Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
Minerals Engineering
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/mineng
Xstrata Process Support, 6, Edison Road, Falconbridge, Ontario, Canada P0M 1S0
LOOP (Laboratoire dobservation et doptimisation des, procds Process Observation and Optimisation Laboratory), Universit Laval, Pavillon Adrien-Pouliot,
Dpartement de gnie lectrique et de gnie informatique, Qubec, Qubec, Canada G1V 0A6
c
LOOP (Laboratoire dobservation et doptimisation des procds Process Observation and Optimisation Laboratory), Universit Laval, Pavillon Adrien-Pouliot,
Dpartement de gnie des mines, de la mtallurgie et des matriaux, Qubec, Qubec, Canada G1V 0A6
b
a r t i c l e
i n f o
Article history:
Received 9 August 2008
Accepted 3 February 2009
Keywords:
Column otation
Modelling
Simulation
Process control
a b s t r a c t
Even after having been used for several years in mineral processing plants, the full potential of the column
otation process is still not fully exploited. There is obviously more than one reason explaining this, but one
important contributing factor is certainly the under usage of available control capabilities. Researchers and
practitioners have been interested in column otation simulation and control for more than two decades.
This paper provides an overview of the literature focused on these specic elds of research. It also discusses some future investigative issues and how the current industry may benet from past developments.
2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Contents
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Process description. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Modelling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1.
Prediction of recovery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2.
Dynamic behaviour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3.
Soft sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Process control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1.
Intermediate level control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.
Control strategies based on metallurgical objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Current practice, research trends & future applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.1.
Current practice and challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.2.
Steady-state simulation: metallurgical performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.3.
Sensor development and applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.4.
Dynamic modelling and simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.5.
Process control myths and reality. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Acknowledgement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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* Corresponding author. Tel.: +1 418 656 7487; fax: +1 418 656 5343.
E-mail addresses: jbouchard@xstrataprocesssupport.ca (J. Bouchard), desbiens@gel.ulaval.ca (A. Desbiens), rene.delvillar@gmn.ulaval.ca (R. del Villar).
1
Partially supported by NSERC (Canada).
2
Partially supported by FQRNT (Qubec).
3
Tel.: +705 693 2761x3427; fax: +705 699 3431.
0892-6875/$ - see front matter 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.mineng.2009.02.004
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1. Introduction
The introduction of otation columns in mineral processing
plants caught the attention of many researchers in the last two
decades of the twentieth century. Column otation simulation
and control progressively became prevailing elds of investigation.
Almost twenty-ve years after the installation of the rst commercial otation column in the Western world (Finch and Dobby, 1990),
it is worth examining where these studies have led, what are the
current research interests, and how the current mining industry
and practitioners may benet from past developments. This paper
aims at complementing the last published review (Bergh and
Yianatos, 2003). It provides an overview of the literature dealing
with column otation simulation and control, and discusses research trends and industrial application issues.
Emphasizing the operating variables, Section 2 gives a
description of the process. A summary of relevant with respect
to simulation and control publications dealing with modelling
considerations are presented in Section 3. The discussion is organized according to three research areas: the prediction of the
recovery, the analysis of the process dynamic behaviour and the
development of soft sensors. Section 4 focuses on process control
aspects and reviews most of the published applications. Finally,
Section 5 discusses industrial practice, research interests and future developments required to meet the present industrial needs.
2. Process description
A schematic representation of a otation column is given in
Fig. 1. A typical unit has three input streams (conditioned mineral
pulp feed, air, and wash water), and two output streams (the concentrate and tailings). Under normal operating conditions, the column volume is split into two distinct regions according to their air
content (volume fraction): a collection or pulp zone (less than 20%
of air) and a cleaning or froth zone (more than 70% of air).
To perform a otation separation, several reagents are generally required: collectors, frothers, and regulators (activators,
Sb
nb db p 6J g
Ac
db
Fig. 2. Sb concept.
3. Modelling
For process control purposes, research work dealing with column otation modelling can be organized in three categories
according to their aim: prediction of the recovery, analysis of dynamic behaviour and development of soft sensors.
3.1. Prediction of recovery
Besides works for scale-up purposes (e.g. Finch and Dobby
(1990), Rubinstein (1995), Alford (1992) and OConnor et al.
(1995)), other studies aimed at predicting the recovery of column
otation operations were presented but considering control and
optimisation applications.
Pioneering efforts started in the eighties. Luttrell et al. (1987),
proposed a static simulator based on a population mass balance
(air bubbles, unattached solid particles, and bubbleparticle aggregates). Mass transport was considered in the model using uid
ows and particle buoyancy, while the bubbleparticle rate attachment was evaluated using rst principles. Some processes, such as
the bubble loading and mixing properties, were explained under
pre-specied operating conditions, using a semi-fundamental approach requiring the calibration of two empirical coefcients. The
simulator attempted to predict the recovery of a specic column
otation operation for design, control, optimisation and scale-up
purposes.
At the same time, Sastry and Lofftus (1988) also developed a
simulator using a similar approach, but considering the dynamic
mass balance equations. The resulting tool opened the door to
time-dependent investigations, which are very useful to study process control strategies. The assumption of constant air and water
hold-up, along with the impossibility to analytically solve the general model, represented the greatest limitations of their work.
The addition of air and water mass balance equations to a ve
well-mixed zone approximation instead of the three zones model
of Sastry and Lofftus (1988) made the simulator proposed by Pate
and Herbst (1989) a more exible tool. Their approach also replaced the axially dispersed plug ow model with a distributed
volume mixers-in-series approximation to increase computational
efciency. The air mass balance was however considered on a static basis according to the assumption that air hold-up is subject to
very fast changes compared to water volume. Particles could be of
any size and were divided in three classes: free valuable mineral,
free gangue and locked. Similarly to above-mentioned simulators,
the proposed model exhibited certain empirical features regarding
the calibration of rate constants and the description of some phenomena using correlations (water entrainment, water drainage,
521
etc.). Later on, the same research team used this dynamic simulator
to design a methodology for selecting a control strategy for a column otation unit (Lee et al., 1991).
Cruz (1997) made a further step and proposed a fully dynamic
simulator of column otation metallurgical performance. Her
work, notably based on fundamental considerations, included a
comprehensive description of complex phenomena, such as bubble
coalescence in the froth and bubble loading, and considered particle and bubble size distributions as well as a particle composition
distribution. The design was based on the application of a population balance to a vertically distributed volume mixers-in-series
framework: a perfectly mixed aeration zone, a perfect-mixers-inseries lower collection zone, a single perfectly mixed feed zone, a
perfect-mixers-in-series upper collection zone, the interface, and
three plug ow volumes for the froth (stabilized froth, wash water
addition zone, and draining froth). Notwithstanding improvements
in column otation simulation, being impossible to carry out dynamic ow rate variations signicantly narrowed the extent of potential control applications. In fact, operating conditions were xed
off-line and stayed constant throughout the simulation. The process was then driven from an initial to a nal state as dened by
the simulated operating conditions. Gas hold-up and solids ow
rate changes were computed, but the dynamic variations of froth
depth were not considered. Despite this limitation, Cruz nevertheless achieved a major breakthrough, even though it seems that this
work remained unnoticed by the mineral processing community.
Recently, Bouchard et al. (2006) made a new attempt to develop
a dynamic fundamentally-based column otation simulation
framework, but only preliminary results were presented.
Using a more global approach, Kho and Sohn (1989) obtained a
predictive model for talc recovery based on empirically estimated
rate constants and residence time distributions for the liquid and
solids.
Luttrell and Yoon (1991), noticeably inspired by research work
supervised by Finch (Finch and Dobby, 1990), developed a static
simulator based on hydrodynamic principles, aiming at predicting
the recovery of a column otation operation. In 1993, they proposed a scale-up procedure (Luttrell et al., 1993). Besides vessel
geometrical characteristics considerations, their discussion
emphasized on air spargers and wash water distribution systems.
The column diameter was determined from the maximum froth
carrying capacity, while the rate constant and mean particle retention time were used to obtain its height. The effect of axial mixing,
air hold-up, and gas and liquid ow rates were also considered in
the procedure.
Following similar ideas, Alford (1992), from the JKMRC in Australia, gathered the results of many researchers to develop a column otation static simulator. The model was global (exhibiting
only a single zone) and was considered a useful tool to study ow
sheet congurations and scale-up of industrial units, assuming an
appropriate calibration.
Tuteja et al. (1994) published a review of the most relevant
models for the prediction of recovery under a clear classication:
kinetic models and non-kinetic models, i.e. completely empirical
regression models.
teyaka and Soto (1995) were interested in the modelling of the
recovery of negative bias column otation operation. Neglecting
the effect of the turbulence within the vessel, the model was based
on the probability of recovering a given particle to the concentrate.
Gupta et al. (1999) also worked on this topic, focusing on phosphate otation. In order to nd some relationships between rate
constants and operating variables, they suggested a hybrid model
combining rst principles and neural networks. Once calibrated,
the prediction of the effect of frother concentration, particle size,
air ow rate, and bubble diameter on phosphate recovery was
made possible.
522
It must be emphasized that for industrial applications, calibrating any model is a tedious process, and the difculty increases with
the number of parameters. The more the model relies on empirical
data the more its validity is compromised as process conditions
exit the range of calibration. However, requiring a calibration
should not preclude the use of a given model since many sensors
commonly utilized rely on calibration (e.g. on-stream analyzer,
density-meter, etc.).
Other researchers approached the issue of modelling of the
recovery from a more particular point of view. For instance, Yianatos et al. (1998) developed a semi-empirical model to predict the
froth recovery in an industrial otation column, as a function of
the main operating variables (air and water supercial velocities
and froth depth). Neethling and Cilliers (2001) suggested a comprehensive fundamental model to study the effect of wash water
on froth performance. Many complex phenomena were incorporated in their description: bubble coalescence, liquid drainage, particle settling and particle dispersion.
New developments and studies dealing with characterizing
hydrodynamic properties will help improving current models and
simulators. A revision of underlying assumptions commonly used
previously is to be expected as macroscopic behaviours are better
understood.
3.2. Dynamic behaviour
Despite the validity of the approach initiated by Sastry and Lofftus (1988) and pursued by Pate and Herbst (1989) and Cruz (1997),
the dynamic modelling of column otation based on rst principles
has not yet been successful to stand out as a solution to practical
problems. These attempts were eventually dropped to focus on
empirical techniques (transfer functions, state-space or fuzzy models) to model the behaviour of process variables such as froth
depth, air hold-up, and concentrate grade. Noteworthy results
were obtained with linear models for restricted ranges of operation
(Pal and Masliyah, 1990; Pu et al., 1991; Bergh and Yianatos, 1994;
Bergh et al., 1995; del Villar et al., 1999; Bouchard et al., 2005b).
However, some limitations were identied when considering
wider operating regions (Carvalho et al., 1999) as the linear behaviour assumption does not hold anymore. Desbiens et al. (1998) and
Milot et al. (2000) tested gain-scheduling and multi-model
schemes to overcome these problems and cope with nonlinearities
in a straightforward manner.
More recently, Vieira et al. (2005) proposed a fuzzy modelling
strategy to obtain a MIMO (multiple inputs/multiple outputs) representation of the behaviour of froth layer height, bias and air holdup. Despite a good agreement between the model and process,
their work illustrates fairly well the main difculty associated with
empirical-based representations attempting to stand as fully general tools: the empirical cost. In fact, the accuracy of black-box
models relies almost exclusively on the information contained
within the experimental data. The more complex is the behaviour
to be modeled as a result of the number of independent variables,
interactions and nonlinearities the more data are required for
calibration purposes. In practice, following the example presented
in their paper, empirical nonlinear models must be restricted to
relatively narrow range of operations. Other researchers followed
a hybrid path to overcome such a problem. For instance, Dumont
et al. (2001) used two models of the froth depth behaviour essentially based on rst principles to demonstrate how mixing the
empirical approach with the fundamental one, using basic physical
laws (Newtons second law, ideal-gas law, Archimedes principle,
etc.), leads to more general tools which require less experimental
data for calibration.
The development of dynamic relationships linking operating
variables (froth depth, bias, air hold-up, and bubble surface area
523
For industrial applications, advanced control strategies generally require data validationestimation stages, such as massbalTM
ance reconciliation (e.g. Bilmat Real-Time ), observers (e.g.
Kalman-like lters), and fault detection and diagnosis (Berton
and Hodouin, 2003), for more robustness and accuracy. It must also
be emphasized that the success of any advanced control strategy
strongly relies on the regulatory control layer. Upgrading from a
lower to a higher level should be considered only if the lower level
is fully and sustainably implemented. Robustness, reliability and
simplicity should be the primary focus regarding any choice of
instrumentation and control algorithm.
Finch and Dobby (1990), Bergh and Yianatos (1993) and Rubinstein (1995) have presented general discussions about column otation control. Process and instrumentation issues are covered, but
conclusions drawn about the controllability of the process and the
ability of conventional feedback control algorithms to handle it
(Bergh and Yianatos, 1993) are not in line with multivariable control practice, nor with other results found in the literature as explained below.
A physical analysis of the system shows that there are multiple interactions between the input (independent) and output
(dependent) variables. The computation of the RGA (relative gain
array) matrix allows to quantify this level of interaction for the
steady-state. Persechini et al. (2004) have thus shown that for
the froth depth bias gas hold-up system, respectively controlled using the wash water, tailings, and air ow rates, the
RGA matrix is almost an identity matrix. The process would thus
exhibit low interactions and therefore, be a good candidate for
decentralized control strategies. Similar observations were also
made by Maldonado et al. (2007a). Even if this result is obtained
for a simplied two-phase system, it is difcult to imagine that
the result for a slurry operation would be substantially different.
It should be emphasized that tuning decentralized PIDs is trickier
than tuning PIDs for completely independent processes. Good results are difcult to achieve without an understanding of multivariable feedback control theory (see Skogestad and
Postlethwaite, 2005). For TITO (two-inputtwo-output) decentralized control schemes, Desbiens et al. (1996) presented a PID tuning technique.
The critics of the control performance of standard feedback control techniques are difcult to understand since useful results were
obtained by some researchers at least for restricted ranges of operation using PI controllers alone (del Villar et al., 1999; Persechini
et al., 2004; Bouchard et al., 2005b, linear predictive controllers
Pu et al., 1991; Chuk et al., 2001; Maldonado et al., 2007b), and
multi-model schemes (Milot et al., 2000; Bouchard et al., 2005b).
It must be emphasized that the controllability of any process remains unaffected by uctuating operating conditions as long as
manipulated variables are unsaturated and the dynamic behaviour
does not vary signicantly (compared to the model used for the
controller design). However, uctuating operating conditions add
a challenge that cannot be neglected. This can even lead to the failure of a given control strategy if the limitations are not clearly
understood and properly dealt with, no matter what control algorithm is being used. In fact, the vast majority of industrial control
issues come from instrumentation problems (type, design, location
and/or condition), control strategy (pairing, objective, etc.) and
controller tuning. Very seldom they are inherent to the control
technique per se.
In a previous study, Hyma and Salama (1993) suggested a similar approach, but only preliminary results were presented.
4. Process control
Column otation process control objectives may be structured
according to a three-level hierarchy.
(1) This is the basic regulatory control layer. Above all, it aims at
a steady operation for the column inputs (slurry feed if
upstream uctuations are damped in the pump box, air,
wash water and reagents), but refers in general to all control
elements (valves and pumps, including that of the tailings).
From a process/design standpoint, the rst level also
includes damping feed ow-rate disturbances as much as
possible using the surge capacity of a pump box.
(2) The intermediate level aims at maintaining process variables
having a strong inuence on metallurgical results (grade and
recovery), namely froth depth, bias, froth parameters, air
hold-up or bubble surface area ux, in a bounded region,
i.e. an acceptable operating zone where it is possible to handle the process and reach production objectives. This level is
often called stabilizing control (Finch and Dobby, 1990;
Kosick et al., 1991; Hyma and Salama, 1993; Bergh and
Yianatos, 1993; Bergh and Yianatos, 1995; Rubinstein,
1995; Bergh et al., 1998; Bergh and Yianatos, 1999). Process
and security constraints should normally be included at this
level. This could include handling a circulating load in a
cleaning circuit for instance. A model-based predictive controller (MPC) can manage such constraints very easily. The
alternative when only PID controllers are available is to
use either an override or a pseudo-cascade scheme (Lestage
et al., 1999).
(3) The third layer involves the determination of metallurgical
targets according to an economic criterion. From these targets, operating set-points for the subordinate level are
found to drive the process or the circuit from its current
state to a new one in order to achieve the economic objective. Finch and Dobby (1990), Kosick et al. (1991), Hyma
and Salama (1993) and Rubinstein (1995), among others,
refer to this upper level as optimizing control. The term
supervisory control is also commonly used when other tasks
such as data validation, fault detection, security or limiting
conditions are also carried out (Bergh and Yianatos, 1993;
Bergh et al., 1998; Bergh and Yianatos, 1999). However,
when based on the rigorous resolution of a quantitative
optimisation problem, the control community rather refers
to real-time optimisation (RTO). Supervisory control structure
are often based on fuzzy rules, trying to emulate the best
possible operator. The main difference between the two
schemes is one aims at optimising, and the other, at improv-
524
by JKTech, is available. Harris et al. (2002) described how the software incorporates new ideas and models, and discussed practical
and specic issues related to design and optimisation studies.
JKSimFloat V6.1 is the tangible result of a collaborative research
project involving the Julius Kruttschnitt Mineral Research Centre
(JKMRC) at the University of Queensland (Australia), the Mineral
Processing Research Unit at the University of Cape Town (South
Africa), and the Mineral Processing Group at McGill University
(Canada). Previous outcomes of this project were the development
of measuring devices and procedures for the diagnostic performance
evaluation of otation cells and circuits, a methodology for modeling
the performance of otation circuits for optimisation studies, and a
methodology for modeling the performance of otation pilot-plants
for design studies (Harris et al., 2002). Application case studies
were presented by Schwarz and Alexander (2006b).
The software could become a powerful tool for process engineers to choose operating points for secondary-objective variables
(e.g. froth depth, gas hold-up, etc.) in order to reach metallurgical
objectives. As part of an off-line or real-time optimisation strategy,
the determination of column operating conditions could then be
made on a quantitative basis. However, establishing explicit relationships linking the metallurgical performance to the pulp level,
bias, gas hold-up and/or bubble surface area ux is still an inexact
science. The software raises high expectations: applications in
industrial optimisation studies will show if they can be fullled.
As a part of a comprehensive design methodology, the software
also aspires to become a key scale-up tool for otation units and
circuits.
5.3. Sensor development and applications
Over the past two decades, new measuring devices have been
proposed although industrial applications remain scarce. Industrial-academic partnerships could be of great benet for better process supervision. In fact, equipment and service suppliers have the
technical and practical expertise to design robust and reliable
products, whereas the universities have the facilities and mandate
to develop theoretical concepts and explore new avenues. The joint
work of JKMRC and its commercial branch JKTech is one example
of a successful combination of fundamental and industrial and
R&D. By taking advantage of the best of both worlds, nearly mature
technologies like conductivity-based probes for froth depth and
gas hold-up could then rapidly become standard devices.
Froth depth determination based on conductivity exhibits a
very good accuracy in laboratory- and pilot-scale units. Unlike
oat- and pressure-based techniques, it is unaffected by any uctuations in the pulp density or by air hold-up. The evaluation of
the conductivity prole across the froth could also allow an on-line
monitoring of the bias. However, a comprehensive trial in a plant
environment is yet to be performed. It is only then that a valid
comparison with commonly used methods (i.e. oat- and pressure-based) will become possible.
The standard addition method developed by Prez-Garibay and
del Villar (1999) for gas hold-up monitoring has also been tested
by Arizmendi-Morquecho et al. (2002) for solids hold-up measurement. Such a technique could become a low-cost and safe substitute for nuclear densimeters.
Current industrial use of bubble surface area ux (local reference) is nowadays for operation diagnosis, but opportunities for
process control to achieve a target metallurgical performance
could originate from the development of accurate and robust
on-line estimation method. Unfortunately, important information
related to the shape of the bubble size distribution, such as multi-modal, narrowness and tail behaviour is completely lost when
using a mean bubble diameter as with Sb . Therefore, formal control
strategies should take into account the Sb value in conjunction with
525
526
6. Conclusion
The modelling and control of column otation has received particular attention from the mineral processing community since almost three decades. An overview of the literature pertaining to this
eld shows that much has been achieved, but also that some technologies still remain to be transferred to industry. A signicant effort to bring modelling capabilities to process engineers is the
development of a commercial Windows-based simulator. Following the example of JKMRC and its commercial branch JKTech, fruitful collaborations between academics and practitioners should
help speed up developments in other areas such as on-line sensors
and process control. For many plants, important gains can be made
with the simple application of standard control techniques for
intermediate process variables (froth depth, bias, ow rates, etc.).
Finally, the use of multivariate statistics for on-line monitoring
and phenomenological dynamic modelling are current research
interests showing great potential. New technologies and revived
works will probably guide future investigative efforts.
Acknowledgements
The authors wish to thank Simon Garipy (Algosys) and Pr. Carl
Duchesne (Universit Laval) for fruitful discussions and exchanges
on plant practice and MIA, respectively.
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