Translanguaging Towards education equity

Carlos Sanz Del Castillo

INDEX

- Abstract
- Language and Historical Context
- Language: Origin and Influence in Humans
- Influence of Colonial Times and Subsequent Development of Language
- Current Context of Language
- Methodological Developments of the Nineteenth Century and Twenty First
Century Context
- Importance of Bilingualism and Relationship with the Mother Tongue

- Student's Actual Context

- Characteristics of 21st century students
- Requirements of a Fair Education for All

- Translanguaging "a Possible Solution to the Inequality in Bilingual Systems"

- Origin of Translanguaging
- Development of Translanguaging and Subsequent Researches
- Ofelia Garca and his Contribution to Translanguaging
- Characteristics of Translanguaging
- Differences Between Code Switching and Translanguaging
- Translanguaging as Pedagogical Methodology
- Requirements to Develop Successfully Translanguaging

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- Conclusion

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- References

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- Bibliography

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Abstract
This research analyzes and proposes an alternative bilingual methodology that creates
equal opportunities to the wide variety of students who exist in this multilingual world. This
has been done by doing a research and the subsequent analysis about the development of
language and his education throughout history. It has to take into account the importance of
bilingual education in this century, as well as the characteristics and needs of students,
which raises and opens the discussion about Translanguaging as a possible option in the
struggle for a fair education for all students. Finally we analyze the requirements to carry
out this methodology successfully.

1- Language and Historical Context

1.1 Language: Origin and Influence in Humans
The language is the greatest evolution undergone by the human being in his history. With the
willpower of refer to certain things of our environment, the human being created the need to name
things. Due to the creation of words, appeared the possibility of creating a language, wich provides
the opportunity to create thoughts and ideas that could be expressed orally or in written form.
Besides language develops an important social function, because it allows humans to communicate
with each other successfuly, provides the oportunity to combine ideas, restructure them, compare
them with divergent thoughts, analyze different situations, reflect on the own experience and what
is more beneficial to share and exchange the knowledge through contact and communication with
other individuals of the species.
A large part of the evolution experienced by humans, is cause of the species language development
through the use of words, which developes human intelligence leading the emergence of social
relations, so that different individuals could form groups, this groups evolved and became tribes,
with different hierarchies, religious beliefs and artistic expressions. These groups were nourished
and evolve through various social relations established with other environmental groups, this fact
allowed the formation of complex societies. During the course of history great civilizations have
conquered large parts of the world's territory as a result the conquerors imposed their language, as
the example of the Romans in Europe. This causes large variations in language, that after feed on
the various historical events in a specific area, emerges a common language for the whole culture of
the speakers of that language, as in the Castilian we find words of Arabic influence.

1.2 Influence of Colonial Times and Subsequent Development of Language

In 1492 America was discovered which leaded the emergence of the colonial era. European powers
assume a role of power, struggling to strengthen and endure. With the conquest of new territories
and the language and culture imposition in these new places, the power of the empire was increased
in addition to increase trade opportunities as well as the importance of the language of the colonists.
Since the fifteenth century there has been a bitter war for the conquest of the world and its effects
have been many. A large part of the American continent owes its language to colonization by the
Crown of Castile and Aragon who imposed the Castilian language which has varied in different
parts of South America. Besides England and France are the other two major settlers of history. On
the one hand England imposed English in almost all of North America, India, Australia or different
colonial islands of the Pacific. On the other hand France imposed French in Canada or in a large
part of the African continent.
Until this moment the education was in the hands of the Catholic religion in most of the West, this
education was reserved for the elite, the standard language used in school had great similarities with

the linguistic practices of influential groups whose children attended these schools . A major
purpose of the school was to ensure the development of a standard academic language which was
the measure of a man or woman educated. With the advent of model Prussian school (public, free
and compulsory) in the eighteenth century, based on a strong division of classes and castes, which
encourages discipline, obedience and authoritarian regime, appeared the opportunity to create a
docile population, submissive and obedient. Which could be indoctrinate without any problem. This
education model instilled and perpetuated the values that favor the enrichment of a small part of
society and the suffer of a large majority who had to survive.
At this time education became a place where the language practices of the school did not
correspond to the home languages practices. Education Became a simple way for the development
of complex academic skills in the language of the powerful elite that controlled schools. With the
emergence of bilingual systems, appeared the conception of first language, second language and
native speaker. This causes the differentiation of languages and provides greater value to those first
languages also to native speakers, turning this feature on a unattainable set of skills to anyone not
born in the use of a particular language. Little attention was paid to the linguistic practices of others,
and linguistic minority students who were expected to conform to the standard language practices of
the school or be expelled from school, so as to ensure that only the elite and a few were educated.

2-Current Context of Language

2.1 Methodological Developments of the Nineteenth Century and Twenty First
Century Context
In 1974, Lambert was working in the context of Canadian immersion education for Anglophone
majorities, and proposed that bilingualism could be both subtractive or additive. On one hand the
subtractive bilingualism is that experienced by those minority language students who are schooled
in another language. The home language is subtracted while school language is learned. On the
other hand the additive bilingualism is experienced by those majority language students who added
language school to their home language.
During this period different programs emerged. As transition programs, those are programs for
foreign students, who need to learn the school language to understand the language of instruction.
In order to do this, schools use the mother tongue to make the transition from one language to
another, we can find these programs in many areas such as in the case of Spanish speakers in
America. In addition there are maintenance programs, these programs help students with
immigration background, to keep in contact with their roots, helping to avoid forgetting their
culture, this programs try to develop and promote the construction of the necessary skills to control
the use of language. An example of this could be German students with Turkish origin or Mexican
students whose origins come from different subcultures with different languages.
Currently few countries can be said to have a monolingual population, even today there are very
few countries that can be considered homogeneous in linguistic terms. In 2000, Grimes and Grimes
listed 6,809 languages in over 200 countries, making it very obvius that most states in the world are
multilingual. And yet, less than 25% of the world's 200 or so countries recognizes two or more
official languages(Tucker,1998). This has big implications for education, because it shows that there
is a greater amount of bilingual and multilingual people in the world than monolinguals. It is
necessary to note that education is commonly taught in the official language of the state, meaning
that a lot of students are being taught in a language other than that of home.
Not surprisingly, one of the most important demands of the battle for civil rights and freedom that
took place in the mid-20th century was precisely what make room for minority linguage practices in
education. The bilingual education programs emerged were modeled arguing that the linguistic
minority students, will be better users of the majority standard language if also become dominant in

the academic language. At this time the Additive bilingualism, with each language clearly separate,
becomes the reference model to be followed by bilingual education programs in the last century.

2.2 Importance of Bilingualism and Relationship with the Mother Tongue

It is relatively known assertion that early bilingualism transforms the organization and structure of
the brain. This is confirmed, for example, Emmorey (2011), arguing that learning more than one
language favors the further development of the frontal cortex of the brain, so that the neural
network adopts a different layout to that of monolingual people. The effect on children is proven:
the linguistic capabilities experience a more agile and extensive progress, but also improves
understand and use of nonverbal information. Other studies, such as Petitto and Dunbar (2009),
prove the advantages in controlling attention and cognitive flexibility of bilingual children. It is
possible to question what basis justify the early immersion, or what age may be suitable for develop
learning. The research points to the convenience of stimulate education in the early years because,
for example, it has been proven that four months babies can distinguish two languages. Other
studies conclude that languages acquired before the age of five are incorporated into the brain
easily and in a lateralized way, so after learning a new language the use of different language does
not involve any additional effort.
In a world where most countries are multilingual is an obvious need to provide multilingual
education allowing to develop the students skills to the maximum. Different researchers as
Cummins have shown the benefits of bilingual education. Cummins raises the importance of
developing skills in the mother tongue, he remarks that with adequate exposure to the new language
that you want to acquire, you could promote the transfer of knowledge from one language to
another (what is known as linguistic interdependence). Researchers have consistently found that
there is a cross-linguistic relationship between the student's first and second language, and
proficiency in the native language is related to academic achievement in a second language (Riches
& Genesee,2006). Cummins defends this relationship with the theory of Common Underlying
Proficiency. In Addition Cummins Makes the distinction between the language used for basic
interpersonal communication (BICS) and school language used to solve complex tasks (cognitive
academic language proficiency (CALP)). According to Cummins it takes from 5 to 7 years to
develop these abstract skills in a second language, while the language of everyday communication
is usually develop between 1 and 3 years. The major problem is that most programs do not offer
adequate time to their students for acquire these language skills.

3-Student's Actual Context

3.1 Characteristics of 21st century students
In the 21st century, there is a variety and diversity of students, all different and unique. We found
immigrant students who do not know anything of school language and even their own parents do
not know the language, so that the problem increases, on the other hand others need to develop the
home language or some other come from a culture that is important to develop, avoiding the fall
into oblivion of this culture. Considering the current social stream, social and globalizing changes
that occur day by day is necessary to develop an answer to this ongoing change that is occurring in
society. It is also necessary to note that students also change, actually a major part of the world
students could be cosidered as emergent bilinguals, i.e. students who are developing their different
skills in two or more languages, but it is important to provide the same opportunities for all students
trying to be fair avoiding leaving aside linguistic minorities students.

3.2 Requirements of a Fair Education for All

With the aim to provide equal opportunities to all students it is necessary to consider a number of
aspects:

First of all, the program and curricula have to be appropriate for student's needs and their status as
emergent bilinguals, therefore they need to use sources in both languages, socioculturally suportive
environmet, the development of the student's first language to a high cognitive level, which
according to the Thomas and Collier (1995) researches, Late-exit programs are one of the most
beneficial , due to the ongoing cognitive development, which occurs in the best way through the
development of proficiency in the first language and teaching a second language through complex
activities.
Shepard (1996) argued that a fair assessment framework for emergent bilinguals should integrate
two dimensions: academic language proficiency and content proficiency.The academic development
of students must be viewed as a continuum that is related to the acquisition of language, so the
language assessments should be adapted according to the situation of each student in this
continuum. For this reason current tests, elaborated under a monolingual vision, do not show the
structures that these emergent bilinguals know, neither evaluate the learning made by the students.
Moreover assessments have to be useful to make a proper evaluation of the education system
allowing the improvement and adapt to the variety of students.
In many cases there is a little exposure and development of the student's mother tongue, causing a
lack of knowledge due to misunderstanding and lack of linguistic skills to understand the
knowledge in the instruction language, so these students join to remedial programs. The programs
focus on compensating for the learners limited English language skills (Harklau, 1994; Olsen, 1997)
and offering them multiple periods of ESL instruction instead of meaningful content (Garca,1999),
increasing inequalities. It is therefore necessary to provide a complete linguistic aproach in which
they can discuss, create, read and write as well as learn phonics. To this must be added the use of
challenging content. This is because there is a link between the materials, the appropriate
curriculum and the students academic outcome. It is obvious that bilingual students need contents in
the language used in school, but also need to have materials in their own language.
Finally one of the most important points, it is the involvement of the families. Parents are great
collaborators, as various research showed cooperation of parents leads to better attendance, higher
achievement, improved attitudes about learning, and higher graduation rates. In addition, children
from minority and low-income families gain the most from parent involvement(Epstein, 1990:
henderson, 1987; henderson & Berla, 1994.) In some cases this cooperation is not beneficial
because parents do not have an adequate proficiency in the language that kids are learning. In the
other hand some parents may generate the loss of importance of home language. Due to the use of
the new language at home with the aim of practice or develop it, parents may subtract the home
language practices. These researches show that parents have a great challenge helping their
children. Unfortunately few schools make efforts to strengthen and build relationships with families
and communities in which emergent bilinguals come from.

4-Translanguaging "a Possible Solution to the Inequality in Bilingual

Systems"
4.1 Origin of Translanguaging
In 1980, with the aim of providing an education that creates equal opportunities for students of
linguistic minorities appeared "Translanguaging". This educational methodology born in Wales, the
term was coined by Cen Williams for the first time. This method had the main goal of try to develop
the skills and proficiency of Welsh students so that the minority language (Welsh) did not lose
strength and power against majority language (English). Williams argued that the program should
be controlled by the teachers and the students allowing thus to develop the most of their bilingual
skills.The use of one language in the reception phase (read a text, listen to oral questions ...) while

the other language is used in the production phase (answer oral or written questions, write a text ...)
is one of the basic examples of Translanguaging.

4.2 Development of Translanguaging and Subsequent Researches

Originally Translanguaging was treated more like an eccentric idea or experiment without actually
taken into account. But in the 90's this method started to gain more popularity due to a study of late
immersion situation made at Ysgol Maes Garmon, Mold, Where the progress of a cohort of Welsh
learners who came to this school from the non-Welsh primary industry was observed. The progress
of the class was Monitored for 5 years between July 1994 and March 1999.
The main purpose of the study was to look at teaching methods that were proving successful with a
class of learners in an English area, and to attempt to analyse the secret behind the success that, by
year 11, is making fluent bilingual pupils of children that were almost totally monoglot English.
Another aim was to analyse and discuss in a qualitative way the teaching methods used by the
teachers, in order to disseminate those methods to other schools that could benefit. If the statutory
expectations were raised, to include Welsh medium teaching in all secondary schools, some of the
methods and practices seen in this study would lead the way for other schools in Wales.
Since the results of this study Translanguaging begins to gain acceptance, researchers like Ramirez,
Lindholm-Leary, Slavin, Cheung, Shanahan or August, began to investigate and work this
methodology, but one of the researchers that has more deepened in this field is Ofelia Garca. Ofelia
Garca is Professor in the Ph.D. programs of Urban Education and of Hispanic and Luso-Brazilian
Literatures and Languages at the Graduate Center of the City University of New York. She has been
Professor of Bilingual Education at Columbia Universitys Teachers College, Dean of the School of
Education at the Brooklyn Campus of Long Island University, and Professor of Education at The
City College of New York.

4.3 Ofelia Garca and his Contribution to Translanguaging

Garca redefines the role of translanguaging, as: "Discursive practices which speakers used to
understand the bilingual world in which they live". It is thus the process used by bilingual students
to create a space where they make use of all their linguistic and semiotic repertoire and which is
accepted by teachers as legitimate pedagogical practices. (Garca) She also raises two new visions
of bilingualism for the 21st Century. On one hand there is what she calls recursive bilingualism: this
refers to cases in which the development of bilingualism occurs after the linguistic practices of the
community have been subtracted. In these cases, the development of the mother tongue is not the
simple addition of a new language starting from a monolingual point, as their native language is still
used in ceremonies or by many in the community at different levels. It is recursive because it
reaches back to small parts and pieces of the practices from the ancestral language, so that
reconstitutes new functions and produces an impulse for the future of the language. This does not
stem from a monoglossic vision, but it originates in already heteroglossic languaging practices.
On the other hand there is what she calls dynamic bilingualism: Refers to the language practices
that are multiple, in constant development, evolution and adaptation to the environment. This
approach has nothing to do with linear monolingual approaches, because it understands the
linguistic interaction as something multilingual and multimodal.

4.4 Characteristics of Translanguaging

Translanguaging challenges monolingual assumptions that permeate current language education
policy and instead treats bilingual discourse as the norm. It defends a heteroglossic view, in which
all languages belong to the same linguistic repertoire, which all languages speakers use properly
depending on the situation. Also it refers to pedagogical practices that use bilingualism as resource,
rather than ignore it or perceive it as a problem. So it describes the practices of all students and
educators who use bilingualism as a resource. Going beyond traditional notions of bilingualism and

second language teaching and learning.

One of the most important characteristics of Translanguaging is that integrates content and
languages, using the two languages as a medium of instruction as well as in the whole education
process. This helps pupils to create a different thought through the use of new languages and
different parts of the brain, increasing cognitive abilities. So Translanguaging offers and alternative
way of expresion to the students, increasing the possibilities for comunication, reducing the
problem of shyness and fostering the participation of the pupils. Since the main principle of this
method is cooperation and not competition, a fact that allows students to develop their abilities to
the maximum.
Moreover it is a system that promotes equitability because it offers equal opportunities to all
students regardless of their status. No L1 to L2 is distinguished, so minority students do not pose
any problem because the more advantaged students may help them, in adittion it is a balanced
education (the use of langues is 50% for each one) which fosters the improvement of students
understanding. In addition this method permits students and teachers to use the full range of
linguistic practices of bilinguals, and to use these practices for improved teaching and learning.
Becoming a process of continuous evolution in which both teachers and students improve and
develop their communication skills and linguistic every day.
While others methods punish the use of different languages, Translanguaging reward the varied use
of languages. Also let students to control the process increasing the students opportunites to make a
succesful communication.
Finally the most remarkable feature of translanguaging is to develop flexible thinking, wich leads
students to understand other cultures, ideas or thoughts totally different from their beliefs or ideas.
It encourages the development of tolerance in students as well as attitudes of respect to the
different, and fosters the ability of students to increase their empathic abilities, increasing empathy
and improving social relations.

4.5 Differences Between Code Switching and Translanguaging

There are distinct differences between translanguaging and code switching. The main difference, is
that code switching is based on the premise that bilingualism is two monolingual separate codes,
that can be used without reference between them. However translanguaging understands languages
as action and practice (that is why it makes emphasis on the -ing form), rather than a system of
language structures and skills. Also it posits that bilinguals have one linguistic repertoire, from
which bilingual people rationally select the best tools according to the situation in order to make an
effective comunication. Furthermore, translanguaging considers the language practices of bilingual
people as the norm, forgetting the traditional monolingual linguistic vision used in books and
grammars. These facts distinguish both methods, while codes witching is usually understood as a
simple change of code, register or change between linguistic dialects. Translanguaging provides
bilingual students the opportunity to use the many resources their bilingual condition offers.

4.6 Translanguaging as Pedagogical Methodology

Translanguaging as a pedagogical resource is a powerful tool. Since it guides to two levels, first it
teachs content through different subjects and secondly regulates the different uses of language.
Translaguagin offers the possibility of incorporate the home language practices making easier for
students to understand perfectly what is been taught, allowing students to learn rigurous content as
well as learn and develop languages. According To Garcia (2013) thanks to the Common Core State
Standards even the newest speakers of a language can use this methodology, which promotes
interrelation between the basic communicative notions in each language, relating them to another
language, understanding and developing two languages at once, because the development of one of
the languages allows to improve the knowledge and use of other languages.

The development and the ability to use a language is based on their practice. Translanguaging
allows students to practice different languages, through the use of different language practices and
the inclusion of home language, reducing the potential embarrassment of using a new language.
Due to the flexible use of languages Translanguaging breaks with hierarchy among different
languages and provides students new communication possibilities.
In addition by using cooperative work, students can develop and deepen their thinking, so if we add
the availability of multilingual resources, the possibilities increase. Translanguaging allows students
to develop different identities than those created by monolingual systems since it allows to students
to realize and understand the variety and continuous multilingual fluency in today's world.
On the other hand the use of translanguaging as pedagogical tool allows students to compare
languages, making them aware of the communicative possibilities offered. This fact conscious them
about the need to develop different languages, extending their linguistic repertoire.
As Ofelia Garcia say:
Translanguaging is a pedagogical strategy that should be used to build on bilingual students
strengths, to help them use language and literacy in more academic ways, to pose challenging
material, to notice differences in language, and to develop bilingual voices. Entrevista pag.2

4.7 Requirements to Develop Successfully Translanguaging

The Translanguaging raises a number of requirements to carry out this pedagogy successfully. First
it is necessary fully bilingual teachers to use and teach languages accurately avoiding generate any
deficit or imbalance in the learning and development of students. This is an important point, it is
really necessary carry out with an effective communication between the different parts involved in
the process to prevent misunderstands. Despite this Ofelia Garcia defends the possibility of using
Translanguaging even when the teacher only speaks one of the languages used in class. Another
requirement, is that students need to develop their native language. According to Fu (2003) through
the principle of interdependence of Cummins they develop an integrated use of both languages. On
the other hand it is necessary to include the methodology in the assessments, so that the whole
educational process is found immersed in Translanguaging. Also an important point is to stimulate
translanguaging officially. This refers to exposure and contact that students have with the language
outside of school, their families, their immediate environments, social relationships. With the aim of
use Translanguaging as much as possible. Family and community participation and commitment is
necessary because if the only contact students have with this method is in class and outside they just
use a unique and exclusive language, this will end up producing a gap between the two languages,
developing one and leaving aside the other.
Finally, each teacher has a key role in this process. First they have to consider and value the
different abilities of their students as well as their needs. Many of the monolingual schools ignore
their bilingual students forcing them to speak write and read in the school language, fostering
differences and inequity. Equally important is the planning and scaffolding. Cummins (2000) says
that "language and content will be acquired most successfully when students are challenged
cognitively but provided with the contextual and linguistic supports or scaffold required for
successful task completion" "Scaffolding is a combination of the constrain of structure with its
release through the teacher's imagination and abilities as a result of innovation, exploration and
improvisation (Van Lier 2006). Therefore it is important that teachers take into account the use of
contextualized routines in which through the use of home language practices they teach different
language patterns. These routines should be modeled through the verbalization and think-alouds, so
the different language practices of the students will enrich the process. This modeling enables the
connection of student's prior knowledge with the material to be taught. Anyway it is important for
teachers to provide multiple opportunities for students to demonstrate their understanding in

different ways, differentiating instruction, including different ways of using language. This will
offer emergent bilinguals the possibility to express themselves in the best possible way according to
the situation.

5- Conclusion
In the last 50 years different multilingual pedagogies have been developed, specially bilingual
education programs have proliferated trhoughout the world. These theories and methodologies were
created in the twentieth century under a monolingual view, designed for language majority and
based on the subtraction or addition of a language. The major part of this methods are based on the
assumption that languages are different and unique entities, without reference to each other. This
fact increased the emergence of immersion programs.
The migratory movements of people as well as of ideas around the world end up in a new world of
globalization. So that the class heterogeneity of the classes has grown. Eduaction systems created in
the 20th century are no longer applicable to today's diverse and complex society, because a major
part of this programs ignore and put aside a large part of the population. Bilingualism beginning to
be understood for its recursive in the case of the revitalization of some languages and for its
dynamism in the case of the needs presented by the 21st century multilingual world. In these
complex relationships and situations it is not possible to differentiate first and second language, but
a set of pieces from different language practices with which most of speakers set up their language
repertoire. So traditional foreing language, second language and bilingual pedagogies are no longer
relevant.
In the 21st century, education and linguistic pedagogy can not be only based on monolingual views
in a complex multilingual world. Nor a traditional bilingual pedagogy would be useful as this is
developed under a monolingual vision. Therefore we should experiment and innovate and try new
methodologies and pedagogies that provide a fair solution to the increasingly complex of bilingual
students and for heterogeneity found in the different classes. New research should validate, support
and expand the multilingual pedagogies based on a flexible multiplicity abilities, to build through
pedagogies as Translanguaging educational programs that allow to meet the language demands in
the 21st century.

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