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Automotive electronics
What you need to know! Part 3

Ideas today for

the cars of tomorrow

Contents
Passive Entry / Go
Control unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3
ID transmitter (identification transmitter) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4
ID transmitter design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Doorhandle Electronic modules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Aerials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Radio communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Passive Entry / Go system functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Special features /
safety circuits of the Passive Entry / Go system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Diagnosis and possible fault . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

Airbag System SRS (Supplemental Restraint System)

Airbag . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11
The crash sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12
The safing sensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Airbag design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
The airbag . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
The contact coil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
The seat user recognition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
The belt tensioner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16
The belt tension limiter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16
Battery cut-off . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Airbag cabling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Airbag system testing and diagnosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

Battery Management
Audi A6/A8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .19
Overview of the battery management system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20
The tasks of the functional modules in detail . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
The six switch-off stages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Dynamic management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
BMW 5 Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
The function of the IBS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

Electromechanical Parking Brake (EMP)

Electromechanical parking brake (EMP) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .30
The parking brake . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .32
Dynamic emergency brake . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Adaptive starting assistant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Brake pad wear control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Emergency release . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Changing brake pads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Function test on dynamometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .36
Troubleshooting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

Passive Entry / Go

In this issue we would like to discuss the Passive Entry/Go system. These
systems provide a passive means of both locking/unlocking the vehicle
and starting/stopping the engine, that is to say, owners of these latestgeneration systems only need to carry the RF key along with them.
They no longer need to look for the RF key or have it in their hand to
actuate a function by actively pressing the appropriate button on it. These
access and driver authentication systems provide a plus in convenience
and make it much easier to get into the car. Here we would like to
explain the components and what they do. The text is illustrated with
Passat B6 components. To obtain more detailed information about a
vehicle-specific system, please refer to the technical data provided by
the relevant manufacturer.
The Passive Entry/Go function requires a couple of system components
to be added on to the conventional central locking system, including:

Control unit

In a Passat B6, the Passive Entry/Go functions are controlled by the

central control unit for convenience systems. This so-called convenience
control unit is located underneath the dashboard towards the right and
behind the glove compartment.
Functions controlled by the convenience control unit include:
n Central locking
n Motor-driven opening/closing of windows and sun roof
n Car alarm system
n Tyre pressure control
n Steering column lock
Another task of the control unit is to check the system for errors and store
a log of any errors encountered.
The RF key and the control unit communicate at different frequency
ranges, i.e. 433 MHz or 315 MHz, depending on the region.

Passive Entry / Go
ID transmitter
(identification transmitter)

The ID transmitter is an RF key, the expanded functionality of which

(identification transmitter) includes the passive functions. It therefore
classifies as a combination of a "simple remote control" and an
identification transmitter.
Active locking or unlocking the vehicle at distances of up to 100m
requires the keys on the ID transmitter to be pressed manually. Passive
unlocking is done by gripping the door handle, whereas passive locking
is done by touching a sensor spot on the door handle. For safety reasons,
passive operation is restricted to the immediate vicinity of the ID transmitter
(approx. 2m). The ID transmitter uses radio signals to communicate with
the control unit.

It also contains a mechanical emergency key that the driver can use to
manually unlock the car, e.g. if the battery in the RF key is empty.

ID transmitter design

The ID transmitter consists of a splash-proof housing for the electronic

circuitry, the aerials and the key panel.
The keys for the manual control of functions (e.g. unlocking, locking,
boot lid, panic button) are located on the top of the housing.
And there is a small LED that will light up when a button is pressed, for
example. A 3D LF aerial in conjunction with a LF pre-stage IC with
integral microcontroller allow an accurate measuring of field strengths
received from all three directions in space and, thus, to reliably differentiate
between the inside and outside of the vehicle. The UHF receiver aerial is
located on the circuit board. The ID transmitter also has a battery
monitoring feature.

Passive Entry / Go
When the battery is discharged down to a critical level an alert will appear
on the dashboard display and the small LED will no longer light up when
a button is pressed.
To save battery energy, intelligent wake-up algorithms ensure that the ID
transmitter is not "woken up" unnecessarily (e.g. by other radio systems).
An integral day counter enables a power-down mode for ID generators
that are not used (e.g. a second key). This ensures that the battery
retains a sufficient level of capacity for extended periods of time.

DoorhandleElectronic modules

The receiving aerials and the proximity and locking sensors for recognising,
unlocking or locking the vehicle are located in the front door handles.
The sensors in the rear door handles are only there to recognise, unlock
or lock the vehicle.

Front door handle

Rear door handle

The proximity sensors are capacitive sensors, i.e. when the driver's hand
enters the capture area of the proximity sensors the capacitive sensors
will detect it and output a signal to notify the convenience control unit.

Aerials

Aerials Aerials are not only located in the door handles but also along
the outer shell and on the interior of the vehicle.
An outside aerial is the rear-end aerial which is installed in the rear bumper
where it is responsible for proper rear-end reception.

Rear aerial

Passive Entry / Go
The interior, boot and rear shelf aerials make up the set of aerials installed
inside the vehicle.

Interior aerial

Boot aerial

Rear shelf aerial

The interior, boot and rear-end aerials consist of a ferrite coil and capacitor
and make up a series resonance circuit.
The rear shelf aerial is a flexible circuit board with a conductor loop that
generates the field.

Radio
communication

Before a vehicle function is performed, the system checks whether the

vehicle user is carrying an authorised ID transmitter.When the control unit
receives a signal from the capacitive proximity switch in the door handle
it returns a signal to the ID transmitter which responds by sending a
response telegram via a UHF channel frequency (433MHz or 315MHz).
The signal sent by the vehicle on the 125kHz carrier frequency of the LF
aerials is not only used for data communication with the ID transmitter
but also helps to reliably find the exact position of the ID transmitter.

This provides a highly accurate means of determining whether the

transmitter is inside or outside the vehicle. It is absolutely essential to
determine the position as accurately as possible because the control unit
must verify whether an authorised ID transmitter is actually in the
passenger compartment and, thus, whether the engine can be allowed
to start or whether an ID transmitter that is still in the vehicle needs to be
disabled after locking the car (when the vehicle is locked with another
authorised ID transmitter outside the vehicle).
6

Passive Entry / Go
Passive Entry / Go
system functions

Unlocking of vehicle:
When a vehicle user carrying an authorised ID transmitter approaches
the vehicle and enters the capture area of the proximity sensors, the
system will "wake up". The aerials in the door handles and the ID
transmitter will establish radio communication. To check whether the ID
transmitter is actually authorised to open this vehicle, the system will
compare its electronic fingerprint with that of an internal electronic/logic
"key". If the control unit finds that the two IDs match it will enable the
central locking system and open the car. Either one or all doors can then
be opened, depending on the current CLS coding. It takes the system
approx. 50ms to 60ms to complete the entire process, i.e. from actuating
the capacitive sensors in the door handle to unlocking the vehicle. In
order to minimise power consumption during extended periods of not
using the vehicle, the proximity sensors in the passenger-side and rear
doors switch themselves off.
They are reactivated by one of the following events:
n The ID transmitter is recognised by the driver's door or the boot lid
n The vehicle is actively unlocked using the RC unit
n The emergency key is used to mechanically unlock the vehicle
n Convenience unlocking is not supported by the Passive Unlock function

Starting of engine:
This vehicle provides two ways of starting the engine: using the ID
transmitter or the ignition starter switch (starter button).

Lock with ID transmitter

Lock with ignition starter switch

Ignition starter switch (starter button)

The ignition lock of the Passat accepts both the ID transmitter and the
ignition starter switch. Its functions are equivalent to those of a normal
ignition lock. If preference is given to using the ignition starter switch the
switch can permanently stay in the ignition lock. All it takes for the engine
to be started is that an authorised ID transmitter is detected inside the
vehicle.
This type of ignition lock differs from a normal ignition lock in that the key
does not need to be turned but that the ID transmitter or ignition starter
switch is pushed into the ignition lock instead.

Passive Entry / Go
The lock can be at one of the following positions:
Position 1 = S contact on (radio turns on).
Position 2 = Terminal 15 on.
Position 3 = Default position assumed by the ignition starter switch /
ID transmitter after starting the engine (terminal 15 drive).
Position 4 = Engine start (terminal 50).
To start the engine, push the ignition starter switch / ID transmitter into
position 4. When the engine is running, simply let go of the ignition starter
switch / ID transmitter.
Important note:
The ignition starter switch will fail to start the engine if the battery in the ID
transmitter is empty. In this case you must pull out the ignition starter
switch and put the ID transmitter in the ignition lock instead. Inside the ID
transmitter there is a transponder pellet for disabling the steering column
lock. Since this pellet is supplied with external energy it works without
the battery and allows the engine to be started even if the battery in the
transmitter is empty. Make sure, though, that the transponder pellet
function is available only if the ID transmitter is in the ignition lock.
Vehicles with a manual gearbox can be started only if the clutch pedal is
pressed. To start the engine of vehicles with automatic transmission you
must press the brake pedal. Pre-heating of diesel engine vehicles works
in a similar way to the pre-heating of vehicles with a conventional ignition
lock. After turning on the ignition you should not start the engine until the
pre-heater lamp has gone out. Only then would you push in the ignition
starter switch / ID transmitter to the "Engine Start" position.

Button to unlock the ignition starter switch

To turn off the engine:

To turn off the engine, press the ignition starter switch / ID transmitter
right into the ignition lock again. When you let go it will return to the
"Ignition On" position. Then pull back the key by one more step to
actually turn off the ignition.
Another difference between the ID transmitter and the ignition starter
switch is that you can simply remove the ID transmitter from the ignition
lock, whereas the ignition starter switch is barred and can be removed
only if it is unlocked first. Pull back the ignition starter switch in the ignition
lock as far as possible. Then press the unlocking button on the bottom
side of the switch and pull it out.
Note on the electronic steering lock:
When the ID transmitter is pulled out of the ignition lock, the steering
column will be locked electronically. Since it is possible to leave the ignition
starter switch in the ignition lock, the electronic steering lock will be
actuated only when there is no authorised ID transmitter left in the car.

Passive Entry / Go

Door handle with locking sensor

To lock the vehicle:

As with unlocking the car, there are also two ways of locking it, i.e. either
actively using the RC unit or passively by touching the locking sensor in
the door handle. However, the latter method requires an ID transmitter to
be within close range of the vehicle.Touching the locking sensor once will
lock the vehicle and enable the "Safe" function.Touching the locking sensor
twice will also lock the vehicle but will not enable the "Safe" function.
Passive locking also supports the "Convenience Locking" feature when
the locking sensor is touched for more than two seconds. The system
has a safety relock function: the vehicle will automatically relock if a door
or the tailgate is not opened within 30 seconds of unlocking the car.

Door handle with locking sensor

You can unlock and lock the boot independently without having to
unlock the other doors. Assuming an authorised ID transmitter is within
the capture range of the rear aerial, the boot can be unlocked by pressing
the Unlock Boot button (VW sign). If the boot is closed while the authorised
ID transmitter is within the reception range but outside the vehicle, the
boot will automatically relock.

Special features /
safety circuits of the
Passive Entry / Go
system

ID transmitter inside the car

It is not possible to lock the vehicle from the outside while the ID
transmitter is still inside it. This is to prevent the ID transmitter from being
locked in inside the car.

ID transmitter in boot
It is not possible inadvertently to lock the authorized ID-transmitter in the
boot if the doors are already locked.
If, in this situation, the ID-transmitter is detected in the boot, the boot is
immediately automatically opened again.

Turning off the proximity sensors in the door handles

If you park and lock the vehicle very close to a hedge or similar object
you may find that leaves, branches etc. keep actuating the proximity
sensor in the door handle which will respond by searching for an
authorised ID transmitter. To save battery energy the proximity sensor
will be switched off for 30 minutes to avoid this unreasonably frequently
repeated actuation.

Passive Entry / Go
If this problem affects the driver's door only the sensor in the driver's
door will be turned off. If the rear doors or the passenger-side door are
affected these doors will be turned off together. The sensor will reactivate
when the vehicle is unlocked either by an active sensor or the RC unit or
if the boot is opened.

Diagnosis and
possible faults

The complexity of the systems installed in today's vehicles may sometimes

make it pretty complicated to locate a fault. This applies to both electronic
and mechanical systems. But there are also mistakes that users make
when operating Passive Entry/Go systems, suggesting that the systems
don't work properly. It is therefore quite important to take good heed of
the manufacturers' operating instructions and other sources of information.
The very design of the systems and the fact that control units are stations
of CAN bus networks dictate that suitable diagnostic equipment must be
used for troubleshooting and that reference must be made to specific
documents provided by vehicle manufacturers, including repair
instructions, circuit diagrams, descriptions of functions, etc. Just one
example: in the Passat B6 we used to illustrate our text, unlocking the
electronic steering wheel lock requires a release from three separate
control units and the ignition lock.
This redundant way of implementation is necessary to meet strict safety
requirements. Replacing defective control units is another field in which
things are becoming increasingly complex. In the Passat, for example,
control units (e.g. the convenience control unit or the engine control device)
that belong to the steering column lock need to be online before they
can be taught-in.
This makes it a must to contact an authorised dealer even if diagnosis
managed to successfully locate a fault.

10

Airbag System SRS (Supplemental Restraint System)

In this section we will look at the airbag system.
We will explain its components, their function within the system, the
way they are actuated, and possible troubleshooting procedures.
Since the introduction of airbag systems, technology has advanced by
leaps and bounds in the past few years. We will therefore stick to
describing the components and processes in fairly general terms. To
obtain more detailed information about the systems installed in specific
vehicles, you should always consult the information provided by the
relevant manufacturer. Make sure that only trained and skilled experts
are allowed to service and diagnose the equipment in due compliance
with the applicable statutory regulations and references. Airbag
systems were first thought about way back in the 1960s. A major
obstacle faced in those days was the time available to inflate the airbag.
Some experimented with compressed air to solve the problem. This
approach failed to meet the requirements, though. In the early 1970s,
pyrotechnic propellants yielded a first success in inflating the airbag
within the specified time. And 25 years ago, the first luxury class cars
were equipped with airbags as an optional extra. Nowadays, airbags
are standard equipment even in small cars.

Airbag

Airbag control unit

The electronic control unit (ECU) is the heart of the airbag system and
installed at a central place inside the vehicle, normally somewhere on the
centre tunnel near the dashboard.
It does the following:
n Accident detection
n Time-critical recognition of sensor signals
n Time-critical actuation of appropriate ignition circuits
n Power supply to ignition circuits by means of a capacitor, i.e.
independent of the on-board battery
n Auto-diagnosis of the entire system
n Stores any faults that occur in the fault memory
Turns on the airbag control lamp to indicate system failures
n Connects to other control units via the CAN bus
Today's electronic control units store a bank of data obtained from whole
series of crash tests, allowing the ECU to categorise an accident by its
"crash level".
The following levels have been defined:

11

Airbag System SRS (Supplemental Restraint System)

Crash level 0 =minor accident, airbags will not be actuated.
Crash level 1 =medium accident, the first level of airbag action may be
actuated.
Crash level 2 =serious accident, the first level of airbag action will be
actuated.
Crash level 3 =very serious accident, the first and second levels of
airbag action will be actuated.
To be able to sustain a varied crash response, the control unit computes
various pieces of information such as the crash level, the direction of
impact (effect of force), e.g. 0, 30, and the type of accident. Moreover,
it also looks at other details such as information about whether passengers
have their seat belts fastened or not.

The crash sensors

Depending on the airbag system and the number of airbags installed, the
crash sensors (also referred to as acceleration sensors) are either located
directly in the control unit or are networked satellites installed at the front
end or the side of the car.
There are always two sensors at the front-end of the car. These sensors
are usually spring-and-mass systems which work as follows: The sensor
houses a weight cylinder filled with standardised weights. A bronze
spring band wound around the weight cylinder is attached to the weight
cylinder at one end and to the sensor housing at the other. This setup
stops the weight cylinder from moving unless a force impacts the cylinder
from a specific direction. Following an impact, the weight cylinder will
overcome the resilience of the bronze spring and make contact with the
control unit loop. To allow self-testing, the sensor also houses a
high-impedance resistor.
Another possibility of building motion sensors is to use a silicon mass.
An impact on the sensor will make the silicon mass move inside the
sensor. The way the mass is suspended in the sensor provokes a
change in electrical capacity which the control unit can pick up and use
as information.

Crash sensor

12

Side crash sensor

Airbag System SRS (Supplemental Restraint System)

Their fast reaction makes these sensors a favoured choice because they
are extremely quick with providing the control unit with information about
a side impact.
Other designs use pressure sensors instead. The pressure sensors are
installed in the doors to react to a change in pressure inside the doors
following an accident. In vehicles equipped with pressure sensors it is
absolutely crucial to replace door sealing films properly after a door has
been deformed for any reason. Otherwise, i.e. if a door sealing film is not
in place correctly, there may a loss in pressure inside the door which
consequently may prevent the pressure sensors from responding to an
accident the way they should.
Installed crash sensors must always face the right direction as indicated
by an arrow on the sensor. The threshold for actuating a sensor is an
acceleration of approx. 3g to 5g. To prevent airbags from being triggered
unintentionally, safety reasons dictate that the airbag firing signal must
always be received from two sensors working entirely separately from
one another. The means of providing this safety mechanism is the safing
sensor.

The safing sensor

The job of the safing sensor is to prevent the airbag from being triggered
unintentionally. It is connected in series with the front-end sensors.
It consists of a reed contact located in a tube filled with resin and a ring
magnet. The open reed contact resides in a tube filled with resin, and the
ring magnet is slipped over the tube. A spring holds the magnet in place
at the end of the housing. Following an impact, the magnet overcomes
the retaining force of the spring and slips over the resin-filled tube to close
the reed contact. This will make the circuit required to trigger the airbag.

Airbag design

The driver airbag system in the steering wheel is made up of an airbag of

a volume of about 67 l, the airbag holder, the generator, the generator
carrier, and the airbag cover (steering wheel cover). Following an accident,
the control unit will fire the generator by applying an ignition current to
heat up a thin wire which will make the igniter go off.
Firing the propellant charge will not end in an explosion but in a
combustion of the propellant charge which consists of sodium azide.
Propellant combustion produces a gas that expands and reacts with the
oxidator (a substance giving off oxygen, e.g. copper oxide or iron oxide)
to form almost pure nitrogen that fills the airbag.
To circumvent the toxicity of sodium azide, propellant charges are
sometimes made up of other, non-azide solid fuels which react to not
only form nitrogen but also carbon dioxide (approx. 20%) and steam
(approx. 25%). The propellant is normally located in the combustion
chamber in the shape of an air-tight pack of fuel pellets.

Driver airbag

13

Airbag System SRS (Supplemental Restraint System)

Rear side driver airbag

The type of propellant used depends on the size of the airbag and on
how fast the bag must inflate. The chemical reaction after firing generates
temperatures of 700 C inside the combustion chamber. The gas is
passed through a filter sieve at a pressure of approx. 120 bar. In the
process, the gas is cooled down to below 80 C to avoid any risk to the
passengers in the car. Firing the airbag is nearly as loud as a shotgun.
It takes the airbag about 30ms to fully inflate. More recent systems use
two-stage gas generators consisting of two igniters that the control unit
fires one after the other, depending on how serious the accident is. The
shorter the delay between the two ignitions, the faster the airbag will inflate.
The system will always fire both gas generators to ensure that all
passengers can be safely removed from the wrecked vehicle.

The front passenger airbags or side airbags use hybrid generators which
combine the combustion gas with the gas from another gas source. A
pressure vessel contains a mix of 96% argon and 4% helium at a pressure
of approx. 200 bar. A diaphragm seals off the pressure vessel. When the
system is fired, the propellant charge moves a piston to cut through the
diaphragm and allow the gas to escape through the opening. The gas
from the pressure vessel mixes with the combustion gas and cools it
down to an output temperature of approx. 56C. The front passenger
airbag has a volume of about 140 l which takes the gas approx. 35ms to
fill completely.

Side airbag

The process is very similar in the side airbags (thorax bags), the difference
being that gas generators need to fire and the airbags need to inflate
much faster because there is no deformation buffer (crumpling zone).
Following a side impact at a speed of about 50km/h (30mph), the
generators must fire after approx. 7ms, and the airbag must fully inflate
within 22ms.
Side airbags are installed behind the door trim panel or in the back of the
seats. Head airbags either have an "inflatable tubular structure" or are
designed as an "inflatable curtain".
The "inflatable tubular structure" was the first type of head airbag. It looked
like a "sausage" that unfolded out of the roof lining above the front doors.
The "inflatable curtain" goes across the entire car roof. This is installed in
the roof rail above the doors.

Head airbag

The airbag

14

The airbag is made of very robust and non-ageing polyamide tissue

which has a low coefficient of friction to allow the bag to inflate quickly
and to ensure gentle contact with the skin. To protect the airbag and to
prevent the material from "sticking" to itself it is powdered with talcum
which can be seen as a white cloud of dust when the airbag is fired.
Catch strips inside the bag make sure that the airbag inflates to and

Airbag System SRS (Supplemental Restraint System)

maintains its correct shape. Openings at the back allow the gas to escape.
There are two different ways of folding the airbag, i.e. the standard fold
and the star fold. Star-folded airbags expand less towards the driver and
benefit passengers who are out of position on their seats.

Driver airbag

Contact coil

The contact coil connects the rigid steering column with the movable
steering wheel. It also ensures that the airbag control unit and the gas
generator remain connected when the steering wheel is turned. The
conductive strip is wound such that it follows the steering wheel for two
and a half full turns in either direction. Mechanics should be particularly
careful when installing or uninstalling the contact coil. They must make
absolutely sure that the steering wheel is at its central position and that
the wheels point perfectly straight ahead. An uninstalled contact coil
must not be turned.

Contact coil installed

The seat user

recognition

Front passenger airbag

Contact coil

Seat user recognition fine-tunes airbag control and prevents airbags

from firing unnecessarily.
There are different ways of recognising whether a seat is taken. A common
option are sensor mats made up of pressure sensors and a logic analyser.
Whereas older systems only supported sensor mats installed in the frontseat passenger seat, more recent systems also allow mats in driver's
seats and rear seats. Another option is the use of infrared or ultrasound
sensors which install near the interior lamp or the rearview mirror to
monitor both whether and how someone is sitting on the front passenger
seat. This allows the system to recognise "out of position" passengers.

15

Airbag System SRS (Supplemental Restraint System)

Seat user recognition provides information which influences the firing of
airbags and the actuation of belt retractors and active headrests. The
airbag system knows which seats are actually in use and will not actuate
protective systems of seat where nobody is sitting.

Seat user recognition

The belt tensioner

Rear

The job of the belt tensioner is to remove the "belt slack" when there is
an accident. Belt slack is caused by loose, baggy clothes or a "relaxed"
way of sitting. Belt tensioners can be installed in the buckle or the belt
reel. Buckle-mounted belt tensioners are made up of the following or
similar components: tightening tube, rope, piston, gas generator and
igniter. In case of an accident the gas generator is fired just like in the
airbag. The gas will expand and move the piston in the tightening tube.
Since the piston and the buckle are connected by the rope, the buckle
will be pulled downwards to remove the slack from the belt system.
Belt tensioners in the belt reel use a tightening mechanism to remove the
belt slack. Again, a generator will be fired in response to an accident.
This time, the generator makes a set of balls move. The moving balls
turn a winder attached to the belt reel. The rotation of the winder winds
up the belt by a carefully defined amount. To prevent the balls from
causing any damage, they will drop into a special container when their
job is done.
Another possibility is the "Wankel engine principle". When fired the
propellant charge drives a rotary piston, the rotary movement of which
removes the belt slack. In order to reduce the load on the chest, a device
in the driver's and front-seat passenger's belt limits the belt tension.

The belt tension

limiter

Belt tension limiters are adaptive automatic mechanisms using a gas

generator like the one in the airbag to change between a high and a low
level of tensioning force.
Optimally adjusting the belt retractor to the airbag leads to the kinetic
energy of the passengers being slowly absorbed and loads being
rendered harmless during the entire time of the accident.

16

Airbag System SRS (Supplemental Restraint System)

Battery cut-off

In order to avoid any risk of short circuits and the car catching fire
because of them, the battery is cut off from the on-board mains when
there is an accident.
Means used for disconnecting are either a cut-off relay or a gas generator.
The airbag control unit outputs the signal required to cut off the battery.
Gas generators work in more or less the same way as the belt retractor.
Firing the generator cuts off the battery-to-cable connection otherwise
made via the terminal.

Airbag cabling

Airbag system connectors are bright yellow to make airbag cables and
connectors easy to find.
The connectors feature a jumper intended to prevent unintentional
actuation when someone is working on the airbag system. One cause of
such actuation could be static charge, for example.
The jumper is a special contact connecting the two contacts in the plug
and absorbing any potential when the plug is pulled out of the socket.

Airbag plug

Airbag cable

17

Airbag System SRS (Supplemental Restraint System)

Airbag system
testing and diagnosis

One basic rule is that work on the airbag system may only be carried out
by trained and skilled experts.
All statutory regulations and the manufacturer's specifications must be
heeded. The same applies to the disposal of previously fired or old
airbags.
You are advised to give good training to all garage personnel because
many jobs require the airbag or belt tensioner to be uninstalled even
though the work does not directly concern the airbag system. One
example is work on the instrument cluster.

Test adapter

Fault memory

You are recommend to start with a visual inspection just like you would
do to analyse or troubleshoot any other system. Visual inspection should
check all visible components of the airbag system for damage and
ascertain that all plugs are connected properly. A frequent root cause is a
poor contact with the belt tensioners or side airbags somewhere near
the front seats. Moving the seats backwards and forwards may loosen
the connection and provoke transitory resistances. Your examination
should also focus on the contact coil which frequently fails because
every turning of the steering wheel puts the coil under some stress.
Whatever you do you will need suitable diagnostic equipment. If visual
inspection reveals that there is a loose contact somewhere you will need
the diagnostic tester to clear the fault memory.
If visual inspection reveals no faults you should use the diagnostic tester
to read out the contents of the fault memory. System errors are usually
detected by the self-diagnosis equipment and stored in the fault memory.
For example, the following faults in the fault memory may have been
caused by a defective cable: wrong signal, signal out of range.
In this case you could use a multimeter to check the leads connecting
the sensors and the control unit for proper flow of current or body
contact. You will need to obtain specific information and circuit diagrams
from the manufacturer to accurately locate the sensors and plug
connections and to detect the control unit's pin wiring.

Reading

18

By default, you should always disconnect the battery from the on-board
mains and make sure that the sensors and the control unit are
disconnected from the wiring harness. You are strictly advised against
using "homemade" test adapters (straightened paper clip) to attach the
test lines to the connectors because you may otherwise damage the
sensitive contact pins and provoke new faults which remain unnoticed at
first.
It is much better to use special test tips instead, since these are made to
perfectly fit over the contact pins and ensure that proper contact is
made.

Battery Management
In this section we will look at the subject of battery or power management
in vehicles.
Despite improved quality and performance, one of the most frequent
causes of vehicle breakdowns is still the vehicle battery. For this reason,
battery monitoring and diagnosis is becoming more and more important.
This task is taken over by the power management system, which
continually compares the power required by the consumers with the
total power available, which is made up of alternator power and battery
capacity. The main objective is to monitor the battery's state of charge
and to control power consumers by means of the CAN-bus, or even
switch them off if necessary. This prevents excessive battery discharge
and guarantees vehicle start-up at all times.
The following parameters are important in order for a statement that is
exact as possible to be made about the battery state:
n Battery temperature
n Battery current
n Battery voltage
These parameters are used to determine the battery's SoC (State of
Charge) and battery's SoH (State of Health).
In this brochure we would like to describe battery or power management
using two vehicle manufacturers as examples, specifically current
model types of the series Audi A6/A8 and BMW 5 Series.

The control unit is the most important component for battery management.
In the Audi A6/A8 estate model it is installed inside the spare wheel
well at the rear panel. The control unit continually checks the battery's
state of charge (SoC) and start-up ability. When the engine is running, it
regulates alternator voltage and can increase the idling speed in the
event of increased power requirements during idling. Even when the
engine is not running, the control unit can switch consumers off via the
CAN-bus in order to limit the quiescent current.
The control unit's tasks are divided into three functional modules which
are active in the different vehicle states. These functional modules are:
The battery manager (functional module 1) This is responsible for battery
diagnosis and always active.
The quiescent current manager (functional module 2) This is active
when the engine is not running and switches consumers off if necessary.
Dynamic management (functional module 3) This is active when the
engine is running and regulates alternator voltage and the reduction of
consumption.

Audi A6/A8

Vehicle state

Terminal 15 off

Terminal 15 on engine off

Terminal 15 on engine running

Functional module 1

active

active

active

Functional module 2

active

active

Functional module 3

active
19

Battery Management
Overview of the
battery management
system
(explanations are given on
the following pages)
CAN inputs
n Engine speed
n Time at standstill
n Coolant temperature
n Outside temperature
n Ignition starter lock
n Rear window heating
n Windscreen heating
n Reference idling speed
n Switch on alternator
n Load shedding of heating systems
n Load shedding utilisation

CAN outputs
n
n
n
n
n
n
n
n
n
n
n
n
n
n
n
n
n
n
n
n

Inputs via bit-synchronous

interface (BSS)
n
n
n
n

20

Alternator utilization (DF signal)

Alternator fault, electrical
Alternator fault, mechanical
Alternator, high-temperature switch-off

Increase in idling speed

Switch-off stages
Load shedding
Switch-off stage drive
Battery manager battery voltage
Heating systems that can be
switched off
Alternator load torque
Alternator power consumption
Start-up ability
State of charge
Switch-off stage 6
Terminal DFM BEM
(battery power manager)
Load response alternator
Feedback for load shedding
Alternator fault
Switch-off infotainment
Customer service fault battery
manager
Status of high-power heating systems
Status of high-power heating systems
control
Consumer emergency switch-off
active

Outputs via bit-synchronous

interface (BSS)
n Alternator reference voltage
n Load response start
n Load response drive

Battery Management
The tasks of the
functional modules
in detail:

The battery manager

The battery manager requires the following parameters for battery
diagnosis:
n Battery current
n Battery voltage
n Battery temperature
n Operating times
Battery current and battery temperature are measured in the control
unit. The battery temperature is converted to the battery by means of
an algorithm. Battery voltage is measured at the battery's positive
terminal. The measuring ranges and output signals resulting from these
are shown in the diagram below:

Current consumption control

n various switch-off stages

Battery voltage
5,5 V 16 V
Battery temperature
-35 C 70 C
Battery current
10 mA 100 A

Operating times

Alternator
n optimum charge voltage
Bild Steuergert

Display
n Battery's state of charge
n Prediction of start-up ability

Safety reserve (alternator)

n Regulation of heating and
high-power systems

Battery's state of charge display

The battery's state of charge is displayed in the instrument cluster. The
start-up ability and current state of charge are displayed here. These
two parameters are also used as a basis for the quiescent current
manager and dynamic management. The alternator is provided with
the charge voltage required, depending on the operational state via an
interface.
MMI display (Multi Media Interface)
The state of charge can be requested in the MMI under the menu item
"Car". The state of charge is displayed in the form of a bar chart. The
display is represented in 10% steps. A state of charge between 60 and
80% is OK.

21

Battery Management
If consumers (e.g. infotainment) have been switched on for a longer
period with the engine at a standstill, thus discharging the battery, the
start-up ability of the engine can be endangered. In this case, a message
appears in the MMI requesting the driver to start the engine to avoid
the consumers being switched off within the next 3 minutes.
Alternator control lamp (charge control lamp)
The alternator control lamp is also controlled by the power management
control unit.
Quiescent current manager
The quiescent current manager is always active when terminal 15 is
switched off or terminal 15 is switched on but the engine is off.
When the vehicle is at a standstill, the quiescent current has to be
reduced to such an extent that the engine can still be started up, even
after a longer standstill. If the battery's state of charge drops to such
an extent that the consumers in operation during standstill can no longer
be supplied, comfort and infotainment functions are switched off. The
power management control unit sends a switch-off request to the control
units responsible for the control of these specific consumers. The
hierarchy according to which the consumers have to be switched off is
stored in the respective control unit. The consumers of a control unit
are switched off in six stages. The switch-off stage increases as the
state of charge diminishes. Which switch-off stage is required is specified
by the power management control unit. Information about restricted
functionality is displayed in the instrument cluster.

The six switch-off

stages

Switch-off stage 1
During switch-off stage 1, the first consumers in the CAN-comfort control
unit are switched off. These include the washer fluid heater, for example.
Switch-off stages 2 + 3
During switch-off stages 2 + 3, further consumers in the CAN-comfort
control unit are switched off. These include the receivers for the aerials
in the "tyre pressure monitoring" control unit, for example. In addition,
first restrictions in the infotainment system are carried out. Switch-off
stage 2 is activated after the vehicle has been at a standstill for more
than 3 hours and the quiescent current measured is greater than 50 mA.
Switch-off stage 4
The transport mode is active in switch-off stage 4. Almost all comfort
systems are switched off in order to enable as long a standstill time as
possible. One special feature of switch-off stage 4 is that this cannot
be activated or deactivated by the power management control unit, but
only via a suitable diagnosis tester.
Switch-off stage 5
The parking heater is deactivated in switch-off stage 5.

22

Battery Management
Switch-off stage 6
It is just about possible to start the vehicle up in switch-off stage 6. For
this reason, the wake-up function for the control units in the CAN-bus
is limited to switching on terminal 15 and vehicle access only. All other
wake-up triggers are deactivated. This also affects the infotainment
system, which means it is no longer possible to use the telephone.
Emergency and breakdown services can still be called, however, this is
guaranteed by the emergency battery.
If switch-off stages are prescribed by the power management control
unit, these are stored as fault entries in the fault memory of the control
unit. A readout of which consumers have been switched off can be
taken with the aid of suitable diagnosis equipment.
As soon as the driver enters the vehicle, the switch-off stages are briefly
deactivated. As soon as the engine is started up, all the switch-off stages
are cancelled. Cancellation also takes place if a battery charger is
connected to the battery installed in the vehicle.
This does not apply to switch-off stage 4, which, as described above,
cannot be activated or deactivated independently by the control unit.
This is possible only with the aid of diagnosis equipment.
The sequence and dependence of the switch-off stages on the battery's
state of charge, time and start-up ability is shown in the following
diagram:

State of charge of battery %

Standard
Operation

Stage 1
Stage 2

Quiescent current-

Stage 5

curve (A)

Stage 3
Stage 6

Start up ability limit

Time

The following table lists the control units that (if installed) are requested
to switch off consumers by the quiescent current manager in the
power manager control unit:
Comfort-CAN
Control unit driver identification
Control unit roof electronics
Control unit Climatronic
Control unit driver seat adjustment

Most-Bus
Control unit navigation
Control unit digital sound package
Control unit telephone / telematics
Aerials
23

Battery Management
Control unit front passenger seat adjustment
Control unit rear seat adjustment
Control unit vehicle electric system
Control unit vehicle electric system 2
Control unit comfort system
Control unit access + start-up authorisation
Control unit display unit in the instrument cluster
Control unit for tyre pressure monitoring
Door control units

Dynamic
management

Chip card reader

Digital radio
CD-ROM drive
CD-changer
Radio module
TV tuner
Control unit display and operating unit for information
Radio module

Dynamic management is activated when the engine is running. It ensures

that the power generated by the alternator is distributed to the individual
systems according to their requirements and that there is always
sufficient charge current available for the battery. The utilisation of the
power network is carried out by the dynamic management system,
measuring alternator utilisation, battery current and network voltage.
This results in the following tasks:
n Regulation of battery voltage
n Regulation of high-power heating systems (e.g. heated rear window)
n Increase of idling speed
n Load shedding
n Alternator switch-on
n Alternator control dynamics
There are three control stages available to guarantee a stable power
supply during requirement-oriented power distribution:
Control stage 1 = Continual power control
Control stage 2a = Partial emergency switch-off
Control stage 2b = Complete emergency switch-off
Control stage 1 kicks in when the power network is overloaded, the
alternator is running at full power and the battery charge voltage drops
to below the reference value.
Control stage 2a kicks in when control stage 1 is not able to stop the
power network being overloaded and this state lasts for longer than
10 seconds. Further reasons for activating control stage 2a are problems
with the alternator (fault memory entry 02252), slowing down of the
alternator due to high temperature (fault memory entry 02253) or load
shedding by the engine control unit (this is possible for a maximum of
10 seconds without fault memory entry).
Control stage 2b kicks in when an acute undervoltage occurs in the
power network (less than 11.5 V for more than 1.5 seconds or less
than 10.8 V for more than 0.5 seconds). One special feature here is
that control stage 2b can also be required by the engine control unit
during the start-up process and up to 15 seconds after, without an entry
being made in the fault memory.
The effect the control stages have on the performance of the heating
systems is shown in the table below:

24

Battery Management

Heating system
Windscreen heating
Rear window heating
Washer nozzle and
water hose heating
Mirror heating
Seat heating
Steering wheel heating

Maximum power
1000 W
320 W
20 100 W

1
Minimum power
250 W
0W
Not limited

Control stage
2a
Minimum power
250 W
0W
0W

2 x 30 W
Front: 2 x 100 W
Rear: 2 x 80 W
100 W

Not limited
Front: 2 x 25 W
Rear: 2 x 20 W
Not limited

0W
Front: 2 x 25 W
Rear: 2 x 20 W
0W

2b
Minimum power
0W
0W
0W
0W
0W
0W

Regulation of battery voltage

The battery manager and the dynamic management work together to
regulate battery voltage. The battery manager uses the battery's state
of charge and the battery temperature to calculate the alternator reference
voltage and passes this reference value onto the dynamic management.
This transfers the reference value to the alternator via a data line
(bit-synchronous interface), which then regulates the required reference
voltage.
Load shedding
Under certain conditions, the power management control unit can
reduce the load on the request of the engine control unit. This can be
the case during acceleration, for example. If the engine control unit
sends a load shedding request, the power management control unit
reduces the power of the high-power consumers as a first measure.
This takes place via the CAN-bus and the control unit responsible for
the consumers: the Climatronic control unit, for example, which controls
the various high-power heating systems such as windscreen and rear
window heating. In the second stage, alternator voltage is reduced.
These interventions have the effect of reducing the alternator's power
consumption and thus the engine load.
Regulation of high-power heating systems
The high-power heating systems are regulated by the Climatronic control
unit. Power management is connected to the Climatronic control unit
via the CAN-bus and can continuously control the heating power
through this. This means that the definition of the maximum heating
power possible is prescribed by the power management control unit.
Increase in idling speed
For the best possible battery charge and supply to the power network,
the power management control unit can request a step-by-step increase
in idling speed when the engine is idling. This is then carried out by the
engine control unit.

25

Battery Management
Alternator switch-on (load response start)
Alternator voltage is limited to a minimum during start-up. This means
that the alternator does not provide any current during and directly after
the engine start. This prevents the start-up process being extended on
account of the full power (braking torque) of the alternator.
Alternator control dynamics (load response drive)
If requirements increase while the vehicle is in motion, by the windscreen
heating being switched on, for example, thus increasing the alternator
torque, the requirements are not forwarded directly to the engine.
Alternator power output is continuously increased by the alternator
control dynamics. This takes place every 3, 6 or 9 seconds, depending
on the engine speed.

BMW 5 Series

Here, power management is realised with the aid of an intelligent battery

sensor (IBS) and digital engine electronics.
The battery sensor is the most important component element in this
system. It is installed directly in the niche of the battery's negative
terminal. It continually measures the following:
n Battery temperature
n Battery terminal voltage
n Battery charging and discharging current
Structure of the battery sensor
The battery sensor is a mechatronic sensor. It can be divided into three
sections: the mechanism, the electronics module and the software.
The mechanism
The battery terminal with the earth cable for connection to the battery
is described as the mechanism. This completes the following tasks:
n Electrical connection between the body and the battery negative
terminal
n Inclusion of the sensor element for current measurement
n Inclusion of the electronics module
n Setting up of the thermal contact between the battery negative
terminal and the temperature sensor
n Earth connection of the IBS (voltage supply is via a separate supply
line)
n Protection of electronic components
The electronics module
The electronics module is made up of the following components:
n Board with evaluation electronics
n Precision resistor for current measurement (shunt)
n Temperature sensor

26

Battery Management
The electronics module has the task of recording the voltage, the current
flow and measuring the battery temperature.
The software
Since the intelligent battery sensor is regarded as a full-grade control
unit, it has its own program.

The function of the IBS

The IBS has large measuring ranges for exact data acquisition:
n Current -200 A to +200 A
n Voltage 6 V to 16.5 V
n Temperature -40 C to +105 C
n Start-up current 0 A to 1000 A
n Quiescent current 0 A to 10 A
A series of functions is integrated in the IBS:
n Continual measurement of voltage, current and temperature in every
operational state of the vehicle
n Calculation of the battery indicators as a basis for the battery's SoC
(State of Charge) and battery's SoH (State of Health)
n Balancing the charging and discharging current of the battery
n Monitoring of the battery's state of charge and activation of
countermeasures when a critical state of charge has been reached
n Calculation of the start-up current curve to determine the battery's
state of health
n Monitoring of the quiescent current
n Transfer of the data to the higher-order control unit
n Self-diagnosis
n Automatic updates of the algorithm parameters and the parameters
for self-diagnosis via engine electronics
n The ability of waking itself up from sleep mode

Evaluation electronics
The evaluation electronics in the IBS continually acquire the measured
data. This data is used for the calculation of the battery indicators
current, voltage and temperature. The battery indicator data are sent to
the engine electronics via the bit-serial interface. Parallel to the calculation
of the battery indicators, a pre-calculation of the battery's state of charge
is carried out. During the "engine off" signal time and the main relay in
the engine electronics being switched off, the battery sensor receives
information about the current state of charge or maximum amount of
battery power available from the engine electronics, guaranteeing engine
start-up. After the main relay of the engine electronics has been switched
off, the battery sensor continually records the battery's state of charge.

27

Battery Management
Quiescent current measurement
When the vehicle is at a standstill, the required values for battery
indicators are continually measured by the IBS. This is programmed in
such a way that the sleep mode is interrupted every 14 seconds and a
measurement is taken. This measurement takes approx. 50 milliseconds.
The measured data are stored in the quiescent current memory in the
IBS.
When the engine is started up, the engine electronics read out the
quiescent current memory. Deviations can be established by comparing
the quiescent current curve with the stored reference values. If there are
any irregularities in the quiescent current curve, an entry is made in the
fault memory of the engine control unit.
Optimum battery charge
In order to guarantee optimum battery charge in all operating states, a
method of charge regulation according to battery temperature and
depending on the charge state is used. For this purpose, an optimum
charge voltage reference value for the current battery temperature is
calculated in the control unit. The alternator regulator current is then
set in such a way that the required charge current is applied directly at
the battery. This also compensates loss of voltage through the alternator
line. When the battery is fully charged, the alternator power can be
reduced, thus reducing consumption.
Regulation of idling speed
The idling speed can be adapted to the alternator utilisation in both the
Audi and the BMW.
Wake-up function for terminal 15 wake-up
This function is active only when the vehicle is at a standstill. After the
engine control unit has received the message "terminal 15", it sends
the information about the maximum amount of power available to the
IBS. After this, the engine electronics go into sleep mode. If the maximum
power available is reached and consumers are still switched on, the
IBS wakes up the vehicle electric system and thus the engine electronics
via the wake-up line (terminal 15 wake-up). On account of the critical
battery state of charge (bordering on the start-up ability of the engine),
the consumers are switched off by the engine electronics or the control
units responsible. Then the vehicle returns to sleep mode. In this state,
the engine electronics no longer allow the IBS to activate the vehicle
electric system.
Faults and diagnosis
As in all other electronic systems, a series of faults are possible with
battery management, too. These can be short circuits to the positive or
negative terminals, interruptions or contact resistance in plugs and
wires, faulty control units, failure of the bus system, a faulty battery or
faulty alternator. As a rule, the system continues to work with alternative
values in the event of a fault, and an entry is made in the fault memory.

28

Battery Management
Vehicle-specific documents such as circuit diagrams and system
descriptions as well as suitable diagnosis equipment are always required
for fault diagnosis.
Before a complex diagnosis takes place, the battery should be tested
with a suitable tester. The state of charge (SoC) and state of health
(SoH) must be perfect and comply with the manufacturer's information.
Important information can be gained during the initial vehicle inspection
when the vehicle is brought in, through fault messages in the instrument
cluster, for example.

A readout of the fault memory can be taken with the aid of suitable
diagnosis equipment. Entries are also made in the fault memory, for
example, if the power management system has activated one of the
switch-off stages, leading to restricted functions in certain systems.
This fault entry could be:
n Alternator, mechanical fault
n Alternator, high-temperature regulation
n Alternator, electrical fault
Further information can be gained by taking a readout of the measuredvalue blocks (actual values). Various parameters and values are displayed
in the measured-value blocks. These include the following, for example:
n Battery voltage
n Alternator reference value
n Battery temperature
n State of charge
n Communication with the alternator
n Average value of quiescent current
n Emergency switch-off
n The inner resistance of the battery, loss of state of charge
n Quiescent current switch-off
Information can be collected during diagnosis by comparing the reference
and actual values. This can help to narrow down the cause of the faults
recorded.
29

Electromechanical Parking Brake (EMP)

In this section we would like to discuss the electromechanical parking
brake (EMP). The "electronic handbrake" is gradually becoming a common
feature in passenger cars where it advances handling convenience. This
information sheet is based around the systems installed in 7 Series
BMWs (E65) and Audi A8 (4E..).

Electromechanical
Parking Brake (EMP)

Tasks of electromechanical parking brakes

The job of the electromechanical parking brake is to stop the parked car
from rolling. It also meets the statutory requirement of a second,
independent brake system in vehicles, and it provides some extra safety
and convenience.

Design and operation of electromechanical parking brakes

BMW and Audi use systems of a substantially different design. The EMP
in the Audi A8 has an electric motor driving a spindle that directly acts
upon the brake linings of the rear axle. In the BMW, an electromechanical
actuator pulls the cable controls actuating the duo-servo drum brake.
Audi's parking brake mechanism consists of a DC drive, a wobble plate
transmission, and a spindle. The components are mounted directly on
the rear brake callipers and turn the drive's circular movement into small
strokes of the brake piston. A belt drive transmits the DC drive's energy
to the wobble plate mechanism.
At this point the driving motor speed is reduced for the first time. The
gearing of the belt drive reduces the speed by a factor of 1:3. The wobble
plate mechanism further reduces the speed. At the end of the
transmission, the speed is reduced by a factor of 147 compared with the
original DC motor speed. A spindle that is directly driven by the wobble
plate mechanism transforms the circular movement into a lifting stroke.
The brake piston houses a cylinder that can move to and fro inside the
piston housing. To prevent the cylinder from turning inside the piston, its
surface is ground down at two points.
At the front end of the cylinder there is a press-fit nut which starts moving
on the spindle thread when the spindle revolves. A Hall sensor measures
the number of revolutions made by the DC drive and transfers the result
to the electronic control unit which takes the value to compute the length
of stroke.

30

Electromechanical Parking Brake (EMP)

Spindle
Brake piston

Cylinder

Brake disc

When the parking brake is actuated, the circular spindle movement drives
the nut forward. The cylinder is made to exert force on the brake piston
which presses the brake lining against the brake disc. When the parking
brake is released the nut turns back on the spindle thread and the
pressure is removed from the brake piston. Like after a normal braking
manoeuvre, the O-ring resumes is normal shape and the brake piston is
allowed to return. To make up a complete system, the above components
are supplemented by a control unit with integral inclination angle sensor,
the control lamps and the switch on the centre console.

Control lamps and switch

To set the parking brake, the switch is pulled, and to release the brake,
the switch is pushed down. The control lamps on the dashboard and in
the switch tell you that the parking brake is set. One special feature is
that the parking brake can be set even when the ignition is off. However,
to release the brake, the ignition needs to be on.

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Electromechanical Parking Brake (EMP)

Electromechanical parking brake functions
The electromechanical parking brake provides the following functions:
n Parking brake
n Dynamic emergency brake
n Adaptive starting assistant
n Brake pad wear control

The Parking brake

When you park the vehicle and set the parking brake the system will
automatically adjust the gripping power as necessary to prevent the
vehicle from accidentally rolling off.
The dashboard display will show a warning if you try to park the car on a
gradient above 30%. When the brake discs cool down at standstill the
control unit will automatically readjust the grip according to a simulation
model that allows the control unit to determine the current brake disc
temperature.

Dynamic emergency
brake

This function is enabled by moving the switch which responds like a

normal handbrake lever. While the switch is being pulled the vehicle will
slow down. Braking stops when you let go of the switch. Maximum
deceleration is 8 m/s.
The parking brake will emergency-brake the car only if its speed is below
8 km/h (5mph). At faster speeds, deceleration will be performed by the
ESP system which evenly distributes the brake pressure among the
brakes of all four wheels.
At the same time, if the accelerator is also pressed, the motor torque will
be reduced and the cruise control system will be disabled (if it was on
before). To avoid misuse (actuation by front-seat passenger), the
emergency brake is disabled if the driver keeps accelerating.

Adaptive starting
assistant

32

This function makes it possible to drive off at upward slopes without

jerking or rolling backwards. The control unit needs further information in
order to make optimal use of the starting assistant.
It polls the CAN bus for additional information about the current gear, the
accelerator position and the motor torque, and it checks the reading of
the inclination angle sensor integrated in the control unit. All of these
details are put together to decide when the parking brake is to be released.
The driver has no option to turn off this function.

Electromechanical Parking Brake (EMP)

Brake pad wear
control

Pad thickness is checked every about 500km (310 miles). To check, the
following conditions must be met: vehicle at standstill, parking brake
released, ignition off.
The control unit moves the brake pad away from its limit stop (normal
position) and towards the brake disc. The Hall sensor takes a reading
and delivers it to the control unit which uses the value to compute the
distance moved by the brake pad, which is indicative of the remaining
pad thickness.
Brake pad wear control may be more accurate in vehicles that hardly
ever use the parking brake than in vehicles where the parking brake is
used regularly.
In a 7 Series BMW, the mechanism to engage the parking brake does
not directly affect the rear brake pads as in the Audi but rather affects the
duo-servo drum brake which is located inside of the rear brake discs.
The actuator unit is installed in the floor of the boot, between the spare
wheel well and the rear wall, behind the rear seat bench.
The actuator unit is made up of the following components:
The electrical drive, a spindle, the wrap spring, the balance bar, the cable
pulleys, the plastic gearwheels, and the cable controls.

Actuator unit:
1. Electrical drive
2. Plastic gearwheels
3. Wrap spring
4. Spindle
5. Balance bar
6. Cable pulley
7. Cable controls

3
4
5

6
7

6
7

When the parking brake is actuated, the electrical drive moves the plastic
gearwheels which drive the spindle. The thread of the spindle moves the
balance bar forwards and backwards to produce equal movements on
the left and right side, depending on whether the brake is engaged or
released. Levers on the balance bar make the connection to the pulleys
that the cable controls for the left and right side are attached to. When
the parking brake is being engaged the balance bar moves on the spindle,
making the pulleys turn towards the inside and pull the cable controls
which set the duo-servo drum brake.

33

Electromechanical Parking Brake (EMP)

When the parking brake is being released the electrical drive turns the
spindle in the opposite direction. The balance bar moves back and the
pulleys turn towards the outside, retracting the cable controls and thus
releasing the parking brake. The force needed to release the brake is
produced by the return control springs located in the duo-servo drum
brake.

Switch

Control lamp

The job of the wrap spring is to avoid the entire load of holding the
engaged parking brake being exerted on the plastic gearwheels. The
wrap spring is attached to the spindle. When the parking brake is fully
engaged and the spindle has moved up to its holding stop its restoring
force tries to turn the spindle in the opposite direction.
This rotation in the opposite direction presses the first couple of turns of
the wrap spring outwards and against the wall of the housing around it.
Consequently, the spindle is retained at its current position and the wrap
spring absorbs all of the restoring force. When the parking brake is
released, the electrical drive turns the spindle which takes the opposite
end of the wrap spring along with it. This turns the spring inwards and
makes it come away from the housing.
In order to prevent corrosion on the brake drums and brake pads and to
always provide the best effect, the system runs in the brake while the car
is driving. Running-in is repeated once every month or every 1000 km
(620 miles). The system performs the routine automatically without the
driver noticing anything. Automatic braking actuates the parking brake at
approx. 20% of its maximum force. The running-in routine causes only a
little wear on the material. After about 300 repeats the brake pads will
have worn down by no more than 0.5 mm.
The 7 Series BMW also features some extra functions supporting the
driver in some situations.
Extra functions include:
n Hill-hold function making it easier to start up a hill. The parking brake
is engaged and released such that the car will not roll back down
the slope.
n Auto-stop engaging the brake when the car stops at a traffic light,
for example. This will stop the vehicle from creeping forwards and
relieve the driver who no longer needs to press the brake pedal the
whole time.
The difference between BMW and Audi is that in the BMW, the above
functions are provided by the DSC (=Dynamic Stability Control). The
electromechanical parking brake will be enabled only when the engine is
off.

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Electromechanical Parking Brake (EMP)

Emergency release

Both vehicles feature an emergency release mechanism which allows the

driver or garage to release the brake following a fatal system failure.
Audi's on-board tool kit includes a special Torx wrench. If necessary the
wheel has to be taken off. Use one side of the Torx wrench to loosen the
screws holding the electrical drive and remove the drive, together with
the wobble plate mechanism, from the brake calliper. Use the other side
to turn back the spindle.
The BMW's on-board tool kit also includes a special tool, i.e. an
unlatching rod. Insert the rod into a pilot tube and push it right through
to a gearwheel and further on to the actuator unit. Use the fork spanner
and the screwdriver handle to turn the unlatching rod anticlockwise
and release the brake.

On-board tool kit

On-board tool

Release tools

Automatic transmission emergency

release

Important: If there is a power supply failure (battery discharged) you

may find it impossible to move the vehicle although the brake has been
released. In this case the automatic transmission is set to 'parking lock'.
However, there is an emergency release mechanism for the parking lock,
too.
First of all, locate the lid of the release mechanism on the left side of the
footwell and open it. Then pull the red strip to flap out and lock a lever.
This releases the parking lock.
Proceed as follows to re-enable the electromechanical parking
brake following an emergency release:
Make sure that the vehicle is at a standstill and the ignition is on. Pull the
switch of the electromechanical parking brake three times leaving
approx. 5 seconds between each repeat. The system will start to initialise,
first of all initialising the release position. Then the brake engages and the
braking position is initialised. The control lamp on the display lights up
red. The brake is released and ready to operate. The control lamp on the
display extinguishes.

35

Electromechanical Parking Brake (EMP)

Changing brake
pads

You need appropriate diagnostic equipment to replace the rear brake

pads of Audi A8. Before you can start uninstalling the brake pads you
must first run the diagnostic unit to move the system to its "Home" position
and fully retract the cylinder.
Only then will you be able to push back the brake piston. After replacingthe brake pads, run the "Home" function again to make the cylinder
moves right up to the brake piston. Finally, choose "Adjustment" and enter
the thickness of the new brake pads.
BMW does not require you to use any diagnostic equipment.
An important thing to remember is that you must do a basic setup after
you have replaced the brake shoes or the rear brake discs. Remove a
wheel bolt on either side. Turn the right wheel until the thread of the
wheel bolt points to "7 o'clock" and the left wheel points to "5 o'clock".
Insert a suitable screwdriver into the hole, find the adjustment screw and
turn it until the wheel is set and cannot be turned. Then turn back the
adjustment screw by 10 notches. Do the same on the other side. Put the
wheel bolts back in and tighten at the rated torque.

Function test on
dynamometer

In order to brake-test the electromechanical parking brake, you should

provide means of testing the vehicle on a brakes inspection lane.
The Audi A8 automatically knows when the brake is being tested. As
soon as the rear wheels on the test stand turn at a constant speed of 3
to 9 km/h (1.9 to 5.6 mph) for 3 seconds, the control unit will automatically
go into test mode. It is crucial to turn on terminal 15 (ignition). The control
unit will vary the way it actuates the parking brake in that it makes the
piston move out a little further every time the brake is actuated, thus
causing the brake to grip a little harder.
The 7 Series BMW allows the parking brake to be tested only if the engine
is off and ignition is on. Pulling the brake switch will make the parking
brake respond fairly quickly, i.e. you will not be able to slowly and
continuously tighten the grip as you would do with a manually operated
parking brake.
Attention: The vehicle may jump out of the test rollers.
If the electromechanical parking brake is found to not work properly, the
first thing you should do is to test it on a brakes inspection lane.
The test stand will help you find out whether the brake is only working
imperfectly or not at all. If dynamometer testing finds that the brake is not
working properly you should make a visual inspection next.

36

Electromechanical Parking Brake (EMP)

Troubleshooting

Readings

The focus should be on the brake pads/brake shoes, the brake cables
(BMW), and any leaks that may be found (Audi). If the brake pads/brake
shoes prove to be okay, the brake cables undamaged, and if no leaks
are found you should go on and check the mechanical elements.
Pulling the parking brake switch while the vehicle is at a standstill and the
engine is off, you will be able to hear how the brake grips. When testing
the BMW, try opening the actuation unit and see if you can watch the
mechanism work. In case neither visual inspection nor examining the
mechanical elements reveals any faults or if the actuation unit/servo drives
are not actuated, you will need appropriate diagnostic equipment to
continue.
Like in many other electrical systems, the diagnostic unit allows you to
read the entries in the fault memory. Depending on the unit you use, there
may be options for turning the sets of measured values (readings) into an
on-screen display of the function/logical state of any component or for
running actuator diagnostics to actuate and function-test the components.
In case the brake needs to be repaired you should always refer to the
specific repair instructions, test values and tightening torques provided or
specified by the manufacturer. Following repair, remember to clear the
fault memory and to put the vehicle on a brakes inspection lane to verify
that the brake is working properly.

Readings

Important note:
You need a roller-type dynamometer to test the operability of the
electromechanical parking brake.
A plate-type test stand cannot be used.

37

Notes

38

39

 Hella KGaA Hueck & Co., Lippstadt 9Z2 999 126-652 XX/03.08/1.1 Printed in Germany

Hella KGaA Hueck & Co.

Rixbecker Strae 75
59552 Lippstadt/Germany
Tel.: +49 (0) 29 41/38-0
Fax: +49 (0) 29 41/38-71 33
Internet: www.hella.com

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