Resistance of Metals

All metals are electrical conductors which at all but very low temperatures offer
resistance to the passage of electric current. The electrical resistance exhibited by a
conductor is measured in ohms. The proportional relationship of electrical current and
potential difference is given by Ohm's law:
R=E/I

where
R is resistance in ohms,
E is potential difference in volts,
I is current in amperes.
Different metals show widely different resistivities. The resistance of a conductor is
proportional to its length and inversely proportional to its cross-sectional area, i.e.,

OR
where R is resistance of the conductor, p is resistivity of the material, L is length of the
conductor, and A is cross-sectional area of the conductor. The units of resistivity are
ohms.meter The resistivity of a conductor is temperature dependent. The temperature
coefficient of resistivity is positive for metals, that is, the resistance increases with
temperature, and for semiconductors the temperature coefficient is negative. As a general
guide at normal ambient temperatures the coefficient of resistivity of most elemental
metals lies in the region of 0.35 percent to 0.7 percent per oC.
The metals most used for resistance measurement are platinum, nickel, and
copper. These metals have the advantage that they can be manufactured to a high degree
of purity and consequently they can be made with very high reproductibility of resistance
characteristics. Copper has the disadvantage of a low resistivity resulting in
inconveniently large sensing elements and has the further disadvantage of poor resistance
to corrosion resulting in instability of electrical characteristics. The main area of
application of copper for resistance thermometers is in electronic instrumentation where
it is in a controlled environment and where an essentially linear temperature characteristic

is required. Whether an RTDs element is constructed of platinum, copper, or nickel,

each type of metal has a different sensitivity, accuracy, and temperature range. Sensitivity
is defined as the amount of resistance change of the sensor per degree of temperature
change. Figure shows below is the sensitivity for the most common metals used to build
RTDs. Platinum

FIGURE Sensitivity Of the common metals.

A noble metal, has the most stable resistance-to-temperature relationship over the largest
temperature range 184.44C (300F) to 648.88C (1200F). Nickel elements have a
limited temperature range because the amount of change in resistance per degree of
change in temperature becomes very nonlinear at temperatures above 300C (572F).

Copper has a very linear resistance-to-temperature relationship. However, copper

oxidizes at moderate temperatures and cannot be used above 150C (302F).
Platinum is the best metal for RTD elements for three reasons. It follows a very
linear resistance-to-temperature relationship; it follows its resistance-to-temperature
relationship in a highly repeatable manner over its temperature range; and it has the
widest temperature range among the metals used to make RTDs. Platinum is not the most
sensitive metal; however, it is the metal that offers the best long-term stability.
The accuracy of an RTD is significantly better than that of a thermocouple within
an RTDs normal temperature range of 184.44C (300F) to 648.88C (1200F). RTDs
are also known for high stability and repeatability. They can be removed from service
and recalibrated for verifiable accuracy and checked for any possible drift.

Who Uses RTDs? Common Assemblies and Applications

Different applications require different types of RTDs. A direct-immersion

Platinum Resistance Thermometer (PRT) and a connection head can be used for lowvelocity pipelines, tanks, or air temperature measurement. A spring-loaded PRT,
thermowell, and connection head are often used in pipelines or storage tanks. An
averaging temperature element senses and measures temperatures along its entire sheath,
which can range from 1 to 20 m in length. A heavy-duty underwater temperature sensor
is designed for complete submersion under rivers, cooling ponds, or sewers. These are
just a few examples of RTD configurations and applications.

Overview of Platinum RTDs

There are three main classes of Platinum Resistance Thermometers (PRTs):

Standard Platinum Resistance Thermometers (SPRTs), Secondary Standard Platinum
Resistance Thermometers (Secondary SPRTs), and Industrial Platinum Resistance
Thermometers (IPRTs). Table 32.6 presents information about each.

Temperature Coefficient of Resistance

Each of the different metals used for sensing elements (platinum, nickel, copper)
has a different amount of relative change in resistance per unit change in temperature. A
measure of a resistance thermometers sensitivity is its temperature coefficient of
resistance. It is defined as the elements change in resistance per degree C change in
temperature per ohm of sensor resistance over the range of 0C to 100C. The alpha
value is the average change in resistance per degree C per ohm resistance. The actual
change in resistance per degree C per ohm is largest at 200C and decreases steadily as
the use temperatures increase.

FIGURE 32.8 The Standard Platinum Resistance Thermometer is fragile and used only
in laboratory environments.
The units for the coefficient are /
1/C1. This is called the alpha value and is
commonly denoted by the Greek letter . The larger the temperature coefficient, the
greater the change in resistance for a given change in temperature. Of the commonly used
RTD metals, nickel has the highest temperature coefficient, 0.00672, while that of copper
is 0.00427. The value of the sensor is calculated using the equation:

where
R0 = the resistance of the sensor at 0C
R100 = the resistance of the sensor at 100C