hand she is holding the scale, while
with her right hand she is holding the measuring stick. A six rayed wheel rests on her right leg. Face and hair
are worn. She recalls the statue type of the Rhamnous Nemesis7.
The winged Victoria is sculpted on the south pilaster (fig.4b), facing the figure of Nemesis8. She is
depicted in frontal view and standing on a globe, with her left leg slightly projecting and thus evoking the flying motion. She is wearing a light peplos belted under the chest, leaving her right breast exposed. At her raised
right hand she is holding a wreath, symbol of triumph, extending outside of the frame, while at her left hand
she is holding a palm branch. The winged Victoria is repeating the iconographical type of Victoria Augusta, as
seen in the bronze coins issued by the roman colonia Philippensis9.
The figure of Victoria is carved at the same pilaster with the figure of Mars. Mars (fig.4c) is depicted
standing and in frontal view, turning slightly to the right10. His iconography derives not from a certain cult
statue type, but from the general military iconography of the Roman legionnaires of the late empire: he wears
a leather cuirass reinforced at the chest with scales. A short sword (parazonium) is adjusted at his belt. On his
head he is wearing a plume helmet. His right arm extends diagonally holding a round object (a phyale?). His
left arm is raised holding a shield and a spear.
For the first excavation report, see BCH 47, 1923, 534535.
Chapouthier 1924, 289290.293.
6
Chapouthier 1924, 288 sq., 292294, figs. 2 and 4; Collart 1928, 108 sq.; Hornum 1993, 4849.60.62.7071, pl.
(Appendix II no.85); Aristodemou 2000, 43.172173.
7
Rhamnous: Paus. 1.33.1; Schweitzer 1931, 195202; Petrakos 1986. On the Rhamnous Nemesis: Despinis 1971; LIMC
VI (1992) 733, 738 nos. 12, 743 nos. 73140, s.v. Nemesis (P. Karanastassi); Ehrhardt 1997.
8
Chapouthier 1924, 287292, fig.1 and 3; Collart 1928, 108 sq, fig.20; Hornum 1993, Appendix II no.84.
9
LIMC VI (1992) 758 no. 240 s.v. Nemesis (P. Karanastassi); Kremydi-Sicilianou 2002, 6384; Koukouli Karadedos
2007, 456 fig.28.
10
Chapouthier 1925, 239244, fig.12; Hornum 1993, Appendix II no.86.
4
5

74

Mars Victor, Victoria and Nemesis Invicta. Three votive reliefs from the ancient theatre of Philippi

Fig.3 Philippi, Theatre. Western Parodos.

View of the reliefs (G. Aristodemou)

Fig.4a Nemesis Relief (G. Aristodemou)

Fig.4b Victoria Relief (G. Aristodemou)

Fig.4c Mars Relief (G. Aristodemou)

The above described reliefs are of a minor artistic quality. Their execution is coarse, while the inscription letters are untidy. An approximate date given for the reliefs and the dedication is the late second or the
early third century A.D.
This group is supplemented by two more reliefs (fig.5a and 5b), originally carved on the key stone of
the western arch gate. Nemesis is carved at the interior side, facing the orchestra11. She is dressed in a chiton
belted under the chest and a himation covering the left shoulder following the statue type of the Smyrna
Nemesis12. On her right hand she is holding the scale, while with her left hand she is holding the measuring
stick. A schematically engraved wheel rests on her right leg. Face and hair are worn. The exterior side of the
arch depicts a boukranion. The fleshy skull is carved in high relief, the snout is well rendered, the forehead

Collart 1928, 110, fig.21 (Nemesis) 112, fig.22 (boukranion); LIMC VI (1992) 741 no.38, s.v. Nemesis (P. Karanastassi).
Hornum 1993, 5960, pl..
12
On the twin cult statues of Smyrna mentioned by Pausanias (7.5.23), see Hornum 1993, 1114, 68; LIMC VI (1992)
734, 739 nos. 329, s.v. Nemesis (P. Karanastassi).
11

75

Georgia Aristodemou

is a bit puffy, and the horns are short and pointed. Nemesis figure was probably carved after the boukranion
as deducted from their differences in style and execution, as well as from the finishing traces visible on the
pilasters background13.
Apart from the theatre reliefs, the presence of Nemesis in Philippi is also attested by an inscribed fragment of a funerary relief found in secondary use in the area of the Basilica A14. This relief depicts a Thracian
Rider along with a female deity holding a scale in her right hand and a measuring stick in her left hand, identified as Nemesis.

Figures 5a-b Philippi, Theatre. Western Parodos: a/ detail of the Nemesis relief b/ boukranion detail (G. Aristodemou)

Relevant to the above are some reliefs unearthed at the area of the ancient theater of the neighboring island of Thasos, built as early as the fourth century B.C.15. At the late second century A.D., the orchestra
too, was converted into an arena for gladiatorial combats and hunts. Two fragments of a Doric entablature,
preserving an inscribed marble architrave, and a series of sculpted metopes were found at the ancient theatre
(fig.6). The votive inscription (IG XII 8, no.424) mentions a certain Lysistratos known to be a Theoros who
dedicated the monument to Dionysus16: [ ] [ ] [ ]
The relief figures depicted on the metopes of the theatre faade are recognized as Dionysus17, Mars,
and Heros Equitans (Thracian Rider)18. They belonged to a series of reliefs, of which however nothing else has
been found. The proscaenium fragments have been dated at late second early third century A.D.19. They are
all made from the coarse grained Thasian marble.

Fig.6 Thasos, Theatre proscaenium (after Grandjean Salviat 2000, fig 62b).

The excavations at the theatre area also unearthed a series of fragmentary reliefs depicting Nemesis
(figs 7a-c). These reliefs were considered by Bernard and Salviat to have derived from the same building20.
Based on their resemblance in material and style with the architectural members lying at the theatre, as
well as on chronological criteria and their execution technique, Bernard and Salviat have rightly attributed
these fragmentary reliefs to the lower part of the scene building faade and specifically at the proscaenium

Koukouli Karadedos 2007, 456.

Lemerle 1934, 464 note 3, fig.6.
15
Devambez 194243, 216223; Salviat 1960, 300316; Bernard Salviat 1962, 596603; Daux 1968, 5054, fig.1719;
Picard 1989; Holtzmann 1994, 108110 nos. 4041 (metopes), nos. 148151 (Nemesis reliefs); Sear 2006, 420, plan
446; Bonias 2012, 225244.
16
Salviat 1960, 300302 and 312313 for the list of the Theoroi of Thasos (IG XII 2, no.278).
17
Thasos Archaeological Museum, Inv. Nr. 68: Salviat 1960, 300.314315, fig.1, 3, 8; Daux 1968, 54, fig.19a-b; Holtzmann
1994, 108109 no.40, pl.Va.
18
Istanbul, Archaeological Museum, inv. no.382: Salviat 1960, 300.315, fig.4, 8; LIMC II (1984) 480 no.5, s.v. Ares (P.
Bruneau); Daux 1968, 54, fig. 19a-b; LIMC VI (1992) 1053 no. 474, s.v. Heros Equitans (H. Koukouli- Chrysanthaki);
Holtzmann 1994, 108, 109111 no.41, pl.XXXVb.
19
Salviat 1960, 308309.
20
Bernard Salviat 1962, 598.
13
14

76

Mars Victor, Victoria and Nemesis Invicta. Three votive reliefs from the ancient theatre of Philippi
pilasters21. Dated too at the early third century A.D., these reliefs attest the existence of Nemesis cult on the
island, though her sanctuary has not yet been identified.

Figures 7a-b-c Thasos theatre: a/Nemesis Relief b/Nemesis Relief (after Bernard Salviat
1962, figs 18 and 19) c/Nemesis Triple Relief (after Devambez 194243, fig.9).

The relief inv. no.584 is kept at the Archaeological Museum of Thasos22. Nemesis is iconographically
related to the statue type of the Smyrna Nemesis, without exactly following it. The dedicatory inscription
(IG XII 8,371) carved below the figure mentions a certain Evemeros, son of Dionysius, possibly a gladiator.
Bernard and Salviat place this relief at the left corner of the Doric proscaenium23. This relief belongs to the
same group with the relief inv. no.378, today kept at the Istanbul Archaeological Museum24. Nemesis here
too, follows the Smyrna Nemesis statue type, holding the measuring stick and doing the so-called Nemesis
gesture.
A third relief, also kept at the Istanbul Archaeological Museum is divided in two niches25. Nemesis in
the left niche recalls the Alexandria Nemesis statue type26. She is depicted winged, wearing a cuirass, holding the scales and a sword. The wheel is visible under her feet. On the head she wears a diadem. The double
Nemeseis in the right niche are related to the twin cult statues of Nemesis in Smyrna. They are holding the
measuring stick with their left hand and with the right they are drawing out the neck of their clothing, doing
the so-called Nemesis gesture.

Salviat 1960, 304; Bernard Salviat 1962, 599.

Bernard Salviat 1962, 600 no. C, fig. 1921; Daux 1968, fig. 19b; LIMC VI (1992),741 no. 35, s.v. Nemesis (P.
Karanastassis); Hornum 1993, 61, 64, 72 (Appendix II no.105); Holtzmann 1994, 150 cat. no.91, pl.LIIIc.
23
Bernard Salviat 1962, 603.
24
Schweitzer 1931, 212; Bernard Salviat 1962, 598600 fig. 18, 603; LIMC VI (1992), 741 no. 34, s.v. Nemesis (P.
Karanastassi); Hornum 1993, 12, 45, pl.VIII (inscription: 62, 72 Appendix II no.106); Holtzmann 1994, 150 cat. no.90,
pl.LIIIb.
25
Inv. no.915 (right half), 171 (left half): Schweitzer 1931, 212; Devambez 194243, 221, fig.9; Bernard Salviat 1962,
598600, fig.17; LIMC VI (1992) 739 no.4, s.v. Nemesis (P. Karanastassi); Hornum 1993, 64, pl.II; Holtzmann 1994,
149 cat. no.89, pl.LIIIa.
26
A pre-Roman cult of Nemesis existed in Ptolemaic Alexandria where a temple of Nemesis is recorded in written sources
of the first century B.C. The Memphis reference to two Nemeseis statues suggests a connection with the two Smyrna
Nemeseis. Julius Caesar built a second temple whose cult statue repeated either the Pax Nemesis figure, or another earlier
iconographical type wearing a cuirass. On the discussion, see LIMC VI (1992) 734, s.v. Nemesis (P. Karanastassi); Hornum
1993, 1314, Appendix II, nos. 51 and 60.
21
22

77

Georgia Aristodemou

Apart from the above reliefs, Nemesis importance for the island of Thasos is attested also from a pair
of statues (fig.8) found in 1930 (inv. no.58) and 1962 (inv. no.2106) close to the Agora27. They might have
originally decorated the second century A.D. Odeion. They are dated in the Hadrianic period and derive from
a common prototype, the statue type of the twin Smyrna Nemeseis28. A pair of wings has been added, actually
mixing the iconography of Victoria with that of Nemesis and according to scholars this is probably the earliest
example of the Smyrna Nemesis type with wings29. Both statues hold the measuring stick with the left hand,
while with the right hand, as P. Devambez suggested, they must have been holding the scales, just like on the
Nemesis relief from the Philippi theatre30.
NEMESIS AND THE GAMES

Nemesis in correlation with other deities

The reliefs from the theatres of Philippi and Thasos reflect the syncretism that characterizes Nemesis
cult evolution throughout the Empire31. Though the iconographical types of the Rhamnous Nemesis and the
Smyrna Nemesis used for the Philippi reliefs correspond to classical models32, their combination with Mars
and Victoria reflects the transition between the Greek Nemesis and the Roman Nemesis33. Since Nemesis
gained popularity mostly during the Roman period, it is understandable that in order to adjust in this new era
she would need to adopt features and attributes (e.g. the wheel, the measuring stick, the scales, the bridles,
the sword)34 from other deities relevant to her nature35.
The correlation of Nemesis and Tyche/Fortuna marks the transition of Nemesis from an abstract
sense of vengeance, to the render of equal justice. Not only they share attributes, but during the imperial
period they also share cults, temples and iconography forming a new deity, called Nemesis/Fortuna36. In the
Philippi reliefs, Tyche and Nemesis relate to each other by their common attribute, the wheel, depicted at
Nemesis left leg37. Von premerstein suggested that the reason why Nemesis is strongly connected to arena
spectacles is her connection with Tyche, the unforeseen parameter that controls the way each fight should
end38.
The co-representation of Nemesis and Victoria in the ancient theatre of Philippi reveals the connection between these two deities39. Both Victoria and Nemesis are different in their iconography; however their
co-existence at the same monument reinforces their qualities40. Nemesis is depicted wingless, as a distinction from the winged figure of Victoria. The winged Nemesis type (cf. Thasos, Nemesis triple relief; twin

27
Devambez 194243, 216, pl.XII, fig.79; Roley 1964, 496506, figs. 1, 2, 5, 7 and 1, 2, 4, 6; LIMC VI (1992) 740 no.29,
sv. Nemesis (P. Karanastassi).
28
Devambez 194243, 218220. Two statuary groups of double Nemeseis were discovered in the provinces of Dacia and
Moesia; the most well preserved comes from Tomi (modern Constana), from the votive aedicula of C. Herennius Charito:
ISM II, no. 148, Bordenache 1965, 72, fig. 5. Each figure stands in a separate plinth. They are wearing a chiton and a
himation; they are both holding the measuring stick with their left hand and making the Nemesis gesture with their right
hand. They are depicted wingless. For the relevant discussion, see lately Bauchhen 2013.
29
Roley 1964, 504; Hornum 1993, 13.
30
Devambez 194243, 220.
31
LIMC VI (1992) 761, s.v. Nemesis (P. Karanastassi).
32
For commentaries on the iconography of Nemesis during the classical and the Roman period throughout the
Mediterranean basin, see LIMC VI (1992) 756762 s.v. Nemesis (P. Karanastassi), 768770 (F. Rausa), 772773 (P. Linant
de Bellefonds).
33
Koukouli Karadedos 2007, 457458. The iconographical type of the peplos-wearing Nemesis was quite diffused in
the Balkan provinces during the late second and third century A.D. and it sometimes coexisted with the himation-wearing
Nemesis. See also Bouley 1990, 241251.
34
Hornum 1993, 322325 (Nemesis depictions with the wheel), 63 and 325327 (Nemesis depictions with the
measuring stick), 63 and 321 (Nemesis depictions with the scales), 329330 (Nemesis depictions with the bridle) .
35
Perdritzet 1914, 96; Chapoutier 1924, 295; On the iconographical correlation of Nemesis with other deities, see also,
LIMC VI (1992) 756 nos. 180210, 761 (comment on the Roman iconography) s.v. Nemesis (P. Karanastassi).
36
Edwards 1990, 533 note 19 (with further bibliography). Also, LIMC VI (1992) 750 nos. 55c, 57, 66a, 69, 180186, and
765 no.265, s.v. Nemesis (P. Karanastassi); Pastor 2011, 80 (examples from the Balkan-Danubian provinces).
37
A headless statue standing on an altar and depicting Nemesis as the Tyche of the City comes from the Heraclea
Lyncestis theatre. The statue was dedicated to Tyche by Julia Tertulla (IG X, 2.2.55: /// /
), Dll 1977, 123124, pl.60 a-c.
38
von Premerstein 1894, 402.
39
Schweitzer 1931, 210212 (Niketypus); LIMC VI (1992) 748 nos. 157164 (winged Nemesis, Victoriatypus), 751
nos. 191194, 758, s.v. Nemesis (P. Karanastassi).
40
Chapoutier 1924, 296. This connection is noticeable in Thrace, cf. a votive relief to (first century B.C.)
and an inscription recording Nemesis along with Nike (early imperial period) both from Maroneia (Thrace), Maroneia
Archaeological Collection, AKM 585 and AKM 745. Loukopoulou Parisaki 2005, 382 ( 204) and 475 (374).

78

Mars Victor, Victoria and Nemesis Invicta. Three votive reliefs from the ancient theatre of Philippi
Nemesis statues) is a combination of Victorias and Nemesis attributes41 and corresponds to those cases
where Nemesis is present not as a punishing deity, but as a triumphant one42. Wings are also used as an
indication of the velocity and rapidity of Nemesis acts is called by Mesomedes in his
hymn, as well as , in an epigram from Piraeus43. Priest Zosimos here ascribes to Nemesis a
new epithet: (= the unconquerable). According to Chapoutier, in the world of the palaestrae and the
arena the honour of winning is transferred from Victoria to Nemesis, under the protection of which victory
becomes possible44.

Fig.8 Thasos. Winged Nemesis, inv. no.58 (G. Aristodemou).

The cult of Mars is diffused in the region of Macedonia and is attested in Philippi as early as the
fourth century B.C.45. Invocations to him are very common throughout the Hellenistic period; however, his
cult gained much greater popularity during the Roman Period, especially after Octavians invocation to Mars
Ultor in Philippi (Suet. Aug. 29). His strong presence in the region is established by his depictions at the proscaenia of the Philippi and the Thasos scene buildings. In Philippi because of his association with Victoria
he receives the characterization of Mars Victor46. As Mars Victor he presides the various arena spectacles
and he receives honors from all those engaged in the arena47. The co-existence of Mars, Nemesis and Victoria

LIMC VI (1992) 740 no.29, 745747 nos. 112130, 138140, 145, s.v. Nemesis (P. Karanastassi).
Chapoutier 1924, 297299; When ever Nemesis is depicted trampling on a prostate figure she usually bears wings. In
these cases Nemesis takes the role of the punishing deity, LIMC VI (1992) 758760, s.v. Nemesis (P. Karanastassi).
43
For Mesomedes, Hymn to Nemesis, Buffiere 1960, 226. For the Piraeus epigram, see Perdritzet 1898, 600.
44
Chapoutier 1924, 296.
45
Cf. the mid-fourth century B.C. inscription (Philippi, Archaeological Museum, inv. no. 1420) found embedded in the
Basilica A, recording land as property of Ares sanctuary: Ducrey 1990, 552554.
46
Chapoutier 1925, 242 for citation of a votive relief to Marti et Victori (CIL VII, 992) and 243 for other examples of
co-appearances of Mars and Victoria.
47
Cf. a monument in Spain dedicated to Deo Marti Victori ob eventum bonum gladiatori muneris (CIL II 2473), or a
statue in Holland dedicated by gladiators to Marti Victori gladiatores classis) G(ermanicae) p(iae) f(idel.is) (CIL XIII, 2,
8831), both cited in Chapoutier 1925, 242.
41
42

79

Georgia Aristodemou

is also known from a votive relief from Rome (CIL VI, 1, 2821)48, as well as from the sacellum of the Carnuntum
amphitheatre, which is actually located close to a Roman camp49.
Epigraphical and archaeological evidence also attest the connection between Nemesis and Artemis50.
In the region of Macedonia the cult of Artemis is widely spread along with her association with Nemesis51.
Artemiss cult in Philippi is confirmed by her sanctuary, identified at the south-eastern slope of the acropolis,
and the numerous rock reliefs, carved at the epitheatron of the Philippi theatre, the vast majority of which
depict her as a huntress52. The identity of Artemis/Diana as the goddess of beasts and patron of the hunters
is here transmitted to Nemesis. Therefore Nemesis like Artemis becomes the undefeated goddess and
also becomes directly related to the beast hunts and beast combats held at theatres and amphitheaters. It
is understandable why in Philippi the association of hunters honoured Nemesis both as the patron deity of
hunters and as the mistress of wild animals.

Epigraphic evidence
The earlier testimonies regarding the association of Nemesis with the Games consist of votive inscriptions found in theatres and amphitheatres and appear as early as the Augustan era and the Julio-Claudian
dynasty53. Dedicatory inscriptions to Nemesis which reveal the relation between Nemesis cult and the arena
monuments are to be found in the West prior to the second or third centuries A.D. and in the East during the
second or third centuries A.D.54.
Among the most interesting features of Nemesis, is not only that she developed to be a dynamic and
flexible deity, but also the fact of the reception of her cult by strikingly different classes of the provincial
society55. As deducted from the votive inscriptions, dedicants belong to various social strata. Nemesis is considered a patron deity of males occupied with gladiatorial combats and hunts (e.g. gladiatores, venatores or
iuvenes). Therefore, among dedicants are those who work at the theatre or amphitheatre or are otherwise
engaged to the arena spectacles56. Nemesis is also strongly connected to the military world, since as Nemesis
campestris is considered the patron deity of soldiers. Therefore, among dedicants are also military men, in
various stages of their careers57.
Quite impressive is the abundance of dedications made by civilians. Among them are those belonging
to the provincial elite classes, such as the citys office holders, i.e. people involved with the administration of
the city, or members of the local collegia and associations, as well as priests58. Worth mentioning are also the
cases of slaves and freedmen59.
In the case of Philippi, the sponsor of the theatre reliefs was not a gladiator, neither a soldier nor a
private citizen, but a priest a high-ranked member of the local elite. Zosimos made this dedication on behalf of his association, the , an association in favour of the hunting games (probably amateur hunters rather than venatores), very popular in the regions of Macedonia and Thrace since the
Hellenistic period. Associations like these are also known in Philippopolis, Tomis, Thasos, Ilion, Pergamon,
Corinth, etc.60 The from Philippi constitute a special case since Zosimos dedication is connected to a
theatre used as an arena and reflects the cult games held there. One can also suggest that through this dedi-

ILS 2096 (from Rome): I(ovi) O(ptimo) M(aximo) et Marti et Nemesi et Soli et Victoriae et omnibus / diis(!) Patriensibus
civ(es) ex prov(incia) Belgica Aug(usta) Viromandu/oru(m) milites Iul(ius) Iustus coh(ortis) I praet(oriae) |(centuria)
Albani et / Firm(us) Maternianus coh(ortis) X praet(oriae) Philippianarum / |(centuria) Artemonis v(otum) s(olverunt)
l(ibentes) m(erito) // Ded(icata) IIII Kal(endas) Iul(ias) / Pr(a)esente et / Albino [co(n)s(ulibus)].
49
Chapoutier 1925, 243 (CIL III Suppl.2, 1407114091).
50
cf. Rhamnous where Nemesis was worshipped along with Artemis /. The connection goes back to a time as
Nemesis was considered a chthonic deity: Futrell 1997, 111; Pastor 2011, 80. On Artemis Oupis, see Natsikopoulos 2009,
32.
51
Lately on Artemiss cult and sanctuaries in Macedonia: Natsikopoulos 2009, especially 4167 (Thasos) and 7273
(Philippi). In Edessa she is worshipped along with Nemesis Drasteios: Hatzopoulos 1987, 404 note 26. Their cult is verified
by a pair of altars found next to the theatre: Petsas 1969, 305306.
52
For the discussion on the about 90 rock cut reliefs depicting Artemis as hunter, in various iconographical types, see
Collart Ducrey 1975, nos. 897, 200227; Abrahamsen 1986. On recent finds see Koukouli-Chrysanthaki Karadedos,
2008, 213219.
53
Hornum 1993, 4748, 56 (and Appendix II, no.46: Salamis theatre, no.240: Ephesos stadium), for the earliest examples
from the Roman East. For Nemesis shrines in amphitheatres, see recently, Wittenberg 2014.
54
Hornum 1993, 4849; Fortea Lpez 1994, 115.
55
Pastor 2011, 82.
56
Pastor 2011, 7678.
57
Papapostolou 1989, 377; Pastor 2011, 80.
58
Pastor 2011, 78.
59
Hornum 1993, 74.
60
Chapoutier 1924, 300; Bouley 1996.
48

80

Mars Victor, Victoria and Nemesis Invicta. Three votive reliefs from the ancient theatre of Philippi
cation, Zosimos actually wished that Nemesis would convey her divine qualities to his association. In that
aspect, this triple dedication should also be seen as a wish and/or a gratitude for the accomplishment and the
success of the games sponsored by the association of the 61.
The presence of Nemesis in the area of the Thasos theatre is also strong judging from her numerous representations in sculpture. All works reflect the established cult of Nemesis in Thasos, though the
actual place of her worship has not yet been located62. The identity of the dedicators of the Nemesis reliefs
at the Thasos theatre proscaenium remains obscure. The French excavators believe that the recorded names
(no.584: IG XII 8,371) and or (no.378: IG XII 8,372) were persons occupied professionally in the arena games probably gladiators and not prominent members of the local elite63.

Starting as an abstract sense of the righteous anger, Nemesis soon developed to a powerful deity of
the Graeco-Roman pantheon, while her cult gained a significant popularity during the Roman period and Late
Antiquity64; one of the most characteristic Nemesis features during the imperial period is her intense presence in spectacle monuments throughout the Empire. Archaeology recovered strong testimonies on the connection between Nemesis, spectacle monuments and the gladiatorial combats and beast-hunts held there65.
The reason why this Greek goddess was associated with the world of the arena in the Roman provinces of the
second and third century A.D. is a fascinating subject. Many scholars believe that the development in Nemesis
cult was probably launched by the military campaigns in the East and the barbaric invasions and movements
of legions to the frontiers, a process that brought great changes in the societies of the border territories66.
The second and third century A.D. were a period of transition, provincial societies entrusted Nemesis a
deity believed to control human destiny with the task of defending their lives. Since the Eastern part of the
empire is closely associated with the great military campaigns and triumphs of the Roman emperors, one is
allowed to assume that Roman legionnaires introduced their patron deities to the places where they camped,
among them Philippi67. It was them, who actually contributed to the diffusion of Nemesis cult in the eastern
provinces68. After Augustus, Philippi developed into a cosmopolitan city, inhabited by Greeks, Romans and
Thracians69. Apart from the Roman troops, numerous prominent Roman families were settled in the region
and their presence helped on forming the proper background so that Roman customs were imported in all
levels of private and public life. Many Roman trends, for instance trends regarding spectacles, were rapidly
diffused in the entire region.
It is generally accepted that spectacles like the munera gladiatoria and the venationes were a public display of imperial power, commemorating war triumphs and symbolizing the public destruction of the
Roman state enemies70. The presence of Nemesis in the Roman arena confirms, enforces and supports the
imperial propaganda of the second century A.D.71. Nemesis appears to guarantee both the legitimacy and the
effort of the emperors military campaigns72.
The relation between the arena monuments (theatres, amphitheatres) as the symbol of Roman presence and power in the provinces, the emperor as the image of the Imperium Romanum, and Nemesis, as an
imperial ally and defender of the just rule, remains strong throughout the second and third century A.D.
Therefore, the discussed triad of Nemesis Invicta, Mars Victor and Victoria in the entrance of the Philippi
theatre could be seen both as a triptych of triumph as well as a testimony of the roman influence upon the
region of Macedonia73.
Chapoutier 1924, 301.
Hornum 1993, 6162.
63
Bernard Salviat 1962, 603; Hornum 1993, 72.
64
On the Nemesis cult prior to the Roman imperial period, see Hornum 1993, 614.
65
The association of Nemesis cult with the games has been a subject of study by scholars, such as Posnansky 1890; von
Premerstein 1894; Volkmann 1928; Foucher 1974; Dll 1977, 121126; Canto 1984; Hornum 1993 (with all previous
bibliography); Futrell 1997; Pastor 2011, 7589. Epigraphic material has been gathered by Hornum 1993, 153317.
66
Hornum 1993, 7074; Futrell 1997, 112113; Pastor 2011, 80.
67
Chapoutier 1925, 243244.
68
Futrell 1997, 113.
69
The administrative organization of the colony followed the jus Italicum, whilst all members of the Roman community
retained their roman citizenship: Koukouli-Chrysanthaki 2011, 447.
70
Hornum 1993, 8487; Wiedemann 1995, 90; Moreover, an inscription from the Stobi theatre postscaenium records a
dedication to Nemesis as Ultrix Augusta, offered by two Augustales and is probably referring to games sponsored by them:
Papazoglou 1951; Bouley 1986, 359364; Papapostolou 1989, 353 note 13; Hornum 1993, 40 note 25;
71
Hornum 1993, 90.
72
Pastor 2011, 83.
73
Futrell 1997, 113; Gounari 2010.
61
62

81

Georgia Aristodemou
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