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Atomic Structure
Proton
Neutron
Electron
Relative Mass
Relative Charge
1
1
0
+1
0
-1
Relative Atomic Mass (Ar) = Average mass of an atom compared to 1/12 the
mass of an atom of Carbon.
Chlorine 37 has an atomic mass of 37, and chlorine 35 has a mass of 35. The
Relative Atomic mass of chlorine is said to be 35.5, because this is an average
of the isotopes.
75% of chlorine atoms are Cl-35, and the other 25% are Cl-37
Protons
Neutrons
Electrons
Br
35
44
35
Br
35
46
35
Cl
17
18
17
Cl
17
20
17
79
81
35
37
79
81
Br. Work
Weak bonds between atoms (reason for it being soft and easy to cut.
Much of the ground beneath us is made out of elements from the s-block, for
example magnesium and calcium.
Metal + Water
M(s) + H2O
M(OH)2 + H2
The strongest hydroxides and oxides are those closest to the bottom of the
group.
The elements towards the bottom of the group are more reactive, because
the one outer electron is further away from the positive nucleus, so the force
needed to take the electron away is comparatively less than the elements
toward the top of the group.
The hydroxides and oxides can be neutralized with acid to form salts.
MO(s) + 2HCl(aq)
M(OH)2(s) + H2SO4(aq)
MCl2(s) + H2O(l)
MSO4(s) + 2H2O(l)
MCO3
MO(s) + CO2
When you heat the carbonates they decompose to form the metal oxide, and
carbon dioxide.
The carbonates become harder to decompose as you go down the group. The
thermal stability of the elements increases as you go down the groups.
The solubility of the elements in carbonates (CO 32-) decreases as you go down
the group. This is common where the negative ion has a double charge (2-).
Ionisation of Potassium
Notice that as the electrons are ionised from the outside inwards, the energy
required increases, this is due to the electrons being closer to the nucleus (positive
charge) for each successive energy level. Every time an electron is pulled off, the
charge on all the other electrons is not shielded as much.
Elements in the same block show similar behaviours. For example, all the nonmetals are in the p-Block and all the reactive metals are within the s-Block.
o
The elements in the same group show more specific similarities, for example
group two contain similar properties, as was investigated previously.
Horizontal rows are called periods. There are few similarities in the elements
across the periods. However there are trends that are common to each
period.
As you move along the table, the atomic radius of the elements
decrease; this is because the electron shells are within the same
energy level, but there re more protons as you move along the group,
so the pull on the electrons is stronger, making the radius decrease.
Below is the graph showing the melting point across the periods within
the periodic table. Notice the peaks which correspond to the group 4
elements.This is called a periodic trend.
Periodicity Graphs
The atomic size decreases as you go across the periods. This is due to the increase in the number
of protons; as the number of protons increases, the pull on the energy levels increase, so the
atomic size decreases.
The group in which the element is found is how many electrons are in the
outer energy level. For example group one elements have one outer electron,
and group seven elements have seven outer electrons.
As you move along the period, the atomic number increases, therefore the
number of protons and electrons increases. This means that as you move
from left to right along a period an electron is added to the outer energy
level.
All elements within the same period have the same number of energy levels.
Ionisation Energy
The above graph shows the ionisation energies of sodium. Notice that where
the jumps in the graph occur is where electrons are being taken from the
next energy level.
The equations for the ionisation of the electrons for sodium are:
After each successful ionisation, the following one becomes harder, this is
because there is less shielding of the protons positive charge, and when
electrons are being taken from the second shell, they are closer to the proton
charge.
After each ionisation, a 1+ charge is added to the ion, and there is an extra
electron added to the equation.
Mass Spectrometer
The abundance of isotopes are determined using a Mass Spectrometer.
The Process
1. Atoms vaporised, and sent into spectrometer.
2. Heated tungsten wire produces electrons, which knock electrons from the
sample, providing ions with a positive charge.
3. Particles are accelerated using an electric field.
4. A Magnetic field is placed 90o to the tube, the particles move; they are
deflected.
5. The larger particles are deflected least, and the lighter particles most.
6. The number of ions hitting the detector is measured, and the magnetic field is
changed so that the different isotopes can hit the detector. This gives an
abundance of each separate isotope.
The results
o
The results are in the form of a line graph, with the mass/charge on the xaxis, and the abundance up the y-axis.
35
Cl was 25%.
37
Most of our knowledge of the atomic structure has come from the area of
science known as spectroscopy- the study of how light and matter interact.
Chemists use two theories to describe light. The wave theory and the particle
theory. Both can be used, depending on which property of light is being
referred to. That is, the method which best describes the situation is chosen.
Wavelength is the measure of distance travelled by the wave in one cycle. The
frequency is how many cycles the wave goes through every second.
Wave a has a longer wavelength than b, but because they both travel at
the speed of light; the frequency of b is twice that of a.
Both the wave theory and the particle theory are linked by a formula:
For a photon of infrared ray with energy of 6x10 -20J, the frequency
could be worked out by dividing the energy by Plancks constant. So
6x10-20/6.63x10-34JHz-1= 9x1013Hz.
Energy levels
o
If an atom is given energy, ionisation can take place; this is where the
atom loses an electron.
If there is not enough energy to ionise the atom, there may be enough
to shift the electrons up an energy level. This is called promotion.
Spectroscopy
When atoms are given energy, their electrons jump up levels. The energy that
is needed to cause the electrons to jump energy levels is specific.
After the atom electrons have been promoted, they get demoted again, that
is they move back down the energy levels. When being demoted, the atoms
emit the specific amounts of energy.
This energy is in the form of light. When the light is viewed through a
spectroscope, the light emitted is split up into an emission spectrum. The
spectrum consists of a series of lines; the colour of these lines is specific to
the wavelength.
E=hv
o
So, we can determine the energy that the electron emits during the
demotion.
Bohrs theory uses the idea of quantisation of energy. The main points of
Bohrs theory were:
The energy of the photon is equal to the difference between the two
energy levels.
When different elements are placed in a Bunsen burner flame, the flame
becomes a different colour due to the specific energy level transitions. This is
the same principle in the neon lights; the electricity causes the elements to
give out certain light colours.
Electrons that have been demoted from a high energy level to n=1 will emit
more energy than one that has been demoted to n=2.
The light energy emitted by electrons moving to the n=1 is within the
ultraviolet part of the spectrum, as it contains more energy, The ultraviolet
emission is studied using the Lyman series.
The electrons being demoted to n=2 produce visible light, that is studied
using the Balmer series.
The energy levels after this are within the infrared spectrum and are studied
using the Paschen and Bracket series.
Where all the lines on the spectrograph become one is where ionisation has
taken place, and the electron is no longer restricted to specific energy values.
The frequency at where the lines converged can be used to determine the
ionisation energy, using E=hv.
Nuclear Fusion
Fusion is an important type of reaction in which light nuclei are fused together
to form heavier nuclei.
The atomic numbers and mass numbers must balance within a nuclear
reaction.
The hydrogen and dust are attracted to each other by gravity, forming huge
areas of dust and gas called nebulas.
The high temperature allows the hydrogen nuclei to fuse with each forming
helium.
The nuclear fusion occurs fastest in the larger stars, as the temperature is
greater.
Most of the energy within stars is from the fusion of hydrogen to form helium;
however there are other fusion reactions to form heavier elements.
Medium sized stars like our sun (when hydrogen is depleted) convert helium
into oxygen and carbon.
Heavyweight stars convert helium into carbon and oxygen, followed by the
fusion of carbon and oxygen into neon, sodium, magnesium, sulphur and
silicon. Later reactions then convert these elements into calcium, iron, nickel,
chromium, copper and others.
After the explosions, the dust and gas is attracted together and the process of
the star begins again.
Ionising Particles
1. Some isotopes of elements are unstable. They break down spontaneously to produce
ionising radiation and are described as radioactive.
2. Some isotopes give off radiation very quickly, for others the process takes thousands of
years.
3. There are three different kinds of radiation alpha, beta and gamma.
4. All three types of radiation are capable of ionising atoms, so we refer to them as ionising
radiation.
Alpha
Particle
+2
Beta
Particle
1/1836
-1
Gamma
Electromagnetic Wave
The atoms all want to be within the stable isotopes area, which is near to
where n/p=1 for small particles and n/p=1.5 for larger ones. Radiation
occurs in the isotopes to allow them to get into the stable area.
Nuclear Equations
1. Nuclear equations are used to summarise the
processes which produce alpha and beta
particles. They include the mass number, the
atomic number, the charge and the chemical
symbol for each particle involved.
Alpha Decay
1. Alpha decay is most common in elements with a mass
number that is larger than 83, The isotope produced from alpha decay will have a mass
number four units lower and a nuclear charge that is 2 units lower.
23892U
23490Th+ 42He
Beta Decay
1. During beta decay, the mass number remains constant, but the proton number increases
by one unit, because a neutron is converted into a proton and an electron.
146C
147N + 0-1e
Gamma Decay
1. Gamma decay is the emission of energy from the nucleus which is changing from a high
energy level to a lower one. Gamma rays are a high frequency radiation.
Half-lives
1. Unstable isotopes never stop emitting radiation.
2. Each different isotope decays at a different rate, and is not affected by temperature or
pressure.
3. Radioactive decay depends on how much material there is; the amount of radiation is
proportional to the mass of the element.
4. The half-life is unique to every isotope, and it is the amount of time it takes for half of the
element to be decayed. The half life is always the same.
Chemical Bonding
Ionic Bonding
Most metal atoms have three or fewer outer electrons. A noble gas configuration is
reached if these are lost to form positively charged ions (cations).
Most non-metal atoms have more than three outer shell electrons. To become stable,
they must become negatively charged ions (anions).
There are limits to how many electrons an atom can pick up. If one electron is gained,
the atom becomes an anion with a negative charge. This will repel any more electrons
wanting to join the energy level, and so atoms gaining two or three electrons are rare.
It is also hard to remove three or more electrons from an atom, as the ionisation energy
increases after each electron is removed.
When metals bond with non-metals, electrons are transferred from the metal atoms to
the non-metal atoms. The metal atoms become cations with a positive charge, and the non
metals become anions with a negative charge. Opposites attract, and the atoms are held
together by an electrostatic attraction.
Electron dot cross diagrams are used to represent the way the atoms bond together.
Example:
Each sodium atom loses one electron and each chlorine atom gains an electron. The
formula for sodium chloride is NaCl, however this doesn't mean that sodium and chlorine are
only found in pairs; they are found in lattices.
The electrostatic force is spread evenly around each sodium cation and chlorine anion. A
sodium cation will therefore be able to attract chlorine anions in all directions, and viceversa.
The chloride cation can attract six sodium anions, therefore the structure formed is a
lattice.
Any sodium ion within the structure will be surrounded by 6 chloride ions. It will be
repelled by the other sodium ions, and so the layers will form with alternating sodium and
chloride ions.
Covalent bonding
Non-metallic elements bond with each other by sharing electrons. This is called
covalent bonding. Shared electrons count as the outer electron for both elements.
In this case the Hydrogen is found in pairs, as there are no charges involved in holding
the atoms together, so there is no interaction with the other hydrogen atoms.
Electron pairs which form covalent bonds are called bonding pairs.
When three pairs of electrons form the bond, it is called a triple covalent bond.
Two of the bonds in the CO are formed by atoms contributing an electron to the
shared pair. In the third bond, both of the electrons come from oxygen, this is
called a dative bond.
When both atoms that have bonded are the same, the pull on the electrons is the same,
so the electron pair is exactly in between the two of the atoms. These are known as nonpolar bonds.
Different atoms can attract the electrons unequally, so the electron pair will be closer to
one atom than the other.
The atom with the greatest proton pull will have the electrons closer to it. The amount of
protons and the distance from the proton will affect the force of attraction. These sort of
bonds are called polar bonds.
The electron pulling power of an atom is known as its electronegativity. Atoms with
strong forces of attraction for the shared pair of electrons are said to have a high
electronegativity.
The lower down the group you go; the less the electronegativity is, and the further along
the period you go; the higher the electronegatvity the atom has. The electronegativity trend
is the same as the first ionisation energy.
We can use the difference in electronegativity values to predict how polar a covalent
bond will be. In a Carbon-Fluorine bond; fluorine has a electronegativity of 4, and carbon has
an electronegativity of 2.6, so the pair of electrons will be closer to the fluorine atom.
This can be written as:
Cd+ -- Fd The fluorine has got a slightly negative charge, as the electrons are closer, and carbon
has a slightly positive charge, as the electrons are further away.
If the electronegativity is high enough, the electron will be taken fully by the element with
the highest electronegativity resulting in ionic bonding.
Metallic Bonding
The strong forces which act between the separate atoms within a metal are known as
metallic bonds.
The diagram below explains why metals act as they do:
The positive ions are arranged in a regular spaced lattice shape. The outer shell
electrons move freely through this lattice. The free electrons are often described as a cloud
or sea of electrons.
Each positively charged ion is attracted to the sea of negative electrons.
The electrostatic attraction binds the entire structure together as one unit.
In the model above, a particular electron does not belong to one of the positive ions, but
is attracted to all of them. These electrons are described as delocalised.
The strength of the metallic bonding depeneds upon the number of electrons. Therefore
magnesium (two outer electrons) has stronger metallic bonding than sodium (one outer
electron).
This strong electrostatic attraction is why metals have high boiling/melting points, and
are dense strong materials.
They are good conductors of electricity due to the delocalised electrons that are mobile.
hapes of Molecules
Dot and cross diagrams can be used to describe the layout of molecules.
However it has its limitations as it only shows the two dimensional layout of
the atoms, and not the three dimensional shape.
All electrons have a negative charge; like charges repel, so the electrons are
arranged so that they are as far away as possible from each other. This is
what determines the shape of molecules.
It is not only the shared electrons that affect the shape of the molecule, but
the lone pairs also affect the shape, in fact they have a greater effect as their
negative charge is stronger than that of the shared electrons.
Triangular Planar.
Tetrahedral.
V-shaped.
Linear.
Pyramidal.
Triangular Planar
o
The bonding electron pairs around the central Boron atom have the same
repulsion, and so an equilateral triangle is formed around the central Boron
molecule. This means that the angle between the fluorine molecules is 120 o.
Tetrahedral
o
The four bonding electron pairs around the central carbon atom in this
molecule have the same negative repulsion, and so they are formed so that
they are as far apart as possible. The angle found between the molecules in
109.5o.
V-shaped
o
In this molecule around the central oxygen atom, the shared pair of electrons
repel each other, but the two lone electrons also repel the two shared pairs
and so a v-shape is formed, with an angle of 104.4o in between the atoms.
Linear
o
As there are only two bonding pairs of electrons, they are found directly
opposite each other.
Pyramidal
o
The lone pair of electrons around the central Nitrogen atom repel the three
bonding electron pairs forming a pyramid shape, with an angle of
107o between each atom.