WHAT IS SOLAR ENERGY

Solar energy is the radiant light and heat from the Sun that has been harnessed by humans
since ancient times using a range of ever-evolving technologies. Solar radiation along
with
secondary
solar
resources
such
as wind and wave
power, hydroelectricity andbiomass account for most of the available renewable
energy on Earth. Only a minuscule fraction of the available solar energy is used.
Solar power provides electrical generation by means of heat enginesor photovoltaics.
Once converted, its uses are limited only by human ingenuity. A partial list of solar
applications includes space heating and cooling through solar architecture, potable
water via distillationand disinfection, daylighting, hot water, thermal energy for cooking,
and high temperature process heat for industrial purposes.
Solar technologies are broadly characterized as either passive solar or active
solardepending on the way they capture, convert and distribute sunlight. Active solar
techniques include the use of photovoltaic panels and solar thermal collectors (with
electrical or mechanical equipment) to convert sunlight into useful outputs. Passive solar
techniques include orienting a building to the Sun, selecting materials with
favorablethermal mass or light dispersing properties, and designing spaces that naturally
circulate air.
The Earth receives 174 petawatts (PW) of incoming solar radiation (insolation) at the
upper atmosphere.[1] Approximately 30% is reflected back to space while the rest is
absorbed by clouds, oceans and land masses. The spectrum of solar light at the Earth's
surface is mostly spread across the visible and near-infrared ranges with a small part in
the near-ultraviolet.[2]
Earth's land surface, oceans and atmosphere absorb solar radiation, and this raises their
temperature. Warm air containing evaporated water from the oceans rises,
causing atmospheric circulation orconvection. When the air reaches a high altitude, where
the temperature is low, water vapor condenses into clouds, which rain onto the Earth's
surface, completing the water cycle. The latent heat of water condensation amplifies
convection, producing atmospheric phenomena such as wind, cyclones and anti-cyclones.
[3] Sunlight absorbed by the oceans and land masses keeps the surface at an average
temperature of 14 C.[4] By photosynthesis green plants convert solar energy
into chemical energy, which produces food, wood and the biomass from which fossil
fuels are derived.[5]
Yearly Solar fluxes & Human Energy Consumption
Solar

3,850,000 EJ[6]

Wind

2,250 EJ[7]

Biomass

3,000 EJ[8]

Primary energy use (2005)

487 EJ[9]

Electricity (2005)
56.7 EJ[10]
The total solar energy absorbed by Earth's atmosphere, oceans and land masses is
approximately 3,850,000 exajoules (EJ) per year.[11] In 2002, this was more energy in
one hour than the world used in one year.[12][13]Photosynthesis captures approximately
3,000 EJ per year in biomass.[14] The amount of solar energy reaching the surface of the

planet is so vast that in one year it is about twice as much as will ever be obtained from
all of the Earth's non-renewable resources of coal, oil, natural gas, and mined uranium
combined.[15]
From the table of resources it would appear that solar, wind or biomass would be
sufficient to supply all of our energy needs, however, the increased use of biomass has
had a negative effect on global warming and dramatically increased food prices by
diverting forests and crops into biofuel production.[16] Asintermittent resources, solar
and wind raise other issues.
Applications of solar technology
Average insolation showing land area (small black dots) required to replace the world
primary energy supply with solar electricity. 18 TW is 568 Exajoule (EJ) per year.
Insolation for most people is from 150 to 300 W/m or 3.5 to 7.0 kWh/m/day.
Solar energy refers primarily to the use of solar radiation for practical ends. However, all
renewable energies, other than geothermal andtidal, derive their energy from the sun.
Solar technologies are broadly characterized as either passive or active depending on the
way they capture, convert and distribute sunlight. Active solar techniques use
photovoltaic panels, pumps, and fans to convert sunlight into useful outputs. Passive solar
techniques include selecting materials with favorable thermal properties, designing
spaces that naturally circulate air, and referencing the position of a building to the Sun.
Active solar technologies increase the supply of energy and are consideredsupply
side technologies, while passive solar technologies reduce the need for alternate resources
and are generally considered demand side technologies.[17]
Agriculture and horticulture
Greenhouses like these in the Westland municipality of theNetherlands grow vegetables,
fruits and flowers.
Agriculture seeks to optimize the capture of solar energy in order to optimize the
productivity of plants. Techniques such as timed planting cycles, tailored row orientation,
staggered heights between rows and the mixing of plant varieties can improve crop
yields.[23][24]While sunlight is generally considered a plentiful resource, the exceptions
highlight the importance of solar energy to agriculture. During the short growing seasons
of the Little Ice Age, French andEnglish farmers employed fruit walls to maximize the
collection of solar energy. These walls acted as thermal masses and accelerated ripening
by keeping plants warm. Early fruit walls were built perpendicular to the ground and
facing south, but over time, sloping walls were developed to make better use of sunlight.
In 1699, Nicolas Fatio de Duillier even suggested using atracking mechanism which
could pivot to follow the Sun.[25] Applications of solar energy in agriculture aside from
growing crops include pumping water, drying crops, brooding chicks and drying chicken
manure.[26][27] More recently the technology has been embraced by vinters, who use the
energy generated by solar panels to power grape presses.[28]
Greenhouses convert solar light to heat, enabling year-round production and the growth
(in enclosed environments) of specialty crops and other plants not naturally suited to the
local climate. Primitive greenhouses were first used during Roman times to

produce cucumbers year-round for the Roman emperor Tiberius.[29] The first modern
greenhouses were built in Europe in the 16th century to keep exotic plants brought back
from explorations abroad.[30] Greenhouses remain an important part of horticulture
today, and plastic transparent materials have also been used to similar effect
in polytunnelsand row covers.
Solar lighting
Daylighting features such as thisoculus at the top of the Pantheon, inRome, Italy have
been in use since antiquity.
The history of lighting is dominated by the use of natural light. The Romans recognized
a right to light as early as the 6th century and English law echoed these judgments with
the Prescription Act of 1832.[31][32] In the 20th century artificial lighting became the
main source of interior illumination but daylighting techniques and hybrid solar lighting
solutions are ways to reduce energy consumption.
Daylighting systems collect and distribute sunlight to provide interior illumination. This
passive technology directly offsets energy use by replacing artificial lighting, and
indirectly offsets non-solar energy use by reducing the need for air-conditioning.
[33] Although difficult to quantify, the use of natural lighting also offers physiological
and psychological benefits compared to artificial lighting.[33] Daylighting design implies
careful selection of window types, sizes and orientation; exterior shading devices may be
considered as well. Individual features include sawtooth roofs, clerestory windows, light
shelves,skylights and light tubes. They may be incorporated into existing structures, but
are most effective when integrated into a solar design package that accounts for factors
such as glare, heat flux and time-of-use. When daylighting features are properly
implemented they can reduce lighting-related energy requirements by 25%.[34]
Hybrid solar lighting is an active solar method of providing interior illumination. HSL
systems collect sunlight using focusing mirrors that track the Sun and use optical fibers to
transmit it inside the building to supplement conventional lighting. In single-story
applications these systems are able to transmit 50% of the direct sunlight received.[35]
Solar lights that charge during the day and light up at dusk are a common sight along
walkways.[citation needed]
Although daylight saving time is promoted as a way to use sunlight to save energy, recent
research has been limited and reports contradictory results: several studies report savings,
but just as many suggest no effect or even a net loss, particularly
when gasoline consumption is taken into account. Electricity use is greatly affected by
geography, climate and economics, making it hard to generalize from single studies.[36]
Solar thermal
Solar thermal technologies can be used for water heating, space heating, space cooling
and process heat generation.[37]
Water heating
Solar water heaters facing the Sun to maximize gain.
Solar hot water systems use sunlight to heat water. In low geographical latitudes (below
40 degrees) from 60 to 70% of the domestic hot water use with temperatures up to 60 C

can be provided by solar heating systems.[38] The most common types of solar water
heaters are evacuated tube collectors (44%) and glazed flat plate collectors (34%)
generally used for domestic hot water; and unglazed plastic collectors (21%) used mainly
to heat swimming pools.[39]
As of 2007, the total installed capacity of solar hot water systems is approximately
154 GW.[40] China is the world leader in their deployment with 70 GW installed as of
2006 and a long term goal of 210 GW by 2020.[41] Israel and Cyprus are the per capita
leaders in the use of solar hot water systems with over 90% of homes using them.[42] In
the United States, Canada and Australia heating swimming pools is the dominant
application of solar hot water with an installed capacity of 18 GW as of 2005.[17]
Heating, cooling and ventilation
Solar House #1 ofMassachusetts Institute of Technology in the United States, built in
1939, used seasonal thermal storage for year-round heating.
In the United States, heating, ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC) systems account
for 30% (4.65 EJ) of the energy used in commercial buildings and nearly 50% (10.1 EJ)
of the energy used in residential buildings.[34][43] Solar heating, cooling and ventilation
technologies can be used to offset a portion of this energy.
Thermal mass is any material that can be used to store heatheat from the Sun in the
case of solar energy. Common thermal mass materials include stone, cement and water.
Historically they have been used in arid climates or warm temperate regions to keep
buildings cool by absorbing solar energy during the day and radiating stored heat to the
cooler atmosphere at night. However they can be used in cold temperate areas to maintain
warmth as well. The size and placement of thermal mass depend on several factors such
as climate, daylighting and shading conditions. When properly incorporated, thermal
mass maintains space temperatures in a comfortable range and reduces the need for
auxiliary heating and cooling equipment.[44]
A solar chimney (or thermal chimney, in this context) is a passive solar ventilation system
composed of a vertical shaft connecting the interior and exterior of a building. As the
chimney warms, the air inside is heated causing an updraft that pulls air through the
building. Performance can be improved by using glazing and thermal mass materials in a
way that mimics greenhouses.[citation needed]
Deciduous trees and plants have been promoted as a means of controlling solar heating
and cooling. When planted on the southern side of a building, their leaves provide shade
during the summer, while the bare limbs allow light to pass during the winter.[45] Since
bare, leafless trees shade 1/3 to 1/2 of incident solar radiation, there is a balance between
the benefits of summer shading and the corresponding loss of winter heating.[46] In
climates with significant heating loads, deciduous trees should not be planted on the
southern side of a building because they will interfere with winter solar availability. They
can, however, be used on the east and west sides to provide a degree of summer shading
without appreciably affecting winter solar gain.[47]
Water treatment
Application of SODIS technology in Indonesia to water disinfection.

Small scale solar powered sewerage treatment plant.

Solar distillation can be used to make saline or brackish waterpotable. The first recorded
instance of this was by 16th century Arab alchemists.[48] A large-scale solar distillation
project was first constructed in 1872 in the Chilean mining town of Las Salinas.[49]The
plant, which had solar collection area of 4,700 m, could produce up to 22,700 L per day
and operated for 40 years.[49] Individual stilldesigns include single-slope, double-slope
(or greenhouse type), vertical, conical, inverted absorber, multi-wick, and multiple effect.
[48]These stills can operate in passive, active, or hybrid modes. Double-slope stills are
the most economical for decentralized domestic purposes, while active multiple effect
units are more suitable for large-scale applications.[48]
Solar water disinfection (SODIS) involves exposing water-filled plasticpolyethylene
terephthalate (PET) bottles to sunlight for several hours.[50] Exposure times vary
depending on weather and climate from a minimum of six hours to two days during fully
overcast conditions.[51] SODIS is recommended by the World Health Organization as a
viable method for household water treatment and safe storage.[52] Over two million
people in developing countries use SODIS for their daily drinking water.[51]
Solar energy may be used in a water stabilisation pond to treatwaste water without
chemicals or electricity. A further environmental advantage is that algae grow in such
ponds and consume carbon dioxide in photosynthesis.[53][54]
Cooking
The Solar Bowl in Auroville, India, concentrates sunlight on a movable receiver to
produce steam for cooking.
Solar cookers use sunlight for cooking, drying and pasteurization. They can be grouped
into three broad categories: box cookers, panel cookers and reflector cookers.[55] The
simplest solar cookerthe box cooker first built by Horace de Saussure in 1767.[56] A
basic box cooker consists of an insulated container with a transparent lid. It can be used
effectively with partially overcast skies and will typically reach temperatures of 90
150 C.[57] Panel cookers use a reflective panel to direct sunlight onto an insulated
container and reach temperatures comparable to box cookers. Reflector cookers use
various concentrating geometries (dish, trough, Fresnel mirrors) to focus light on a
cooking container. These cookers reach temperatures of 315 C and above but require
direct light to function properly and must be repositioned to track the Sun.[58]
The solar bowl is a concentrating technology employed by the Solar Kitchen
in Auroville, Pondicherry,India, where a stationary spherical reflector focuses light along
a line perpendicular to the sphere's interior surface, and a computer control system moves
the receiver to intersect this line. Steam is produced in the receiver at temperatures
reaching 150 C and then used for process heat in the kitchen.[59]
A reflector developed by Wolfgang Scheffler in 1986 is used in many solar kitchens.
Scheffler reflectors are flexible parabolic dishes that combine aspects of trough and
power tower concentrators. Polar tracking is used to follow the Sun's daily course and the
curvature of the reflector is adjusted for seasonal variations in the incident angle of

sunlight. These reflectors can reach temperatures of 450650 C and have a fixed focal
point, which simplifies cooking.[60] The world's largest Scheffler reflector system in Abu
Road, Rajasthan, India is capable of cooking up to 35,000 meals a day.[61] As of 2008,
over 2,000 large Scheffler cookers had been built worldwide.[62]
Process heat
STEP parabolic dishes used for steam production and electrical generation.
Solar concentrating technologies such as parabolic dish, trough and Scheffler reflectors
can provide process heat for commercial and industrial applications. The first commercial
system was the Solar Total Energy Project (STEP) in Shenandoah, Georgia, USA where a
field of 114 parabolic dishes provided 50% of the process heating, air conditioning and
electrical requirements for a clothing factory. This grid-connected cogeneration system
provided 400 kW of electricity plus thermal energy in the form of 401 kW steam and
468 kW chilled water, and had a one hour peak load thermal storage.[63]
Evaporation ponds are shallow pools that concentrate dissolved solids
through evaporation. The use of evaporation ponds to obtain salt from sea water is one of
the oldest applications of solar energy. Modern uses include concentrating brine solutions
used in leach mining and removing dissolved solids from waste streams.[64]
Clothes lines, clotheshorses, and clothes racks dry clothes through evaporation by wind
and sunlight without consuming electricity or gas. In some states of the United States
legislation protects the "right to dry" clothes.[65]
Unglazed transpired collectors (UTC) are perforated sun-facing walls used for preheating
ventilation air. UTCs can raise the incoming air temperature up to 22 C and deliver
outlet temperatures of 4560 C.[66]The short payback period of transpired collectors (3
to 12 years) makes them a more cost-effective alternative than glazed collection systems.
[66] As of 2003, over 80 systems with a combined collector area of 35,000 m had been
installed worldwide, including an 860 m collector in Costa Rica used for drying coffee
beans and a 1,300 m collector in Coimbatore, India used for drying marigolds.[27]
Electrical generation
Sunlight can be converted into electricity using photovoltaics (PV), concentrating solar
power (CSP), and various experimental technologies. PV has mainly been used to power
small and medium-sized applications, from the calculator powered by a single solar cell
to off-grid homes powered by aphotovoltaic array. For large-scale generation, CSP plants
like SEGS have been the norm but recently multi-megawatt PV plants are becoming
common. Completed in 2007, the 14 MW power station in Clark County, Nevada, United
States and the 20 MW site in Beneixama, Spain are characteristic of the trend toward
larger photovoltaic power stations in the United States and Europe.[67] As an intermittent
power source, solar power requires a backup supply, which can partially be
complemented with wind power. Local backup usually is done with batteries, while
utilities normally use pumped-hydro storage. The Institute for Solar Energy Supply
Technology of the University of Kassel in Germany pilot-tested acombined power
plant linking solar, wind, biogas and hydrostorage to provide load-following power
around the clock, entirely from renewable sources.[68]
Experimental solar power

Solar Evaporation Ponds in theAtacama Desert, South America

A solar pond is a pool of salt water (usually 12 m deep) that collects and stores solar
energy. Solar ponds were first proposed by Dr. Rudolph Bloch in 1948 after he came
across reports of a lake inHungary in which the temperature increased with depth. This
effect was due to salts in the lake's water, which created a "density gradient" that
prevented convection currents. A prototype was constructed in 1958 on the shores of the
Dead Sea nearJerusalem.[69] The pond consisted of layers of water that successively
increased from a weak salt solution at the top to a high salt solution at the bottom. This
solar pond was capable of producing temperatures of 90 C in its bottom layer and had an
estimated solar-to-electric efficiency of two percent.
Thermoelectric, or "thermovoltaic" devices convert a temperature difference between
dissimilar materials into an electric current. First proposed as a method to store solar
energy by solar pioneer Mouchout in the 1800s,[70] thermoelectrics reemerged in the
Soviet Union during the 1930s. Under the direction of Soviet scientist Abram Ioffe a
concentrating system was used to thermoelectrically generate power for a 1 hp engine.
[71] Thermogenerators were later used in the US space program as an energy conversion
technology for powering deep space missions such as Cassini, Galileo and Viking.
Research in this area is focused on raising the efficiency of these devices from 78% to
1520%.[72]
Solar chemical
Solar chemical processes use solar energy to drive chemical reactions. These processes
offset energy that would otherwise come from an alternate source and can convert solar
energy into storable and transportable fuels. Solar induced chemical reactions can be
divided into thermochemical orphotochemical.[73]
Hydrogen production technologies been a significant area of solar chemical research
since the 1970s. Aside from electrolysis driven by photovoltaic or photochemical cells,
several thermochemical processes have also been explored. One such route uses
concentrators to split water into oxygen and hydrogen at high temperatures (23002600 C).[74] Another approach uses the heat from solar concentrators to drive the steam
reformation of natural gas thereby increasing the overall hydrogen yield compared to
conventional reforming methods.[75] Thermochemical cycles characterized by the
decomposition and regeneration of reactants present another avenue for hydrogen
production. The Solzinc process under development at the Weizmann Institute uses a
1 MW solar furnace to decompose zinc oxide (ZnO) at temperatures above 1200 C. This
initial reaction produces pure zinc, which can subsequently be reacted with water to
produce hydrogen.[76]
Sandia's Sunshine to Petrol (S2P) technology uses the high temperatures generated by
concentrating sunlight along with a zirconia/ferrite catalyst to break down atmospheric
carbon dioxide into oxygen andcarbon monoxide (CO). The carbon monoxide can then be
used to synthesize conventional fuels such as methanol, gasoline and jet fuel.[77]
A photogalvanic device is a type of battery in which the cell solution (or equivalent)
forms energy-rich chemical intermediates when illuminated. These energy-rich
intermediates can potentially be stored and subsequently reacted at the electrodes to
produce an electric potential. The ferric-thionine chemical cell is an example of this
technology.[78]

Photoelectrochemical cells or PECs consist of a semiconductor, typically titanium

dioxide or related titanates, immersed in an electrolyte. When the semiconductor is
illuminated an electrical potential develops. There are two types of photoelectrochemical
cells: photoelectric cells that convert light into electricity and photochemical cells that
use light to drive chemical reactions such as electrolysis.[79]
Solar vehicles
Australia hosts the World Solar Challenge where solar cars like the Nuna3 race through a
3,021 km (1,877 mi) course from Darwin to Adelaide.
Development of a solar powered car has been an engineering goal since the 1980s.
The World Solar Challenge is a biannual solar-powered car race, where teams from
universities and enterprises compete over 3,021 kilometres (1,877 mi) across central
Australia from Darwin to Adelaide. In 1987, when it was founded, the winner's average
speed was 67 kilometres per hour (42 mph) and by 2007 the winner's average speed had
improved to 90.87 kilometres per hour (56.46 mph).[80] The North American Solar
Challenge and the planned South African Solar Challenge are comparable competitions
that reflect an international interest in the engineering and development of solar powered
vehicles.[81][82]
Some vehicles use solar panels for auxiliary power, such as for air conditioning, to keep
the interior cool, thus reducing fuel consumption.[83][84]
In 1975, the first practical solar boat was constructed in England.[85] By 1995, passenger
boats incorporating PV panels began appearing and are now used extensively.[86] In
1996, Kenichi Horie made the first solar powered crossing of the Pacific Ocean, and
the sun21 catamaran made the first solar powered crossing of the Atlantic Ocean in the
winter of 20062007.[87] There are plans to circumnavigate the globe in 2010.[88]
Helios UAV in solar powered flight.
In 1974, the unmanned AstroFlight Sunrise plane made the first solar flight. On 29 April
1979, the Solar Riser made the first flight in a solar powered, fully controlled, man
carrying flying machine, reaching an altitude of 40 feet (12 m). In 1980, the Gossamer
Penguin made the first piloted flights powered solely by photovoltaics. This was quickly
followed by the Solar Challenger which crossed the English Channel in July 1981. In
1990 Eric Raymond in 21 hops flew from California to North Carolina using solar power.
[89] Developments then turned back to unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV) with
the Pathfinder (1997) and subsequent designs, culminating in the Helios which set the
altitude record for a non-rocket-propelled aircraft at 29,524 metres (96,860 ft) in 2001.
[90] The Zephyr, developed by BAE Systems, is the latest in a line of record-breaking
solar aircraft, making a 54-hour flight in 2007, and month-long flights are envisioned by
2010.[91]
A solar balloon is a black balloon that is filled with ordinary air. As sunlight shines on the
balloon, the air inside is heated and expands causing an upward buoyancy force, much
like an artificially heated hot air balloon. Some solar balloons are large enough for human
flight, but usage is generally limited to the toy market as the surface-area to payloadweight ratio is relatively high.[92]

Solar sails are a proposed form of spacecraft propulsion using large membrane mirrors to
exploit radiation pressure from the Sun. Unlike rockets, solar sails require no fuel.
Although the thrust is small compared to rockets, it continues as long as the Sun shines
onto the deployed sail and in the vacuum of space significant speeds can eventually be
achieved.[93]
The High-altitude airship (HAA) is an unmanned, long-duration, lighter-than-air vehicle
using helium gas for lift, and thin-film solar cells for power. The United States
Department of Defense Missile Defense Agency has contracted Lockheed Martin to
construct it to enhance the Ballistic Missile Defense System(BMDS).[94] Airships have
some advantages for solar-powered flight: they do not require power to remain aloft, and
an airship's envelope presents a large area to the Sun.
Energy storage methods
Solar Two's thermal storage system generated electricity during cloudy weather and at
night.
Solar energy is not available at night, and energy storage is an important issue because
modern energy systems usually assume continuous availability of energy.[95]
Thermal mass systems can store solar energy in the form of heat at domestically useful
temperatures for daily or seasonal durations. Thermal storage systems generally use
readily available materials with high specific heat capacities such as water, earth and
stone. Well-designed systems can lower peak demand, shift time-of-use tooff-peak hours
and reduce overall heating and cooling requirements.[96][97]
Phase change materials such as paraffin wax and Glauber's salt are another thermal
storage media. These materials are inexpensive, readily available, and can deliver
domestically useful temperatures (approximately 64 C). The "Dover House" (in Dover,
Massachusetts) was the first to use a Glauber's salt heating system, in 1948.[98]
Solar energy can be stored at high temperatures using molten salts. Salts are an effective
storage medium because they are low-cost, have a high specific heat capacity and can
deliver heat at temperatures compatible with conventional power systems. The Solar
Two used this method of energy storage, allowing it to store 1.44 TJ in its 68 m storage
tank with an annual storage efficiency of about 99%.[99]
Off-grid PV systems have traditionally used rechargeable batteries to store excess
electricity. With grid-tied systems, excess electricity can be sent to the
transmission grid. Net metering programs give these systems a credit for the electricity
they deliver to the grid. This credit offsets electricity provided from the grid when the
system cannot meet demand, effectively using the grid as a storage mechanism.[100]
Pumped-storage hydroelectricity stores energy in the form of water pumped when energy
is available from a lower elevation reservoir to a higher elevation one. The energy is
recovered when demand is high by releasing the water to run through a hydroelectric
power generator.[101]
Development, deployment and economics
Nellis Solar Power Plant in the United States, the largestphotovoltaic power plant
in North America.

Beginning with the surge in coal use which accompanied theIndustrial Revolution,
energy consumption has steadily transitioned from wood and biomass to fossil fuels. The
early development of solar technologies starting in the 1860s was driven by an
expectation that coal would soon become scarce. However development of solar
technologies stagnated in the early 20th century in the face of the increasing availability,
economy, and utility of coal and petroleum.[102]
The 1973 oil embargo and 1979 energy crisis caused a reorganization of energy policies
around the world and brought renewed attention to developing solar technologies.[103]
[104]Deployment strategies focused on incentive programs such as the Federal
Photovoltaic Utilization Program in the US and the Sunshine Program in Japan. Other
efforts included the formation of research facilities in the US (SERI, now NREL), Japan
(NEDO), and Germany(Fraunhofer Institute for Solar Energy Systems ISE).[105]
Commercial solar water heaters began appearing in the United States in the 1890s.
[106] These systems saw increasing use until the 1920s but were gradually replaced by
cheaper and more reliable heating fuels.[107] As with photovoltaics, solar water heating
attracted renewed attention as a result of the oil crises in the 1970s but interest subsided
in the 1980s due to falling petroleum prices. Development in the solar water heating
sector progressed steadily throughout the 1990s and growth rates have averaged 20% per
year since 1999.[40] Although generally underestimated, solar water heating is by far the
most widely deployed solar technology with an estimated capacity of 154 GW as of 2007.
[40]
SOLAR ENERGY IN PAKISTAN
Solar energy makes much sense for Pakistan for several reasons: firstly, 70% of the
population lives in 50,000 villages that are very far away from the national grid,
according to a report by theSolar Energy Research Center (SERC). Besides, the country's
creaky and outdated electricity infrastructure loses over 30 percent of generated power in
transit, more than seven times the losses of a well-run system, according to the Asian
Development Bank and the World Bank; and a lack of spare high-voltage grid capacity
limits the transmission of power from hydroelectric plants in the north to make up for
shortfalls in the south.Connecting these villages to the national grid would be very costly,
thus giving each house a solar panel would be cost efficient and would empower people
both
economically
and
socially.
Pakistani blog Pakistaniat has reported practical examples of the use of solar energy as
seen in some villages of Pakistan where each house has been provided with a solar panel
thats sufficient to run an electric fan and two energy saving bulbs. Prior to this
arrangement, the whole village used to be plunged in darkness at night. In Narian
Khorian, a village about 50 kilometers from Islamabad, 100 solar panels have been
installed by a local firm, free of cost, to promote the use of solar energy. With these
panels, the residents of 100 households are enjoying light and fan facilities. This would
not have happened for decades as the supply of electricity from the national grid would
be
difficult
and
costly
due
to
the
mountainous
terrain.
In addition to renewable energy from the sun, Pakistan is also fortunate to have
something many other countries do not, which are high wind speeds near major centers.

Near Islamabad, the wind speed is anywhere from 6.2 to 7.4 meters per second (between
13.8 and 16.5 miles per hour). Near Karachi, the range is between 6.2 and 6.9 (between
13.8 and 15.4 miles per hour). Pakistan is also fortunate that in neighboring India, the
companySuzlon manufactures wind turbines, thus decreasing transportation costs.
Working with Suzlon, Pakistan can begin to build its own wind-turbine industry and
create thousands of new jobs while solving its energy problems. Suzlon turbines start to
turn at a speed of 3 meters per second. Vestas, which is one of the world's largest wind
turbine manufacturers, has wind turbines that start turning at a speed of 4 meters per
second. In addition to Karachi and Islamabad, there are other areas in Pakistan that
receive
a
significant
amount
of
wind.
In only the Balochistan and Sindh provinces, sufficient wind exists to power every
coastal village in the country. There also exists a corridor between Gharo and Keti Bandar
that alone could produce between 40,000 and 50,000 megawatts of electricity, about
twice the current installed capacity in Pakistan, says Ms. Miriam Katzwho has studied
and written about alternative energy potential in South Asia. Given this surplus potential,
Pakistan has much to offer Asia with regards to wind energy. In recent years, the
government has completed several projects to demonstrate that wind energy is viable in
the country. In Mirpur Sakro, 85 micro turbines have been installed to power 356 homes.
In Kund Malir, 40 turbines have been installed, which power 111 homes. The Alternative
Energy Development Board (AEDB) has also acquired 18,000 acres for the installation of
more
wind
turbines.
The village of Ghulam Muhammad Goth, north of Karachi with population of 800, about
10 km from the national power grid, now receives power from a small windfarm
consisting of 18 wind turbines each capable of generating 500 watts of electricity.
Installed by the state-run Pakistan Council for Renewable Energy and Technologies
(PCRET), the farm produces enough to power for each home to have two low-energy
bulbs,
a
fan
and,
most
importantly,
a
television
set.
In addition to high wind speeds near major centers as well as the Gharo and Keti Bandar
corridor, Pakistan is also very fortunate to have many rivers and lakes. Wind turbines that
are situated in or near water enjoy an uninterrupted flow of wind, which virtually
guarantees that power will be available all the time. Within towns and cities, wind speeds
can often change quickly due to the presence of buildings and other structures, which can
damage wind turbines. In addition, many people do not wish for turbines to be sited near
cities because of noise, though these problems are often exaggerated. Wind turbines make
less noise than an office and people comfortably carry on conversations while standing
near
them.
Finally this year, Pakistan awarded a contract to a Turkish company to set up a wind farm
near Hyderabad. President of Zorlu Enerji (Pvt) Ltd., Murat Sungar Bursa, who signed
the agreement with HESCO (Hyderabad Electric Supply Company) in Pakistan, said that
the estimated cost of 50 MW project was 120 million dollars. He added the company was
also considering to further expand the project up to 250MW. He said incentives offered
by Pakistans renewable energy policy was a major factor in the companys decision to
invest here. He said that capacity of the wind farm will be enhanced upon successful

completion of 50 MW phase. Zorlu Enerji has become the first company to establish
wind farm for power generation in Pakistan after signing Energy Purchase Agreement
with Hyderabad Electric Supply Corporation for purchase of six MW electricity
generated at the companys facility in Jhimpir. NEPRA (Pakistan's power regulator) has
awarded tariff of US cents 12.1057 Per KWH, which is cheaper than the electricity
generated from thermal sources. The power generated from the first phase would be
routed to the Jhimpir gird station by HESCO and would be sufficient to electrify 6,900
homes in Hyderabad region. Harnessing the strong winds coming from South West, the
wind farm is first major commercial wind power project of the country, comprising five
towers in the first phase with an installed capacity of 1.2MW wind turbine generator per
tower.
The slowdown in the renewable energy sector is likely to be temporary. President Obama
is expected to get the US Congress to approve $150b to support the US renewable energy
sector with large government incentives. The US policy will likely boost the global
renewable
energy
market
as
well.
As Pakistan grapples with its crippling energy crisis, it is important for the country to
take advantage of its precious natural resources such as the high winds and the bright
sunshine, andbiofuels as byproducts of its sizable sugar-making industry. Such a strategy
will lead to lower costs of generation by reducing the need to import oil. It'll also help
reduce
carbon
emissions,
a
major
environmental
concern.
USE OF SOLAR
PRODUCTS

ENERGY

FOR

PRESERVATION

OF

AGRICULTURAL

Solar energy has been used for time immemorial by man for his energy needs. The
intensity of use of solar energy also increased as human race progressed through the
initial ages when sun was put to use not only for warmth, but also for productive
applications.
Drying was perhaps the most important of such productive applications. Drying of food
grains, fruit and meat for storage, drying of timber and firewood, drying of earthen
utensils, etc. were some such productive applications where suns energy was put to
effective
use.
We can say that food drying is a very simple ancient skill. It requires a safe place to
spread the food where dry air in large quantities can pass over and beside thin pieces. Sun
is often used to provide the hot dry air. Dry, clean air including dry cold air from any
source will dehydrate food. Draping food over branches or spreading it on wide shallow
baskets on the roof is an old widespread tradition still in use around the world. Many
other arrangements have been used to support a thin spread of food pieces. Some options
that have been used are to thread the pieces on a cord or a stick and hang it over a fire,
wood stove or from the rafter. Or one can bundle herbs or strawflowers and suspend them
from bushes or a door knob or nails in rooms with good ventilation.
But traditional sun drying methods often yield poor quality, sine the product is not
protected against dust, rain and wind, or even against insects, birds, rodents and domestic

animals while drying. Soiling, contamination with microorganism, of mycotoxins, and

infection with disease-causing germs are the result. They assert that the drying equipment
used in industrialized countries overcomes all of these problems, but unfortunately is not
very well suited for use in developing countries because it requires substantial
investments and a well-developed infrastructure. They further maintain that solar drying
facilities combine the advantages of traditional and industrial methods, namely low
investment
costs
and
high
products
quality.
Dried foods are tasty, nutritious, lightweight, easy to-prepare, and easy to-store and
use. The energy input is less than what is needed is needed to freeze or can, and the
storage space is minimal compared with that needed for canning jars an freezer
containers.
The nutritional value of food is only minimally affected by drying. Vitamin A is retained
during drying, however, because vitamin A is light sensitive, food containing it should
be stored in dark places. Yellow and dark green vegetables, such as peppers, carrots
winter squash, and sweet potatoes have high vitamin A content. Vitamin C is destroyed
by exposure to heat, although retreating foods with lemon, orange, or pineapple juice
increase vitamin C contact. Dried foods are high in fibre and carbohydrates and low in
fat, making them healthy food choices. Dried foods that are not completely dried are
susceptible to mould. Microorganism are effectively killed when the internal temperature
of
food
reaches
145
degrees
Fahrenheit
(F).
Dehydration of vegetables and other food crops by traditional methods of open-air sun
drying is not satisfactory, because the products deteriorate rapidly. Furthermore,
traditional methods do not protect the products from contamination by dirt, debris,
insects, or germs. A study demonstrates that food items dried in a solar dryer were
superior to those which were sun dried when evaluated in terms of taste, colour, and
mould counts. It asserts that solar drying system must be developed to utilize this energy
resource
to
improve
food
preservation.
Drying is basically a heat and mass transfer process where liquid water from the surface
and form inside the grains is vaporized, mixed with drying air and vapour mixture
removed. The drying air provides the heat. When drying foods, the key is to remove
moisture as quickly as possible at a temperature that does not seriously affect the flavour,
texture and colour of the food. If the temperature is too low in the beginning,
microorganisms may grow before the food is adequately dried. The food may harden on
the surface. If the temperature is too high and the humidity is too low, it makes it more
difficult for moisture to escape and the food does not dry properly. Although drying is a
relatively simple method of food preservation, the procedure is not exact.
BIn industries, dryers are used for drying of powders, seeds, cloth, paper, yarn and a large
number of other products. The basic objective of drying operations in industries is to
remove the moisture which has come into product during the process of manufacture.
This is necessary to make the product suitable for marketing and also for increasing the
shelf life. A majority of industrial dryers use steam/electricity for hearting operation
required
for
removal
of
moisture.

Some dryers also use fuels like kerosene and diesel for hearting the air which is to
remove the moisture. Most of these dryers work at temperatures ranging between 60 and
70 C. Many dryers temperature limits are specified at even lower value so that products
which are heat sensitive are not spoiled because of over heating. It is also known that
most of these dryers work at efficiencies between 30 and 6 per cent in comparison to
even low efficiency of open sun drying. This shows the enormous, potential available for
saving of conventional fuels be conversion, wherever possible, to solar energy based
drying
operations.
Use of solar energy for drying in industries can also offer advantages like better quality of
the product, less pollution and freedom from unreliable supply of oil, electricity and coal.
In fact in many small scale industries it has been seen that quick drying is the bottle-neck
operation in increasing the productivity. These industries have then to resort to open sun
drying of their product which not only requires space but also increases drying time and
reduces
the
productivity.
Drying preserves foods by removing enough moisture from food to prevent decay and
spoilage. Water content of properly dried food varies from 5 to 25 percent depending on
the
food.
Successful
drying
depends
on:
(i)

Enough

heat

(ii)

Dry

air

(iii)

Adequate

to

draw
to

air

out
absorb

circulation

moisture,
the
to

without

cooking

released
carry

off

the

moisture;
the

food;
and

moisture.

Now we look in agriculture in our country where a substantial quantity of our countrys
grain and fruit production is wasted because of inadequate and improper storage
facilities. Growth of insects and fungus which are the two main reasons for spoilage of
these materials can be prevented to a large extent by ensuring reduction of moisture
contents to safe limits before storage. Extensive research has been carried out on the
moisture requirements of various types of food material before they can be stored for
long term. Table shows the recommended values of final moisture content of various food
materials
for
long
term
and
safe
storage.
(See
Table-1)
The drying of food material is primarily a low temperature operation as higher
temperatures are likely to result in destruction of nutrients and flavour of the food.
Recommended values of drying temperatures for various food materials are given in the
table. A study of these temperatures reveals the reason why solar energy is being
considered
as
appropriate
sources
of
energy
for
drying.
It is well known that solar energy collection is most efficient at temperature up to 70 C.
While use of conventional fuels at low temperature ranges is a most inefficient way of
using these high grade energy sources. Various types of dryers have been developed at a
number of institutes for use, especially for agricultural products. These dryers have been

used for drying of seeds, paddy, various types of fruits, chillies and a variety of other
vegetable products. The capacities of these dryers range from a few kg/day to a few
tones/day.
(See
Table-2)
Various agricultural products require reduction in their moisture contents for storage
purposes. Moisture contents of Paddy are oil seeds, corn etc. are reduced for safe storage.
Dehydration of vegetables and fruits is a cheap method of storing these products for offseason method use. Similarly; tea leaves, tobacco leaves and coffee also require drying.
Traditionally solar energy has been used to dry agricultural products by spreading them
on the ground in open sun. This method of open sun drying is very time consuming. Also
the product gets contaminated by dirt and insects. The use of solar dryers overcomes
these
problems
to
large
extent.
Solar dryers make use of solar heated air for drying agricultural products. Solar dryers
developed
so
far
are
of
two
types;

(1)

Forced

convective

solar

dryer

The solar dryer consists of solar air heater of flat plat type and a drying chamber. The air
heater forms the roof and drying chamber is placed in an enclosure formed under the air
heater. The air heater is connected to the drying chamber through an air blower. The
blower sucks air through the air heater and blows it through the drying chamber. A
schematic of the system is showing figure. The solar air heater (flat plate type) has air
flow
depth
of
2.5
cm.
It consists of four sheets in parallel with total area of 28m2. the drying chamber has been
designed for manual loading and unloading of product to be dried. Depth of grains can be
up
to
40cm.

(2)
Natural

Natural
convective

convective
solar

dryer

solar

consists

on

three

dryer
different

types

Cabinet

dryer

Multi-rack

dryer

Mini

multi-rack

dryer

Cabinet

dryer

It is a singe rack natural convective dryer. It is a wooden hot box with glass at the top.
The produce to be dried is placed on a perforated tray. Holes are provided for natural
convective
flow
of
air.

Multi-rack

dryer

In the cabinet dryer the dry air comes in contact with the product only once. This air has
still capacity to remove more moisture if it could be passed through additional layers of
product.

Mini

Multi-rack

dryer

A small sized multi-rack dryer in which 5 trays at 5 different levels in vertical direction
can
be
placed,
may
be
designed
for
household
use.
These solar dryers are very low cost even a middle class farmer can also made them at a
low cost few hundred rupees and can use them for long years. Use of solar dryers for
agriculture purpose in developing countries like Pakistan has a wide scope as water for
irrigation is available for us for a few days on counting system and we have a limited
time to save our crops after harvesting and to sowing next crops. This time shortage
problem can be overcome by using low cost solar dryers because they dried the crops,
which
need
7
days
for
drying,
in
7
hours.
Another factor is very important to remember (which is one of major reasons to use solar
dryers) is our regional weather, which is severe and not reliable and destroys a substantial
our food, vegetables and crops. If you want to become a modern cultivator and want to
earn a reasonable capital by saving y our time and crops, then these dryers are not out of
reach.
TABLE-1:

INITIAL

M.C.

&

FINAL

Harvesting corn/Fruits/vegetables etc.

M.C.

OF

Initial M.C.

VARIOUS

Final M.C. after dehydration

(%)
Cereals
Pulses

PRODUCTS

(%)
&

grains
20-22

16-30

10-12
9-10

Oilseeds

12-14

7-9

Vegetables

60-80

10-12

Fruits

60-90

Tea

leaves

Coffee

beans

Note:

M.C.

TABLE-2:
FOR

stands

DEHYDRATION

Bitter

OF

Gourd

65-70

60-65

60-65

Peas

60-65

Potatoes

60-65

RANGE
VEGETABLES

Pomegranates

Dates

50-55

60-70
60-65

Beers

Figs

60-65

65-85

Pears
65-70

(Co)

55-60

Peaches

55-60

Onion

Apples

Grapes

finger)

contents

Optimum

Bananas

65-70

(lady

AND

Apricot

60-65

Garlic

moisture

Temperature

50-55

Cauliflower

12

Fruits

(co)

Carrot

50

FRUITS

Temperature

Cabbage

TEMPERATURE

Optimum

Bringer

50

for

OPTIMUM

Vegetables

Okra

10-12

60-80
50-60
50-60
60-80

Pumpkin

65-70

Spinach

65-70

Tomatoes

60-65

Turnip

50-55

Groundnut
Chillies

40-45
40-45

Seed purpose should not be more than 40oC.

Flower

Tobacco

perfume

45oC
30-35

Tea 30-35
PROSPECTS OF SOLAR ENERGY IN PAKISTAN
The need of electrification of entire Pakistan has become essential for our economic
revival. Pakistan still accounts for only 0.5 per cent of the worlds total energy
consumption although energy consumption in our country has nearly tripled during the
last
20
years
or
so.
Despite this three fold increase in installed electricity generation capacity, less than half
of the house-holds are electrified and per capita electricity supply is only 443 kwh per
year against 12,500 kwh in the USA and 7,500 kwh in Japan.
There has been lot of talks in the press recently about power deficiency in Pakistan and
on poor performance of concerned authorities. Pakistan has about 17,000 mw of installed
electric capacity. Thermal plants make up about 68 per cent of capacity, with
hydroelectricity making up 30 per cent and nuclear power 2 per cent only.
Despite abundance of surface water, gas and coal in our country, the potential for
harnessing these sources is limited at best and we are opting for costly imported oil for
power
generation
which
costs
us
Rs80
billion
annually.
Under the scenario, electrical power through renewable sources of energy has been fast
projected as an attractive option for Pakistan. This article reviews only prospects of solar
energy in Pakistan and failure or success of other sources of renewable energy are left for
some
other
time.
In a broadest sense, solar energy supports all life on earth and is basis of almost every
form of energy which we use. Amount of solar energy that falls on earth is enormous. It
will be surprising to note that all energy stored in earths reserves of coal, oil and natural
gas is just equivalent to energy from only 20 days of sunshine. Yet solar energy accounts
for
only
1
per
cent
of
global
energy
sources.
Proponents of solar energy are now convinced that the development and adaptation of
solar energy technology in Pakistan can bring a revolution in the life style and living
standards of low income people living in the remote areas. While propagating this option
they fail to understand that infrastructure, required know-how and limited production

levels are the bottlenecks in the mass scale adaptation of solar energy. For years we have
been providing incentives and funds for practical demonstration of solar energy,
convincing the people for their utilities, educating the masses and developing the pilot
scale activities for its promotion but could not achieve a breakthrough as yet due to these
limitations.
The role of solar energy has been negligible in the total energy picture of Pakistan. Solar
energy technology has so far been used in our country only for demonstration purposes.
The experiments in the past in this area were not so successful due to variety of reasons
including
lack
of
understanding
and
handling
of
this
technology.
The solar energy technologies have not been exploited on a large scale for a number of
reasons such as, high cost, lack of motivation and inadequate demonstration of effective
use of the technology. Recently there is a realization among government circles, about the
necessity of using solar energy for the purpose of saving the environment and socioeconomic
uplift
of
the
peoples
living
in
the
remote
areas.
Traditional energy sources like firewood, animal dung, and bagasse (the woody residue
left-over from crushed sugar-cane) still make up more than half of all energy consumed
in the rural areas. There is no denying the fact that solar-generated electricity will
improve rural life, thereby reducing the urban migration that is taxing the ability of cities
to cope with their own environmental problems. Further, by harnessing solar power for
energy in rural areas reliance on firewood would be reduced considerably but question
arises that how to bring the know-how for operating such delicate systems in remote
areas
of
the
country?
Thar in Sindh and entire Balochistan province is considered ideal for utilization of solar
energy. In Balochistan, 80 per cent of the population lives in the rural areas. The
population density is very thin and villages are separated by large distances with
absolutely no approach roads. About 85 per cent of the villages are yet to be electrified.
Light is the only requirement for these houses located in remote areas of the province and
the electric requirement for each house is 100 watt at maximum. Extension of grid lines
for such small power requirements would certainly be very uneconomical and local
power generation could be the best solution. In case, diesel generators are used,
transportation of fuel to such remote areas and maintenance is again costly proposition
therefore solar energy seems an attractive option for these areas.
Pakistan is ideally located in the sun belt to take advantage of solar energy technologies.
This energy source is widely distributed and abundantly available in the country.
Balochistan province is particularly rich in solar energy. It has the highest annual mean
sunshine
duration
in
the
world.
Impressed by advantages of solar power like infinite and renewable amount of energy,
environment friendliness and fuel-less power generation the government of Pakistan
under the umbrella of Ministry of Science and Technology some 20 years ago, accorded

top priority to solar power generation and for that matter established some research and
development institutes like the National Institute of Silicon Technology (NIST), the
Pakistan Council of Appropriate Technology (PCAT) and the Solar Energy Research
Centre (SERC) and the Pakistan Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (PCSIR).
In addition to it certain departments in various national engineering universities were
involved
in
solar
thermal
technologies.
Now two decades after spending millions of rupees on the establishment, capital and
operational cost on these institutes we have been only able to develop some solar thermal
appliances such as solar water heaters, solar cookers, solar dryers, solar desalination
plants only for demonstration purposes and these institutes could not achieve a
breakthough
in
solar
energy.
Because of the lack of technical know-how and follow-up, these systems have not given
the required benefits. The most unfortunate episode of this solar power generation drive
in Pakistan is that the NIST and the PCAT have been wound up and a new organization
namely the Pakistan Council for Renewable Energy Technology (PCRET) has been
established to further spend capital resources on failed and uncompleted projects of NIST
and
PACT.
Further, the directorate of renewable energy of the Ministry of Petroleum and Natural
Resources has been closed after the failure of the project for solarization of some selected
villages of the country. The roll of certain departments of the E&ME College of the
National University of Science and Technology. Rawalpindi, the NED University,
Karachi, the GIK Institute of Science and Technology, Topi, the University of
Engineering and Technology, Lahore, and the Mehran University of Engineering and
Technology, Jamshoro, remained limited to academic nature for completing the thesis
requirement
of
engineering
graduates.
Now the reason behind this institutional failure of harnessing solar power in Pakistan is
due to the fact that more than optimist proponents of the solar energy did not take into
account the technological barrier of a developing country like ours and disadvantages of
solar energy, which certainly outnumber its advantages. In order to keep a balanced
perspective of solar power utilization it is pertinent that disadvantages of solar energy
must also be mentioned for evaluating the prospects of solar energy use in Pakistan.
Apart from general hurdles of cost effectiveness, collection, conversion and storage of
solar energy the other potential bottle neck in promotion of solar power is lack of trained
technicians to design, install and maintain solar electric system particularly in countrywide remote areas. Proponents of solar electricity systems for off-grid small villages fail
to understand the key fact of illiteracy in our villages. The vital point to consider is that
when technically qualified staff of concerned authorities has failed to demonstrate and
make pilot scale solar generated system run efficiently, how can we expect that a nonqualified illiterate dwellers of our remote areas will supervise and operate a solar system?
Further low efficiency of solar cells, non-availability of household appliances that run on

low voltages, requirement and maintenance of backup energy sources like batteries for
having electricity in night are other potential reasons for which dream of solar
electrification in remote areas of our country could not turn into a reality.
To top it all another significant barrier in promotion of solar power in Pakistan which has
never been considered by the proponents of solar energy is our dusty atmosphere.
Whether it is a photovoltaic type or thermal collector type solar electricity generation
unit, the performance of the system directly depends upon obstacle-free contact of
sunlight
to
the
system.
Any blockage of the sunlight to the system would certainly decrease the efficiency of the
system. In all of our potential areas of Thar and Balochistan where solar power is being
considered dust storms are a noteworthy atmospheric characteristic. Therefore a thin
layer of dust particles will certainly deposit on photovoltaic device or thermal collector
glass thus reducing the sunlight intensity on the system just like clouds and fog which
ultimately
decreases
the
performance
of
the
solar
system.
Keeping in view these limitations of solar energy, evaluating the past poor performance
of concerned institutes and considering lack of qualified manpower to design, install,
supervise and operate the solar system it seems that solar power electricity generation in
Pakistan even on small household scale level in remote areas is not a good proposition.
We need to adopt a power generating technology that is economically feasible and
environmentally sound. We are not at the leading edge of technological research. This
situation gives us an opportunity to learn from other peoples experiences and mistakes
instead of putting our meagre resources in experiments and trials.
Utilizing Solar Energy in Pakistan
In these days of escalating oil prices, its becoming extremely difficult for a common
citizen to pay off monthly electricity bills. The bills keep soaring day by day and there
seems to be no respite in foreseeable future. These bills can be reduced by resorting to
other methods of generating electricity, solar being one of them.
This article dwells on the discussion regarding production of electricity through solar
means and discusses a cost-effective strategy to achieve this end.
The photo above shows Solar Panels being used for water extraction in village Rarkou in
Nagarparkar, Sindh
The use of solar energy for the generation of electricity is not something new. Most of the
countries are doing it successfully for decades and their population benefiting through the
use of this free resource. But, to most of the people, it may still look like a mystery. These
days, this energy is being utilized to light our homes, run fans, provide power to our
fridges and microwave ovens, assist in warming our homes and swimming pools, provide
power to our gardens and street lights, run our TVs and computers, and extract water
from
the
sub-soil
for
irrigation
purposes.

A practical example of the use of solar energy could be seen in some villages of Pakistan
where each house has been provided with a solar panel thats sufficient to run an electric
fan and two energy saving bulbs. Prior to this arrangement, the whole village used to be
plunged in pitch dark during night. One such example is the village with the name
of Narian Khorian, some 50 kilometers away from Islamabad, where 100 solar
panels have been installed by a local firm, free of cost, to promote the use of solar energy
among the masses. Through these panels, the residents of 100 households are enjoying
light and fan facilities. Had these panels not been installed, the people living in this area
wouldnt have even dreamt of getting this facility for decades as the provision of
electricity from the national grid was a far cry due to the difficult terrain and high
expenses involved.
A layman would normally be interested in knowing as to how electricity could be
produced using energy from the sun. Simply put, it can be said that the basic item
required to generate this electricity is a solar cell, approximately 2 inches x 1/2 inch in
dimension. These cells may be available in other dimensions as well. Some 80 to 100 or
even more such cells are pasted on a tampered glass sheet whose dimensions are
generally 1.5 feet x 4 feet. The glass sheet with cells pasted on it and inter-connected, is
called a solar panel. The light from the sun is used to generate electricity through these
cells. It may be clarified that its the suns light and not its heat that produces electricity.
The solar cells are called photovoltaics (PV); the word Photo meaning light and voltaics
electricity. The life of a solar panel is approximately 20 to 25 years!
To give you an example of the use of solar energy, you must have noticed solar panels
installed on poles along with the telephone booths on your left hand side while
commuting on the Motorway. Each of these telephones is being powered by this panel. A
battery is installed beneath each solar panel to store energy for keeping the telephone in
operation during night when theres no sun light. Its a stand-alone system, entirely
powered by solar energy. During emergency, the commuters make use of these telephones
and call for help.
To give you another example, if you happen to drive from Rawalpindi (Faizabad) towards
Murree on the newly constructed Murree Road, you would see on your right hand side
blinking red hazard lights installed at the top of each WAPDA pole. Each of these lights is
being powered by a stand-alone solar system i.e. a solar panel and a battery. Just imagine,
how much expensive and full of hassle it would have been if solar panels werent used
for this purpose and these lights were provided normal electric connections!
In the photo above, solar panels are visible towards left. These Solar panels are being
used for providing electricity to extract water and drip irrigation system. Solar panels are
provided by Thardeep Rural Development Programme (TRDP) where as Micro Drip has
provided the drip irrigation in a Nagarparkar, Sindh village called Wandhan jo Wandio.
The region of Nevarra, Spain, is generating 70 per cent of its electricity through solar and
wind energy. And, mind you, this region doesnt have any coal, gas or oil of its own. Its
really a classic example of making the best use of renewable energy in any country of the
world! But, the question that automatically crops up ones mind is: If it can be done in
Spain, why cant it be done in our country? The answer is a big Yes.
I will substantiate my statement by presenting you a strategy which, if followed, could be
instrumental in generating this electricity in the most cost-effective manner. The cost of

the solar systems can be brought down if we go for the manufacture of solar panels in
country. Solar panels basically utilize solar cells in their manufacture. . In one panel,
approximately, 80 or more solar cells are used, depending upon the power required and
the electric gadgets you want to run utilizing these panels. Each solar cell costs
approximately Rs. 1000 if imported from abroad. These cells would be required in
millions or may be in billions if requirement of the whole country is to be met.
We cannot import such a huge quantity of solar cells from other countries due to financial
constraints. So, naturally, there would be no other option but to resort to manufacturing
these cells in our own country. Once it has been decided in principle to manufacture solar
cells in Pakistan, then we would look for three basic requirements i.e. raw material,
trained manpower and necessary infrastructure.
The basic raw material (quartz) is available in abundance in the northern areas of our
country. But, this raw material is useless for us as far as its purification and development
to a stage where this raw material could be converted into solar cells is concerned. This
equipment will have to be imported; but it would be a one-time investment. One would
be surprised to know that this raw material is being utilized by the local population of
Northern areas for raising the walls of their houses in place of bricks as the poor
simpletons dont know its value. Some of them take it for marble as well!
The other raw material required to manufacture solar cells is silica (sand) whichs in
inexhaustible quantity in River Sindh as water these days is otherwise in less quantity in
our rivers. At least we should make use of silica in the manufacture of solar cells. So, to
venture into manufacturing of solar panels, both the raw materials are available.
The other requirement is that of manpower. I have no qualms in making a statement here
that we have the finest and the most hard-working, skilled manpower available in
country. From my personal experience, I could say with conviction that the retired
personnel of the defence services who have been working on electronics and
telecommunication equipment during their service careers would be the best choice for
deployment on the manufacture of solar panels and cells. These people are highly skilled
and disciplined and get retired at an early age. Shaheen Foundation, Islamabad maintains
an up-to-date computerized record of such personnel who are just a telephone call away.
The expertise of such workers is not less than any worker deployed in the western
countries for such jobs. The only difference is that a European worker of such calibre gets
US $ 45 per hour whereas a Pakistani worker, if he is paid $5 per hour (or even less) in
his own country would be the happiest man around.
While starting manufacturing of solar cells, it would be advisable if we do it in
collaboration with a world-renowned company as India has done. It had a joint venture
for the manufacture of wind turbines with a company that has 26000 wind turbines to its
credit! This company has a name in wind industry and its wind turbines are being used
the world over! This way, we would lay our hands on the best and the latest technology in
the field of solar energy and our manpower would also be trained through short
orientation courses as they already possess sound knowledge and strong technical base.
By adopting this strategy, the cost of the solar cells is bound to reduce drastically with the
result that these prohibitively costly solar panels would come within the reach of every
citizen and the day wouldnt be far when wed see these panels mounted on each and

every roof in each city of the country including the rural areas. The energy crisis would
thus be a history for our citizens.
Presently, theres one and the only one factory manufacturing solar panels in Pakistan
whichs located at Hattar Industrial Area near Taxila, 1-1/2 hours drive from Islamabad.
But, due to various compulsions, its importing these costly cells from abroad at an
exorbitant price.
In a solar system, apart from solar panels (which include solar cells), tampered glass
sheets, batteries and inverters (to convert DC electricity into AC) are also used. We have
innumerable factories producing good batteries in our country; so theres no problem in
their manufacture! Rather, we can go for maintenance-free batteries! Just augmentation of
the manufacturing facilities of the existing factories is required.
Regarding tampered glass, we have many glass manufacturing factories in Pakistan. In
this case as well, well have to augment their existing facilities to produce tampered glass
of required specifications. Again, I may mention here that its a tampered glass sheet on
which solar cells are pasted; this glass sheet with solar cells pasted on it is called a solar
panel. Tampered glass is after all glass and nothing else. Required machinery could be
imported and installed in our existing glass manufacturing factories. Theres no need to
set up separate, dedicated factories for each item. Lets make best use of our existing
facilities with a bit of augmentation. This approach would be highly cost-effective!
As far as converter is concerned, were already manufacturing thousands of them for our
UPSs which are installed in each and every house now, thanks to load shedding!
Its generally perceived and is true also that the cost of using solar energy is prohibitively
high. But then somebody should answer my question too: If the cost is really that high,
then how Nevarra is coping up with this high cost? The authorities in Nevarra must have
taken some tangible measures to bring the cost down, out of which, one could be the
manufacture of solar panels including solar cells indigenously. If the use of solar energy
was that costly, then Nevarra would have abandoned this initiative long ago. I would also
like to ask such people: If the cost is that high then why the entire Europe is still making
use of this form of energy while the sunshine is very scarce in the European countries.
We have to adopt measures to bring this cost down so that an ordinary Pakistani could
purchase this system. And to do that, all the points are in our favour.
Investing in a solar electric system has many benefits. It allows you to produce your own
electricity with no noise, no air pollution, and no moving parts. Moreover, this system
would never run out of fuel (sun light), and it will help reduce the amount of greenhouse
gasses emitted by coal and natural gas-fired power plants. Due to these unique
characteristics, solar electric technology has been called the ultimate energy source for
the 21st century.
There are countries where people using solar energy have covered the entire roof tops of
their houses with solar panels. Theyre generating electricity which is meeting, if not full,
at least a part of their electricity requirements. As the cost of electricity provided by
utility companies rises, they would be compelled to resort to solar energy in a big way.
In some countries, solar systems have become so popular that senior citizens are
investing their pension money in solar parks. The solar panels in these parks are
connected to tracking devices that generate up to 40% more energy than fixed systems.
One solar park is owned by as many as 700 to 800 individual investors, each of whom
owns one or two large solar panels in that park. The income received from these panels

adds to their pension amount and is guaranteed to be paid by the utility companies for 25
years. The cost of such panels is substantially reduced with a tax concession from the
government. As the annual income is guaranteed, there is a long waiting list of willing
investors.
Another use of solar energy could be in the form of solar cookers. A solar cooker is
nothing but a concave mirror fixed on a metallic stand. The mirror converges suns rays
at a focal point through reflection where a utensil is placed that gets heated. I have myself
taken tea prepared on a solar cooker! Just imagine! Six thousand refugee families in
Sudan are making use of these cookers successfully. Earlier, the women folk used to go
out and bring thorny bushes as fuel for cooking purposes. With the arrival of the solar
cookers, this practice has ceased and the forests are also saved. The people living in our
hilly areas can emulate their example and use these cookers which might not be costing
more than Rs. 1000 each! I may mention here that a solar cooker doesnt utilize solar
cells. It utilizes just the reflection of suns rays, and the suns rays are free!
To conclude, it can be said that solar energy is one of the most viable options for
Pakistan. Even countries with less sun light are making the best use of this free resource
(sun light). We, in Pakistan, arent short of sun light as sun shines on the entire length and
breadth of the country throughout the year. We can make use of this inexhaustible
resource and contribute towards meeting the shortfall of electricity. If we dont do it now,
then it would be just a matter of time when oil would be touching $ 200 a barrel and the
World Bank would be pressing us hard to increase the electricity price by 100 %. Then,
we would be left with no option but to grab every opportunity to generate electricity from
any available source, what-so-ever! We should opt for the manufacture of solar panels
including solar cells in-country. For this purpose, we should establish not one but several
factories for the manufacture of solar panels and cells in Pakistan. We have unimaginable
quantities of raw material at our disposal and our manpower is second to none. With the
availability of abundant raw material at throw-away price and the cheapest yet highly
skilled technical manpower, the profits that would be accrued is mind boggling!, Its said
that if enough solar panels using indigenous solar cell are installed and energy
efficiencies are ensured, the home owners can receive a zero power bill!
HOW SOLAR ENERGY CAN BENFIT AND POSSIBLY PROFIT PAKISTAN
A science teacher expalined to me the cons of solar power panels. They interfier with the
natural distribution of sunlight to plants. So if you have a garden of various plants with
solar panels the plants aren't getting the natural amount of sunlight needed because the
panels
are
consantly
obsorbing
sunlight
coming
through.
But in some areas of Pakistan we can still benifit form the use solar panels. Because of
global warming areas in balochistan are getting hotter and more sun radiation will harm
people and plants so in those areas solar panels can be very useful they'll produce so
much electricity and reduce the heat and radiation spreading on the landmass so in
Balochistan
and
Sindh
it
can
be
benificial.
But in northern areas there's alot of forests and plants so people there should use
windmills
or
use
water
turbines
instead
of
solar
panels.

And because the southern provinces recieve such

energy can be saved and exported to countries that
scandinavian
countries
or
These countries would desperately need energy in
going
and
other
things

heavy heat throught the year, solar

recieve little of it in the winters like
parts
of
Canada.
the winters to keep heating systems
that
require
energy.

Additionally a good suggestion would be for Pakistan's population to slowly switch to

electric stoves from gas stoves. This dependency on gas has to stop at some point or we
have
no
future
as
a
country.
But what are peoples thoughts on this? Perhaps enviorenmentalists in Pakistan can
research into this and perhaps Pakistanis can donate money into projects.
This will be benificial for all.

SOLAR POWER FOR PAKISTAN

Faizan Ahmad spent the summer of 2007 working to bring solar-powered electricity and
solar-powered water purification to villagers in the Thar Desert of Pakistan. The 21-yearold Karachi native is studying Physics and Mechanical Engineering at the University of
Dayton, and worked in Pakistan through Engineers in Technical Humanitarian
Opportunities
of
Servicelearning (ETHOS), a program
of the U. of Dayton School of
Engineering.
Faizan had originally been
assigned an ETHOS internship
in Nicaragua, but that plan fell
through late in the process due
to
visa
difficulties.
When did your Nicaragua plans
fall through?
I was supposed to leave for
Nicaragua on May 6. Then

since we still didnt have clearance, we delayed it to May 13. Finally, on May 10 we
faced the fact it just wasnt going to happen. I was so discouraged. I had spent the whole
semester preparing for the Nicaragua internship. Id applied for my visa two months
ahead of time. Id taken a semester-long course to prepare for Nicaragua, covering
technical, cultural, and linguistic aspects of the internship. And I had no Plan B.
How did the idea of going to Pakistan come about?
We were scrambling to try to quickly create a similar internship somewhere in the United
States. I was having my usual weekend phone conversation with my parents in Karachi
and talking about what we were looking to do. My father is an electrical engineer, and he
mentioned offhand that opportunities like this could also exist in Pakistan. Through some
of his contacts, we got in touch with the Alternative Energy Development Board (AEDB)
in Pakistan and we quickly set up the internship and got it approved and funded by
ETHOS, which had never before done work in Asia.
And even though Pakistan is my home country, it turns out that I did not miss out on the
opportunity for cultural exchange. Im from Karachi, one of the biggest cities in the
world, with 15 million people. But my work was in the Thar Desert, what you might
know as Rajasthan, about seven hours from home, complete with camels and sand dunes
and 125-degree heat. I lived in a small hut with no running water, and I was among
people who spoke a different language than I did.
How did you communicate with the villagers?
The national language of Pakistan, Urdu, is my first language, and is the villagers third
language. Their first language is their village language, Dhatki, and their second language
is the provincial language, Sindhi. But Sindhi shares a lot of vocabulary with Urdu, so we
could get by with those two languages. Plus other people working on the project who
spoke both Urdu and Sindhi could help.
Whats your impression of the people of the Thar Desert?
I was struck by their self-sufficiency and their hospitality. Both of these were notable
because of the tremendous lack of resources in the desert. For example, the typical
woman spends most of each day walking as far as 10 kilometers one-way, with an earthen
vessel on her head, to fill it up
with water, and carry it back on
her head. Yet you could not
visit a house without being
offered
water
or
other
refreshments.
Whats a typical house like?
The houses are mud huts with
straw roofs. The inside is quite
bare. In front of every house
will be a few goats for milk and
maybe a camel.
Why is alternative energy
especially important and/or
feasible in Pakistan?
Well, the world is already in an
energy crisis, and Pakistan is no

different. Karachi is a huge industrialized city, and every summer Karachi experiences
load-shedding, whereby, if there is not enough electricity to meet demand, the city shuts
off the electricity to conserve it. So we often dont have electricity for hours at a time in
such a major city where summertime temperatures are often in the 90s. The development
of alternative energy sources is extremely important there as it is everywhere.
And Pakistan is highly suitable for the use of solar power, because it has an extremely
high solar insolation rate.
You mean Pakistan gets a lot of sunlight.
Yes, exactly. (laughs) Sorry, Im an engineer, you know. So Pakistan is very well-matched
for the use of solar energy.
You worked on fixing and maintaining photovoltaic (solar power) systems in the village
of PinPario. How were these P-V systems provided to PinPario?
Through AEDB. The goal is to electrify a lot of remote villages using P-V technology,
and the way theyre going to do that is to install one solar panel per household. The
government will assume all
capital costs for that.
How much would one solar
panel cost?
About $1,000, including the
battery and installation. They
chose a few villages, including
PinPario, in which to pilot this
project.
What types of problems did you
encounter with the P-V
systems?
Many of the problems were
rooted
in
lack
of
communication
with
the
villagers about how to properly
use and maintain the systems.
For example, many villagers had disconnected the charge controllers and connected the
batteries directly to the panels. While this arrangement is functional in the short term, it
has an extremely adverse effect on the life of the battery and causes a host of problems
associated with unregulated voltages and currents running through the system.
Simply communicating with the villagers about these problems was an important aspect
of the work, in addition to actually fixing the problems. I definitely learned that in any
appropriate technology undertaking, communication is of the utmost importance.
You also worked on repair and maintenance of solar stills (solar-powered water
purification devices) in the village of Bharmal.
Clean water is a much more immediate need for these villagers than electricity.
Electricity is a luxury. But clean drinking water is a need. This is the middle of the desert,
and water is scarce. The underground water table is 250 feet below the surface, so its
very difficult to get to, and even that water is extremely saline and not even close to
suitable for consumption by most people. These villagers have developed some

immunity, and they manage to drink it, but they still have a lot of associated health
problems.
How does a solar still work?
A basic solar still consists of a flat water-basin, whose lid is made of glass and shaped
like an obtuse upside-down V. The solar radiation is transmitted through the glass cover
and is absorbed by the basin, which is black. The black floor of the basin is in contact
with the water, so the water is heated and gives off water vapor. The vapor condenses on
the underside of the glass cover and runs down the two sloping halves of the cover and
falls into troughs on either side of the basin, and is then fed into a storage container.
Having been converted to vapor and then back to liquid water, the water is no longer
saline, and the removed salt and many other impurities remain on the floor of the basin.
How
effective
is
such
a
still
in
removing
salt?
Very effective. AEDB studied these desalination systems and found that sodium was
reduced from 11500 mg/l to 124 mg/l. This is an elimination of over 98 percent of the
sodium and results in a sodium level below the World Health Organizations highest
desirable level of 200 mg/l.
What types of problems existed with the solar stills in Bharmal?
Heres another example of a problem that could be avoided by better communication. For
maximum efficiency, the stills should be aligned so that the inclined glass receives the
maximum amount of sunlight. Therefore the stills should be placed such that the longer
side of the basin is aligned in a north-south direction. This enables the exposed glass to
receive maximum sunlight, as the sun makes its east-west journey during the day.
The villagers were instructed to make flat elevated platforms for the stills themselves, out
of brick. But they were not advised about the optimal alignment. So many of them built
platforms in a direction which was less than optimal, resulting in reduced efficiency.
Of course, this is a pilot program, so problems are a normal part of the process. But
problems such as this point again to how important communication is in any appropriate
technology project.
I do want to point out that AEDB deserves a lot of credit for being sensitive to the needs
of the villagers in Thar and working hard to provide solutions to their problems. Problem
solving is of course another important part of any pilot program involving appropriate
technology.
Whats your overall assessment of these initiatives?
These projects show great promise for improving the standards of living of the poorest
Pakistanis living in remote areas. Also, the increased emphasis on the development of
alternative energy sources will serve to decrease the great dependence on conventional
energy sources. However, while renewable energies offer great promise of progress
towards achieving the goal of the availability and accessibility of energy to all Pakistanis,
the country has many challenges to overcome before it can reach its projected goal of
renewable energies contributing a minimum of 5 percent of the countrys energy mix by
2030. Consistent governmental policies with regards to renewable energies as well as
ample funding are required for the success of Pakistans renewable energy development
policies in the long run.

Do you have any advice for

others who are considering
doing a short-term service
project overseas?
Dont operate under the
conception that you are going
there to benefit a lot of other
people and that you are doing
something very noble. These
kinds of immersion trips
primarily benefit the person
making the trip.
Try to immerse yourself among
the people and have as few
barriers as possible between
them and you. Really try to get
to know them and their
problems. See things from their perspective. Dont be prescriptive, telling them what they
should have and what they should do. Find out from them what they want and what they
need. If you can help them to accomplish what they want to accomplish and not what you
think they should accomplish, then youve done something worthwhile.
What was the worst thing about being in the desert?
Well, I was in a house in a village in the deserta house in which water was more
precious than gold. Displaying the utmost hospitality, the old man who owned the house
got some sweet water for me to drink, which obviously was a very precious commodity
for him. But due to health considerations, I had to refuse his persuasive offer. And
moments later, when the heat finally got to me, I couldnt help but whip out my flask of
mineral water and drink the cold sweet-tasting water I was lucky enough to afford. And
from then on I tried to avoid meeting the old mans eyes.
What was the best thing?
Ive heard that the most beautiful sight in the desert is the multitude of stars in the night
sky. I disagree. I dont think anything can match driving in the desert at night surrounded
by eerie darkness, and then suddenly catching a glimpse of a single light, then two lights,
three lights ... and then having a completely illuminated village spin into your view,
teeming with life.
SOLAR

ENERGY

TO

ILLUMINE

400

VILLAGES

IN

PAKISTAN

MITHI: The countrys 400 villages, 300 of them in Balochistan and 100 in Sindh, would
be electrified through solar energy, Brigadier Dr Naseem A Khan, Secretary, Alternative
Energy Development Board and Member (Technical), government of Pakistan said on
Saturday..
The PC-1 for electrification through solar energy has been approved and an amount of
Rs
450
million
allocated
for
the
project,
he
said.

He said the Adviser to the Prime Minister, Dr Mohammad Ali, held a meeting with the
district Nazim Arbab Anwer recently and tenders for illuminating Pakistani villages
through
solar
energy
were
being
evaluated.
He said the Asian Development Bank has defended the project on solar energy in the
Planning Commission of Pakistan but the funding is being done by the government of
Pakistan. We hope to involve the private sector in a big way, he added.
The Alternative Energy Development Board in collaboration with the Thardeep Rural
Development Programme (TRDP), a non-profit, non-governmental organisation of
Tharparkar, has illuminated 109 houses of village Bharmal in Tharparkar though solar
energy.
The
village
has
a
population
of
780
people.
Every house in the village has been electrified through solar energy, Mohammad
Yaseen, an engineer working for the Alternate Energy Development Board told The News
in village Bharmal. Every house can now enjoy the facility of four bulbs, one fan
besides a solar cooker, he said. The solar cooker works only during the day, directly
through
the
radiation
of
the
sun,
he
added.
Children of the village can now study during the night and women can do their
embroidery work, he said. The village was short of fuel wood due to drought and was
spending Rs 600-800 per month on oil for a home, he added. He said after the village
has been provided solar energy, every family was contributing Rs 100 per month for the
maintenance
of
the
project.
The criteria to choose a village for electrification through solar energy are that it should
be 20 kilometres away from the grid and we are collaborating with TRDP that provided
us a list of villages in Thar which need solar energy, he said.
In the wake of high cost of oil, developed as well as the developing countries are vying to
meet their needs through solar and other sources of alternative energy. A recent article in
SciDev.Net, a prestigious scientific Web paper, quoted two German research reports as
saying that deserts in the Middle East and North Africa could generate vast quantities of
electricity
to
sell
to
Europe.
The studies found that concentrated solar power plants, occupying less than 0.3 per cent
of the desert area in the region, could provide 15 per cent of Europes electricity needs by
2050,
the
article
said.
The high transmission losses of 10-15 per cent per 1,000 kilometres of cable used would
be offset by the sheer volume of electricity produced, said the Trans-Mediterranean
Renewable Energy Corporation (TREC), a network that helped conduct the studies, it
said.
Every year, each square kilometre of desert receives solar energy equivalent to 1.5
million barrels of oil. Multiplying by the area of deserts worldwide, this is nearly a

thousand times the entire current energy consumption of the world, said Franz Trieb,
project manager for the two reports at the German Aerospace Centre.
Solar thermal power plants use mirrors to concentrate solar energy to create steam and
generate electricity, creating the cheapest electricity available costing less than $0.60
per kilowatt-hour.