Political Modernization of Japan

Background
Circumstances leading to the adoption of a constitution in 1889:
The 1st phase, 1870-1881
Split of the Meiji leadership in 1873 - It was the unity among different
samurai leaders from a few feudal clans in late Tokugawa times that
succeeded in bringing about the Restoration in 1868. This leadership unity
was broken in 1873.
Two national issues divided the Meiji leaders:
1. The question of the composition of the new modern army to be created Some conservative and traditionalist leaders, led by Saigo Takamori, argued
that the samurai should form the core of the new army, while other more
progressive leaders favoured an army composed of the conscripted peasants
in which the samurai would only be a minority.
2. The problem of national defence against Western imperialism - It was
Saigo, supported by Itagaki Taisuke, who urged a military expedition against
Korea. They argued that an external war would bring internal unity for the

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country, raise the morale of the samurai, and forestall any Western
imperialists from occupying Korea.
The majority of other Meiji leaders wished to delay the proposed expedition
till Japan were economically and militarily strong enough. They argued that
if Japan really practiced an adventurous foreign policy, the Western
imperialist powers would use the opportunity to attack Japan.
In the end, Saigo, Itagaki and their followers gave way to the other Meiji
leaders. Peasant conscription, not a samurai-dominated system, was created.
No military expedition was sent to Korea. In protest, both resigned from the
government.
Out of the disagreement over national policy, there emerged three groups
of leaders:
1. The most powerful was the one in control of the government. It consisted of
men like Ito Hirobumi. Most of these leaders came from Choshu and
Satsuma. They intended to carry out modernization by first centralizing
power in the government. They aimed at the creation of a strong state by
binding the nation under the Emperor.

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2. The second group, led by Saigo, consisted of conservative samurai who were
dissatisfied with their loss of the samurai social position after the abolition of
feudalism and the introduction of peasant conscription.
3. The third group, led by Itagaki, consisted of samurai leaders from other clans.
These men supported the government in the abolition of feudalism but were
dissatisfied with the monopoly of power by Choshu and Satsuma. They
accused the Meiji government of being a "clan government".
Opposition to the Meiji government in the 1870s
Peaceful opposition
In a struggle for power with the government, Itagaki adopted a peaceful
policy. In 1875, he and his followers issued a statement to the government
and called for the establishment of an elected political assembly. With a
parliament, they argued, that the government and the people would be united.
Since the Meiji government required the people to perform military service,
the people had the right to demand political power from the state.
From 1875 - 1881, Itagaki succeeded in making the movement for
constitutional government a national issue. Peasants supported the movement

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because they believed a constitutional government would reduce taxation and
withdraw conscription.
Armed opposition
Meanwhile, Saigo and his followers were impatient with the method of
peaceful opposition adopted by Itagaki so he revolted. This was the Satsuma
Rebellion. Although it was quickly put down by the new peasant army of the
government, it left behind two effects:
Firstly, its failure showed that the Meiji government was too powerful to be
challenged by force. Thereafter, opposition to the Meiji government must
follow Itagaki's peaceful way.
Secondly, the Meiji government, knowing the danger of ignoring and
excluding other leaders from political participation, began to consider
seriously the practice of constitutional government.
Government in favour of constitutional rule
The Meiji government became in favour of constitutional rule, for the
following reasons:
Many strong European powers had constitutions. The Meiji leaders believed
that a constitution was essential for a modern state.

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On contact with the West, the Meiji leaders were convinced that a
constitution would broaden the base of popular support for the government.
A constitution based on Western models would gain Western appreciation.
Then, Japan could better argue for a revision of the unequal treaties.
It was the Meiji leaders' dissatisfaction with the Tokugawa authoritarian rule
that led them to overthrow it. Basically, they were opposed to authoritarian
rule.
The Meiji leaders hoped that a constitution would raise the position of the
Emperor and strengthen Japan's national identity.
In the early 1870s, the government told individual officials to draft different
constitutions for consideration. One of the officials, Okuma Shigenobu
submitted directly to Emperor in 1880 his draft which proposed basically a
British system of government by political parties and suggested the opening
of an elected parliament in the following year. Other Meiji leaders, who were
mainly Choshu and Satsuma men, considered it too liberal, and thus forced
Okuma to resign from the government.
Different motives concerning the future constitution
To the Meiji government, a constitution could strengthen the state by uniting
the people and the government.
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To men like Itagaki and Okuma, a constitution would give them power and
limit the rule of the Meiji government.
Circumstances leading to the adoption of a constitution in 1889: The 2nd
phase, 1881-1889
Government decision to adopt a constitution in 1881
In 1881, government reputation was badly affected by a big scandal
connected with some state officials. To regain the people's confidence, the
Meiji leaders knew that the promise of a constitution could not be delayed.
Thereby, the Emperor announced that a constitution would be promulgated
and a parliament would be opened by 1890.
Formation of political parties
1. Reform Party (Kaishinto) - The Reform Party, led by Okuma, advocated
the British type of constitutional government. It drew support from urban
intellectuals, former government officials and businessmen.
2. Liberal Party (Jiyuto) - At the same time, Itagaki organized a Liberal Party.
It advocated the French type of political organization. It drew support from
rural peasants, landlords and the poor people in cities.

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Constitutional Imperial Party
In order to compete with the Liberal Party and the Reform Party, the Meiji
government sponsored a party itself, known as the Constitutional Imperial
Party. It was based on the Germany model.
Government suppression and party disbandment in the 1880s
During the 1880s, the Meiji government began limiting party activities
through restrictive press and association laws. Many small peasants and
tenant-farmers of the Liberal Party protested against government suppression.
Some of them even broke into open revolts.
Yet, the top party leaders, who mostly consisted of former samurai leaders
and landlord merchants, refused to support their junior party members, who
mostly came from the lower social classes.
Furthermore, to show that they had no responsibility for the rebellions and to
avoid being accused of treason, the top party leaders disbanded their parties
altogether.
From the beginning, Japanese political parties failed to develop solid links
with the people. They bowed easily to government suppression.
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Development of political modernization

Preparatory steps taken by the government before the promulgation of a
constitution in the 1880s
In promising, as early as 1881, to adopt a constitution by the year 1890, the
Meiji leaders had gained a long period of time during which they could:
Take measures to strengthen the Emperor's rule before actual constitutional
rule was practiced
Carefully work out a constitution that would safeguard rather than limit the
government's power.
Measures to strengthen the Emperor's rule
It was decided that the Emperor should be supreme, above the constitution
and uncontrolled by the future parliament.
Thus, the Imperial Household Ministry was removed from the cabinet's
control. The properties owned by the Emperor were increased, so that he
could pay for the entire armed forces and the police from his yearly income,
independent of the parliament's financial control.

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The Meiji civil service was modernized and centralized, so that the future
parliament could not control it. The whole civil service system was reorganized on the German model. Government officials were employed under
strict state control. High officials were still selected by the top Meiji leaders.
New civil service regulations were issued to make sure that civil servants
would be loyal to the Emperor.
In 1884, the nobility, which had been abolished in the early 1870s, was reestablished. It consisted of the former daimyo and court nobles. With the reestablishment of the nobility, the Emperor's position was strengthened.
In 1885, the first Japanese cabinet was formed. It was headed by Ito and was
directly responsible to the Emperor.
Drafting a constitution
In 1882, Ito was appointed as the head of a mission to study European
constitutions. After arriving in Europe, Ito sent a junior official to France,
while he himself went to Germany. The reason was that from the very
beginning, the Meiji leaders had already decided to adopt an undemocratic
Prussian-style constitution. In Germany, Ito attended the lectures of a wellknown jurist, Gneist, and got much conservative advice. In 1883, the mission
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returned to Japan. In 1886, under the personal supervision of the Emperor, Ito
began working out a constitution.
A Prussian adviser, Dr. Roessler, was employed. Since Roessler was opposed
to popular rule, his advice fitted well with Ito's intention. The work was being
carried out in strict secrecy. By 1888, drafts of the constitution were finished.
Instead of presenting them to the people for ratification, Ito sent the drafts to
the newly created Privy Council for revision.
In 1889, the Meiji Constitution was promulgated. Only then did the people
get to know its content and provisions.
The Meiji Constitution, 1889
The Constitution was granted by the Emperor to the people. The Constitution
was written in general terms. The Emperor could give orders outside the
scope of the Constitution. The Emperor was "sacred and inviolable" and
above the Constitution.
Effective power lay with the Emperor
He commanded the military forces and controlled foreign policy.
He appointed cabinet members, judges and Privy Council members.
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He could dissolve Parliament at will.
He could prevent any bill passed by Parliament from becoming law.
Parliament was divided into two houses:
The Upper House was the House of Peers. It consisted of life members
appointed by the Emperor. They were the nobles re-established by Ito in
1884.
The Lower House was the House of Representatives. It had 300 members
elected for 4 years of service by 1% of the population.
The cabinet could ignore Parliament in carrying out its policies.
The annual budget of the government was subject to Parliament's vote before
it was accepted. However, in case Parliament refused to approve the budget,
the previous years would be used again.
The Meiji leaders were advisers to the Emperor from behind the scene. They
were known as Genro (literally meaning "elders"). They were not bound by
the Constitution.

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The citizens were given freedom of religion, of speech and of association.
The government reserved the power to withdraw the citizen's rights if it felt
necessary to do so.
Contrast
Main features in Ideal Liberal Constitution
The Constitution is approved by the people and promulgated in the name of
the people. The Constitution is often written in specific details. Whatever the
government does must be constitutional.
Even the Emperor must obey the Constitution. Effective power lies with
Parliament, especially the Lower House:
Parliament commands the military forces and controls foreign policy through
the cabinet.
The Lower House elects the cabinet.
Judges enjoy independence guaranteed by the Constitution.
The Emperor has no right to dissolve Parliament.
Any bill passed by Parliament will become law.
Since the people elect Parliament, effective power is in the hands of the
people. Both the Upper and Lower Houses are elected by the people. All
adult people have the right to vote.
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The cabinet must have the approval of Parliament, or else Parliament will
force the cabinet to resign.
The annual budget must have the approval of Parliament; otherwise no
budget can be used.
Every political act and every statesman is bound by the Constitution.
The freedoms and rights given to the citizens are guaranteed and safeguarded
by the constitution.
Reasons for the adoption of such an undemocratic constitution
Insincere attitude to democracy among party leaders
The political parties of the 1880s had no real intention of giving more power
and rights to the people.
Party leaders were either former samurai or merchant-industrialists who were
anxious to shape power with the Meiji government leaders, not to transfer
power to the people.
Most of them had no real interests in democracy, and democracy had no roots
in Japanese tradition.
The parties failed to develop any ideology to compete with the sacred claims
of the Emperor. When government suppression was carried out, the parties
easily fell apart.
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Some top party leaders like Okuma made peace with the government and
sided with it. They abandoned the democratic movement.
Strength of the Meiji government
The Meiji government was determined to hold its political power. The Meiji
leaders cleverly made use of the Emperor system. They stood out to represent
the true personal rule of the Emperor.
Any accusations against them would appear to be accusing the Emperor at
the same time.
Having promised a constitution, the Meiji leaders had a long period of time to
work out a constitution that permitted strong government rule.
The need for national unity
Both the party leaders and the Meiji government leaders were agreed on the
need for national unity to defend against Western imperialism.
The force of nationalism gave the Meiji leaders an excuse to write an
undemocratic constitution that strengthened the state.

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Lack of democratic tradition
Authoritarian tradition was strong in Japanese society. There was a traditional
dislike of parties. They were viewed as groups that disturbed political
harmony.
The people were accustomed to obedience and discipline. As a result, social
democracy failed to take root in Japanese society.
Legal Reforms
Japan knew that the Western powers would consider revising the unequal
treaties only if the Japanese legal system was up to Western standards. Thus,
law reforms were carried out by the Meiji government, largely under foreign
guidance.
In 1871, a Judicial Department was set up. Then a French lawyer was
employed to draft three law codes for Japan: one criminal, one civil and one
commercial.
When these codes were introduced, many people were dissatisfied, as the
codes were felt to be too Western.

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Consequently, revisions had to be made again and again. Under the new
system, judges were trained. Judicial and administrative powers were
separated. Torture was abolished. Rules of evidence and court procedure
were laid down.
Effects of political modernization
Contribution to Japan as a modern state
Although the constitution was undemocratic, Japan had at least adopted a
Western political structure. This helped them to become a modern state. The
Meiji state was politically strengthened.
Background to the rise of party rule in the 1920s
To opposition leaders like Itagaki, there were at least opportunities for
political activities.
Although the Meiji leaders still held effective power, they gradually found it
necessary and convenient to cooperate with the parties which re-emerged
after 1890.
Ito even organized a party himself. These developments paved the way for
the rise of party rule and democratic experimentation in the 1920s.
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Political rights given to the people

The political rights and freedom given to the people were great. These were
necessary if the ignorant people were to be turned into modern citizens.
Rise of new social movements
Through public speeches and discussions, the political parties popularized
Western thoughts and ideas that they imported into Japan.
After the 1900s, these new Western ideas began to attract some believers.
New social movements began to appear.
Underlying cause of the rise of militarism in the 1930s
The gains of the constitution were not institutionalized. The Emperor was
above the constitution. Military leaders and the Genro could influence him
outside the limits of the constitution.
The entire constitutional government could easily be turned into a militarist
dictatorship.
Misunderstanding of democracy
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Right from the start, democratic movements were confused with nationalist
and patriotic movements in Japan. The real meaning of democracy was not
understood.

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