The Atmosphere Specification

1)Examples of Giant Molecular Structures include

Diamond and Silicon Dioxide (Silicon (IV) Oxide)
2)Carbon Dioxide has small molecules with each
carbon forming a double bond with oxygen
atoms whereas Silicon Dioxide forms giant lattice
structures and forms single bonds with four
oxygen atoms as a result, Carbon dioxide is a
gas at room temperature (non polar molecules
so only ID-ID) whereas Silicon Dioxide has high
boiling and melting point. CO2 can dissolve in
water but SiO2 cannot.
3)Concentration increasing conc. Speeds up
reaction as particles are closer together so they
collide more often, therefore more chances to
react.
4)Pressure increasing pressure means partciles
more close together so collide more often so
more chances to react
5)Surface Area powdered better than lump as
more particles come into contact with reactants
which leads to faster reaction
6)Temperature more temperature means
particles have more energy to react when they
collide and also kinetic energy means moving
faster so they collide more often.
7)Enthalpy profile shows the energy of reaction
particles before, during and after they react if
they overcome the activation enthalpy, bonds
can break.

8)Activation enthalpy is the minimum amounts of

kinetic energy particles need in order to react
(break the bonds to start the reaction).
9)If activation enthalpy is low, reaction happens
more quickly. High temperature means a greater
proportion of molecules will have the activation
energy in order to react.
10) Catalysts lower activation enthalpy by
providing an alternative path. This means more
particles will react
11) Homogeneous catalysts are in the same state
as the reactants and remain chemically
unchanged at the end of the reaction.
12) Homogeneous catalysts speed up the reaction
by forming one or more intermediate compounds
the products are then formed from the
intermediate compounds. The activation
enthalpy needed to form the intermediates (and
form the products from the intermediates) is
lower than that needed to make the products
directly from the reactants.
13) Dynamic equilibrium is when rates of forward
and backwards are the same therefore the
number of products and the reactants being
made are the same also this occurs in a closed
system only.
14) Catalysts do not affect the position of
equilibrium but they do result in equilibrium
being reached faster.

15) Increasing concentration of reactant makes

more products and vice versa.
16) Increasing pressure (only affects gases) favors
side with least number of moles/molecules.
Therefore if product side has fewer moles then
more products is produced.
17) Increasing temperature means equilibrium
shifts in endothermic direction. Decreasing the
temperature shifts in exothermic reaction.
18) Nitrogen: 78%, Oxygen 21%, Argon 1%, CO2:
0.035, varying amounts of water vapour.
19) Multiply percentage (x/100) by 10 000 to get x
parts per million
20) Ozone layer is being destroyed by
homogeneous catalysis chlorine free radicals
are formed when CFCs are broken down by UV
radiation. These free radicals are catalysts they
react with Ozone to form an intermediate (ClO)
and an oxygen molecule.
Cl + O3 O2 + Clo
Clo + O3 2O2 + Cl
Therefore 2O3 becomes 3O2 where chlorine is
the catalyst
21) Bonds between carbon and halogen atoms can
be broken by ultraviolet radiation, also known as
photo disassociation this bond is broken
homolytically to create two free radicals

22) How easily the halogen bond is broken

depends on the halogen involved carbo-iodine
bond is most likely to break and carbon-fluorine
is least likely. This is because C-I bond has the
lowest bond enthalpy whereas C-F has highest
bond enthalpy.
23) British Antarctic Survey found ozone was thin
in certain places compared to previous
measurements. The decrease was to such a
degree the scientists thought the measuring
instruments must be faulty, but new instruments
gave the same reading. Satellite that mapped
ozone levels was programmed to treat
measurements below certain value as errors so
evidence ignored and overlooked. The data was
published by B.A.S and re-examined to show
hole existed
24) Evidence took time to collect scientists
aware CFCs affected ozone and knew ozone was
thinning. Took a while to prove this however.
Many Antarctic expeditions and high altitude
flights in spy plane and a lot of satellite data
gathered for evidence to confirm hypothesis and
rule out natural causes.
25) A single covalent bond is a shared pair of
electrons. Between to atoms. Bond breaking
(bond fission). Heterolytic fission where two
different substances (cation and anion) formed
(both electrons go to one atom). Homolytic
fission where one electron goes to each two
radicals produced (radicals are particles that
have an unpaired electron, which makes them
very reactive).

26) Initiation free radicals produced. Sunlight

provides enough energy for Cl-Cl to break, photo
disassociation. Bond splits equally and one
electron goes to each atom so each atom
becomes highly reactive free radical and it has
unpaired electron.
27) Propagation reactions free radicals are used
up and created in a chain reaction. Cl attacks
methane, which produced methyl free radical.
CH3 then attacks another Cl2 molecule, creating
new Cl, which attacks another, CH4 so chain
reaction.
28) Termination free radicals completely gone. If
two free radicals join, stable molecule produced.
29) Halogens react with alkanes in a
photochemical reaction photochemical
reactions are started by ultraviolet light. A
hydrogen atom is substituted by chlorine or
bromine and this is a free-radical substitution
reaction. CH4 + Cl2 CH3Cl + HCL
30) CFCs are unreactive, non-flammable and
harmless so useful for fire extinguishers,
propellants in aerosols and coolant gas in
fridges.
31) Hydro-chlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) broken
down in 10-20 years not as damaging to ozone
layer as compared to CFCs
32) HFCs are broken down also and contain no
chlorine so wont affect ozone layer however
both HFCs and HCFCs are greenhouse gases,
1000x worse than C02. Most aerosols nowadays

have pump spray systems or nitrogen as

propellant and fridges use ammonia. CO2 is used
to make foamed polymers.
33) Ozone is formed when O2 broken by UV
radiation. O2 splits into free radicals or separate
atoms the radicals then join with other oxygen
molecules to form O3.
O2 + HV O + O
O2 + O O3
34) Ozone is also destroyed by UV radiation
(reversing of reaction by UV) O3 + HV O2 + O
35) Ozone protects against UV radiation. The
absorption of UV by Ozone prevents harmful UV
radiation from getting to us, which can cause
cancer.
36) Ozone occurs in troposphere due to effect of
sunlight of nitrogen dioxide and hydrocarbons
(naturally but also car engines and power
stations)
37) Ozone can mix with solid particles of carbon
etc. to form photochemical smog.
38) Ozone is toxic to humans, and can cause
respiratory problems (asthma, lung problems
etc.)
39) In order of increasing frequency and energy,
Infrared, visible light then ultraviolet. Earths
surface also absorbs radiation and is warmed it
re-emits radiation, mostly as infrared however at
a lower frequency than the sun as earth is much
cooler than sun.

40) Infrared radiation makes some bonds vibrate

more. Only molecules of different atoms can
absorb infrared radiation. This is because the
polarities of the bonds change as they vibrate.
41) Gas molecules bonds have certain fixed
vibrational energy levels. These are quantized,
so bond energy can only jump from one level to
the next. This means only frequencies of
radiation corresponding to particular amounts of
energy are absorbed. Different molecules absorb
different frequencies of radiation.
42) E = HV
43) The electrons in molecules also have fixed
energy levels. When ultraviolet radiation or
visible light hit a molecule of gas the electrons
can absorb the energy and jump up to the next
energy level. Because energy needed for these
jumps are quantized too, only specific
frequencies are absorbed.
44) If enough energy is absorbed, bonds break,
forming free radicals.
45) Sun emits electromagnetic radiation, mostly as
visible light, UV radiation and infrared radiation.
Most UV and infrared absorbed by atmospheric
gases and some reflected back into space by
clouds. The energy that reaches Earths surface
is mainly visible light and UV. Some is reflected
by shiny white surfaces whereas some is
absorbed, causing earth to become warm. Earth
then radiates energy back towards space as
infrared radiation. Some gases in atmosphere

absorb this IR radiation and re-emit in all

directions, causing us to be warm.
46) In less detail, solar energy reaches mainly as
visible and UV. Earth absorbs some of this
energy, heats up and radiates IR. Certain gases
in troposphere absorb some of this IR radiation
(in the IR window). Absorption of IR by these
gases increases vibrational energy of their
bonds, the energy is transferred to other
molecules by collisions, thus increasing their
kinetic energy and raising the temperature.
47) Main greenhouse gases are water vapor,
carbon dioxide and methane. Their molecules
absorb IR radiation to make the bonds in the
molecules vibrate more. This extra vibrational
energy is passed on to other molecules by
collisions, which gives them more kinetic energy
and so raising the overall temperature.
48) Higher the concentration of gas, more IR
trapped therefore more global warming. Also
how much radiation trapped by one molecule of
gas (methane traps more than carbon dioxide)
In order to control CO2 emissions increase
photosynthesis, use less fossil fuels. Inject CO2
as liquid in deep ocean, store it deep
underground, or react with metal oxides to form
stable easily stored carbonate minerals such as
calcium carbonate.

49)