ANALYSIS OF SUSTAINABLE FOOD IN BANGKOK,

THAILAND: PRODUCTION, CONSUMPTION,

AND COMMUNICATION

Aretha Aprilia

Wageningen, February 2005

Thesis research as part of the Urban Environmental Management studies

at the Wageningen University, The Netherlands.

Thesis supervisors:
Ir. Peter Oosterveer, MSc and Prof. Dr. Ir. Gert Spaargaren, MSc
Environmental Policy Group
Department of Social Sciences
Wageningen University
SUMMARY

Food safety plays an important role in the food chain, and the current issues pertinent to the
problems in the food chain have generated a plethora of public awareness in Thailand. Many
Thais begin to consider organic food produce that better ensure the quality and safety of
products.
The research questions posed in this research are pertaining to the stakeholders’ influence on
sustainable food consumption in Thailand, availability of organic food, trends in consumer
culture, and information about organic food and food issues in Thai newspapers. Organic food
in this research is defined as the “food that is free of antibiotics, growth hormones, chemicals,
and pesticides.”
The method used in this research is diagnostic, practice – oriented research that analyze the
current state of organic food consumption in Thailand, which consists of five steps involving
literature review, consumer survey study, content analysis , retailer survey, informants
interviews, and reporting.
Through retailer survey it was found that there are organic food items available in Villa
Supermarket and Big C superstore, but none in “Sri Sa Wad” traditional market. The organic
food products and organic food consumers are mainly found in Villa Market which implies
that the niche market has already taken place. The organic food consumers found the
information about organic food mainly from newspapers and although Thairath is the most-
read newspaper in Thailand, it provided the least coverage on food and organic food issues
compared to the other surveyed newspapers.
The conclusions of this research are as follows:
1. The stakeholders that play important roles in organic food consumption are the Thai
government, certification body, trader, inter-governmental organization (UNEP), NGOs,
and the media, with the mandates and roles of each actors further elaborated in this report.
2. There is a high level of willingness to shift preference to healthier and more sustainable
alternatives of food produce by the non-organic food consumers.
3. Organic food niche market is already available in high-class targeted markets, yet the
creation of new markets for the majority middle-class Thai people is the new challenge.
4. Public needs more information on organic food so that new niche market can be attained.
The overview of articles about food and organic food in the newspapers are elaborated in
this report.
5. The chain of organic food providers and consumers are aimed for exports and domestic
consumption within Thailand as explained further in this report.
The recommendations proposed to further advance organic food consumption in Thailand are:
1. A strong political will and policy consistency of Thai government for organic agriculture.
2. Thai government should be more open on the media exposure of epidemics within the
country.
3. Government cooperation with NGOs and farmers’ organizations is strategically important
and needs to be strengthened.
4. The existing private initiative of ACT should be further supported by the government so
that it can facilitate organic food trade.
5. The markets should provide more organic food items to meet the needs of consumers.
6. Convenience stores could play an important role in promoting organic food consumption
and to create new niche markets of organic food in Thailand.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

SUMMARY....................................................................................................................i
TABLE OF CONTENTS...............................................................................................ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS...........................................................................................v
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS.......................................................................................vi
1. INTRODUCTION .....................................................................................................1
1.1. General Background and Problem Description ..................................................1
1.2. Research Objectives............................................................................................1
1.3. Research Questions.............................................................................................1
1.4. Scope of Research...............................................................................................2
1.5. Method ................................................................................................................3
1.5.1. Literature review..........................................................................................3
1.5.2. Consumer survey study (Quantitative survey) .............................................4
1.5.3. Content Analysis (Scoring) ..........................................................................5
1.5.4. Retailer survey .............................................................................................5
1.5.5. Informants interviews (Qualitative Interview).............................................5
1.5.6. Reporting......................................................................................................6
1.6. Report Outline.....................................................................................................6
2. STAKEHOLDERS AND THEIR INFLUENCE ON ORGANIC FOOD IN
THAILAND...................................................................................................................7
2.1. Stakeholders of Organic Food in Thailand .........................................................9
2.1.1. Thai Government .......................................................................................10
2.1.2 Certification Body.......................................................................................11
2.1.3. Trader ........................................................................................................13
2.1.4. Inter-governmental Organization: UNEP .................................................14
2.1.5. NGOs..........................................................................................................17
2.1.6. Media .........................................................................................................17
2.2. Organic Food Production and Availability .......................................................18
2.2.1. Organic Food Production..........................................................................18
2.2.2. Organic Food Export.................................................................................18
2.2.3. Organic Food Availability .........................................................................21
2.3. Organic Food Standards and Labeling..............................................................21
2.3.1. Organic produce ........................................................................................22
2.3.2. Hygienic produce .......................................................................................23
2.4. Theoretical Model.............................................................................................24
3. ORGANIC FOOD AVAILABILITY, PURCHASING AND CONSUMPTION IN
BANGKOK, THAILAND...........................................................................................26
3.1. Profile of the Thai Food Markets......................................................................26
3.1.1. Supermarkets: Villa Market.......................................................................26
3.1.2. Superstores: Big C .....................................................................................27
3.1.3. Traditional Markets: Sri-Sa-Wad ..............................................................28
3.2. Organic Food Products Availability in Surveyed Markets ...............................28
3.3. Organic Food Purchasing and Consumption ....................................................29
3.3.1. Personal Information of Respondents........................................................29
3.3.2. Eating Habits .............................................................................................29
3.3.3. The 'Social Organization' of the Eating Process .......................................31
3.3.4. Criteria for Purchasing Food and Organic Food .....................................31
3.3.5. Underlying Reasons for Purchasing Organic Food ..................................32

ii
 3.3.6. Willingness to Consider Organic Alternatives by Non-Organic Food
Consumers............................................................................................................33
4. THAI NEWSPAPER COVERAGE OF FOOD AND ORGANIC FOOD..............34
4.1. Media Coverage on Issues Pertinent to Food ...................................................34
4.2. Further Elaboration of Methods........................................................................35
4.3. Politics in Thai Media.......................................................................................35
4.4. Profiles of Thai Printed Media..........................................................................37
4.4.1. Thairath .....................................................................................................37
4.4.2. Ban Muang.................................................................................................38
4.4.3. The Nation..................................................................................................39
4.4.4. Bangkok Business.......................................................................................41
4.4.5. Bangkok Post .............................................................................................42
5. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATION ....................................................44
5.1. Perspectives of Food Consumers’ Culture within Social Practices ..................44
5.2. Thai Media’s Discourse on Food and Organic Food ........................................46
5.3. Chain of Providers and Consumers of Organic Food in Thailand....................46
5.4. Recommendations.............................................................................................48
5.4.1. Policy Recommendations ...........................................................................48
5.4.2. Recommendations for Thai Markets ..........................................................48
5.4.3. Recommendations for Further Studies ......................................................49
REFERENCES ............................................................................................................50
Annex 1 List of Interviews Conducted for the Research.............................................55
Annex 2. Questions for Informants Interview .............................................................56
Annex 3. Questions for Consumers .............................................................................58
Annex 4. Outputs of SPSS Data Processing ................................................................62
Annex 5. Content Analysis on Newspapers.................................................................79
Annex 6. Pictures of the Markets and Presentation of Food Produce .........................99

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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1. Characteristic of Eating Habits
Figure 2. Scope of Research
Figure 3. Stakeholders Covered by the Thesis
Figure 4. The Structure of ACT and Roles of Each Actor
Figure 5. Thai Food Exports 1997 – 2002
Figure 6: Organic logo of the Department of Agriculture
Figure 7: Organic logo of International Federation of Organic Agriculture
Figure 8: Hygienic logo by Department of Agriculture
Figure 9: Hygienic logo of the Ministry of Health
Figure 10. Analytical Framework
Figure 11. Media Coverage of Organic Food, Non-Organic Food, Avian Flu Outbreaks and
Food Safety
Figure 12. Implementation of Content Analysis Research

LIST OF TABLES
Table 1. Key Actors and Their Roles in Organic Food Production in Thailand
Table 2. Number of Farmers and Size of Area for Each Certified Body in Thailand
Table 3. Land under Organic Farming in Thailand
Table 4. Value of Organic food produce in Thailand
Table 5. Supermarket Chains
Table 6. Superstore Chains
Table7. Retail food sales by major segment
Table 8. Organic Food Products Available in Surveyed Markets
Table 9. Types of Food items for Daily Consumption
Table 10. Criteria and Priorities for Selecting and Purchasing Food
Table 11. Criteria and Priorities for Selecting and Purchasing Organic Food
Table 12. Purchase and Consumption of Organic Products by Organic Food Consumers
Table 13. Willingness to consider purchasing organic food products

iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Life is a journey and this thesis research has been part of my journey to attain my dreams of
academic gratification. Along the way I have been accompanied and supported by those who
had touched upon my life. It is therefore I would use this opportunity to express my sincere
appreciation for everyone who takes part of making this master’s thesis possible.
First of all I would like to extend my gratitude to my supervisors Ir. Peter Oosterveer, MSc
and Prof. Dr. Ir. Gert Spaargaren, MSc. They are both prominent lecturers who truly
dedicated on their work and therefore become my source of inspiration. I was also given the
opportunity to take part in their on-going project and be involved in a workshop organized in
Malaysia, of which I found the experience to be greatly rewarding.
Special thanks are also due to Kanang Kantamaturapoj and Nawaporn Onkokesung who
earnestly assisted me undertaking the empirical research in Thailand, as well as Stuart Bruce
who kindly edited this thesis report. They showed me the true meaning of friendship and
sincerity, without them this thesis will not be completed.
I am also highly indebted Niclas Svenningsen of the Bangkok-based United Nations
Environment Programme, for fully endorsing my intention to undertake internship while carry
out substantial work of my thesis research in Thailand. I am also grateful for the genuine
support provided by Sophie Punte, who taught me a lot about doing empirical research,
particularly within environmental issues.
I feel a deep sense of gratitude for my late grandparents, beloved father Prof. Ir. Eko
Budihardjo, MSc, mother Ir. Sudanti, MSc and sister dr. Holy Ametati, for bestowing me with
genuine blessings and all the supports that I need, taught me things that really matter in life:
love and family.

I am very grateful for my loving husband Nuki Agya Utama, MSc for his love, support, and
patience during the MSc period. He completes me and never shy away from the ups and down
of our life. We travel our life journey together and overcame the obstacles which hinder our
steps along the way. I thank him for being there for me, turning gloominess into brightness.

I furthermore appreciate the supports of my study adviser Ir. Dick Legger, the Environmental
Policy Group, my colleagues at the Urban Environmental Management department and
friends at the Indonesian Students’ Association of whom I can not mention each and every
one. The sequence of my gratitude is finally topped with my gratitude to NUFFIC for
awarding me the Nuffic Fellowship Programme (NFP) scholarship that fully supports me
financially of which enables me to pursue a post-graduate study at Wageningen University.

Aretha Aprilia

February 2005
Wageningen, The Netherlands

v
 Analysis of Sustainable Food Consumption in Bangkok, Thailand

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

AAN Alternative Agricultural Network

ACT Organic Agriculture Certification Thailand
ASEAN Association of South East Asian Nations
BP Bangkok Post
CI Consumers International
CED Center for Environment and Development
CP Cleaner Production
DOA Department of Agriculture
EU European Union
EC European Commission
FAO Food and Agriculture Organization
FLO Fair Trade Labeling Organization
GMO Genetically Modified Organism
IFOAM International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements
MOA Ministry of Agriculture
MOH Ministry of Health
NAP National Action Plan
NGO Non Governmental Organization
OECD Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development
POP Persistent Organic Pollutant
PQMS Plant Quality Management System
SC Sustainable Consumption
SD Sustainable Development
UN United Nations
UNCTAD United Nations Conference on Trade and Development
UNDP United Nations Development Programme
UNEP DTIE United Nations Environment Programme, Division of Technology,
Industry and Economics
UNEP ROAP United Nations Environment Programme, Regional Office of Asia
and Pacific
WCED World Commission on Environment and Development
WSSD World Summit on Sustainable Development
WHO World Health Organization
WTO World Trade Organization

vi
1. INTRODUCTION
‘Organic agriculture is the most dynamic and rapidly growing sector of the global food
industry. Its growth from a small-scale niche market to a $23 billion enterprise has made
“organic” an international phenomenon’
(Rural Advancement Foundation International – USA (2003) Who Owns Organic? The
Global Status, Prospects, and Challenges of a Changing Organic Market. Pittsboro, 2003.)
Thailand’s ambition to become the kitchen of the world has had severe public relations
setbacks. The epidemic of avian flu in Thailand has shaken up the country’s successful
agribusiness sector: small farmers have lost out to big corporations because of the crisis.
(Isabela Delforge – France (2004) Government and Business Connive Over Avian Flu
Outbreak. Thailand: the World’s Kitchen. Le Monde Diplomatique, 2004.)

1.1. General Background and Problem Description

People nowadays experience a growing awareness of health and environmental well-being

and compared to the end of the 1980s, the flow of information about the environmental
aspects of consumption has increased. The level of awareness about the “world behind the
product” they buy and eat probably has never been as high as today (OECD, 2002).

For this reason a thesis was undertaken to determine the “consumers’ preference for organic
food in Bangkok, Thailand”. In relation to this the thesis analyzed (a) organic food production
and promotion; (b) organic food availability, purchasing and consumption; and (c) media
coverage of organic food.

1.2. Research Objectives

The objectives of this research are:
1. To advance the knowledge about organic food consumption in Thailand by analyzing the
extent to which Thai consumers want to incorporate organic food-items into their daily food
consumption practices.
2. To analyze from a sociological point of view the extent to which Thai media are promoting
organic food (as measured by the content of newspapers with respect to sustainable
development in general and the consumption of organic food in particular).
3. To understand the attempts, mandate and roles of the inter-governmental organization
(United Nations Environment Programme, hereinafter referred to as UNEP,) with respect to
organic food consumption in Asia, specifically in Thailand.

1.3. Research Questions

The research questions that are posed in this research are:
1. What are the mandate and roles of UNEP, Thai national government agencies and
international linkages with respect to the promotion of organic food consumption in
Thailand?
- What are the available programmes / guidelines promoted by UNEP that relate to organic
food consumption?
- To what extent do these policies affect the government to motivate the preference for
organic food consumption in Thailand?
- What is the role of the government policy compared to other actors?
- Who are the stakeholders of organic food in Thailand and what are their (a) mandates, (b)
roles, and (c) influence?
(Results are in chapter 2)

1
2. What organic food products are available in Bangkok supermarkets and traditional markets?
- What types of organic food are available?
- What information about organic food (labeling of product and on the shelves) is provided
in the markets?
(Results are in chapter 3)

3. What are the trends in consumer culture that affect the preference for organic food
consumption in Bangkok?
- What are the main characteristics including the eating habits of Thai people when it
comes to the purchasing and consuming of food?

Breakfast Lunch Dinner

Others
(grazing/snacking in
between meal times)

Figure 1. Characteristic of eating habits

- What is the 'social organization' of the eating process as part of eating habit
characteristics and the criteria for purchasing food and organic food?
- What criteria do Thai people apply when selecting food?
- What are the underlying reasons for purchasing organic food?
- Of the major types of food consumed, what organic alternatives are Thai people willing
to consider?
(Results are in chapter 4)

4. What information is provided in newspapers about organic food in Thailand?

- Is there any information in the newspapers (news articles, opinion, features,
advertisements, etc) about organic food in Thailand?
- What are the characteristics of this information?
- To what extent do the bird flu outbreak and food safety issues are exposed in Thai media?
(Results are in chapter 5)

1.4. Scope of Research

In line with the Brundtland report of Our Common Future (1987), sustainable food
consumption is defined as a way of food consumption which guarantees the preservation of
natural resources so that present consumers’ needs may be fulfilled without endangering the
needs of future consumers. Sustainability, in a broader sense, can include three elements: (a)
environmental protection, (b) social justice, and (c) economic prosperity (Elkington, s.a).
It is important to note that organic food is only one aspect of sustainable food production, yet
the two can sometimes be contradictory. For instance, organic food implies the absence of
pesticides, antibiotics, growth hormones, and other chemical substances, but this can also lead
to a higher risk of diseases given that the antibiotics are initially applied with the intention as
preventative measures. This condition in turn could be considered a risk to food safety.
Another example is the use of preservatives to extend the shelf life of food which is part of
food safety measure; hence despite the provision of health assurance of organic food, if not
consumed immediately it would lead to higher food safety risk because it deteriorates quicker.

2
What is “sustainable” for animals (i.e. animal friendly) such as free-ranged poultry and pigs,
can be “unsustainable” for the environment, such as manure that runs off in the environment
instead of it being collected in stables. This implies that sometimes animal friendly practices
can have an adverse impact on the environment. Therefore giving a proper definition of
sustainable food is rather difficult.1
More profoundly, organic food is the focus of the research. The organic food can be defined
as:
1. The type of food that is produced by farmers who use renewable resources and who
conserve soil and water and also ensure that food is free of antibiotics, growth
hormones, and commercial pesticides (Michelletti, 2003).
2. The food derived from a system that is designed and delivered to produce agricultural
products by the use of methods and substances that maintain the integrity of organic
agricultural products until they reach the consumer. 2(USDA, in Kisanwatch, 2002).
In this research, organic food is the “food that is free of antibiotics, growth hormones,
chemicals, and pesticides.” Furthermore it is certified as organic by the standardization and
accreditation department of the Thailand Ministry of Agriculture.
The food product focus for this research is derived from the available organic products in
Thai market, based on the market survey.

Sustainable Production
and Consumption

Sustainable Consumption

Sustainable Food
Consumption

Organic Food Local Food Non – GMO Hygienic Food

Consumption Food

Figure 2. Scope of Research

1.5. Method
The method used in this research is diagnostic, practice – oriented research. This research
intends to analyze the current state of organic food consumption in Thailand. The strategy of
research consists of five steps described below:
1.5.1. Literature review
The importance of literature review is to gain preliminary understanding for forming the
succinct objectives of the research and to get background knowledge, as well as searching for

1
Punte, e-mail correspondence on February 17, 2005.
2
This is accomplished by using, where possible, cultural, biological, and mechanical methods, as opposed to using
substances, to fulfill any specific fluctuation within the system so as to: maintain long-term soil biological activity;
ensure effective peak management; recycle wastes to return nutrients to the land; provide attentive care for farm
animals; and handle the agricultural products without the use of extraneous synthetic additives or processing in
accordance with the act and the regulations in this part.

3
 prior researches that have dealt with similar issues. The literature review also contains the
search for preliminary data to give an overview of the current state of organic food
consumption in Thailand. This is done before and during fieldwork and includes reviewing
institutional publications regarding the related issue, journals, websites, Thai Ministry of
Agriculture documents, previous researches and UNEP policy documents.
The literature review is also aimed at gaining understanding about the stakeholders involved
in the promotion of organic food consumption. Below is the framework of the stakeholders
covered in the thesis research. The green fonts indicated the items or points of which the
investigation was conducted within this research.

Society:
Literature review - Agriculture Certification Interview
Thailand (ACT) United Nations:
Government: - Green Net - UNEP
- Ministry of Agriculture - Greenpeace Southeast Asia - FAO
- Ministry of Health - Thai Consumers’ Organization - WFP
- Ministry of Environment - University/ research institution
- Other

Consumer Survey Retailer survey

- Purchasers Food retailers:
- Food preparers - Supermarket (Villa
- Consumers Organic Market)
Food - Superstore chain (Big C)
- Traditional market
- Local shops
- Street vendors

Media:
Producers:
- Newspaper
- farmers
- Radio
- food processors
- Television
- Internet
- Other
Literature review

Content Analysis

Figure 3. Stakeholders covered by the thesis

1.5.2. Consumer survey study (Quantitative survey)

The consumers included in the research units are food purchasers in Bangkok, Thailand.
These also include non-organic food purchasers in order to determine the typicality of Thai
peoples’ food consumption patterns in general and furthermore to determine their openness
and willingness to change their preference to organic food products.
Quantitative research by means of survey is the core of this research, using consumers as the
unit analysis of the research. The cluster sample is used to determine the units’ selections. The
sample size is sixty purchasers of food, of which the study area was divided into three parts.
Twenty respondents were interviewed using a 10-minute questionnaire (see appendix 2), from
a major supermarket that sells organic food (Villa Market). Twenty questionnaires were

4
distributed in the superstore chain of Big C, and twenty respondents were interviewed from
the traditional markets, to identify the consumers’ willingness to purchase organic food. The
sample was taken randomly from a number of sub-groups. The interview was guided with
closed and open questions to gather data from respondents. Then the data was analyzed with
an SPSS software program.
1.5.3. Content Analysis (Scoring)
The key concept is to determine the characteristics of organic food information in the
newspaper media. The operationalization of this concept to measure the value of a newspaper
in this variable is ‘the number of information items (news articles, features, opinions,
advertisements, columns, etc) devoted to organic food in the newspaper’. As there are many
different national daily newspapers issued in Thailand, the sources are restricted to the five
national daily newspapers with the widest circulation: Bangkok Post, The Nation, Thairath,
Ban Muang, and Bangkok Business. The population of research units consists of all copies of
the five selected national daily newspapers issued from 1 August 2003 – 31 July 2004.
Afterwards a sample of four issues for each month of each selected newspaper is drawn in a
stratified random sample. Therefore, the total number of newspapers reviewed equals 4 issues
x 12 months x 5 newspapers = 240 newspapers.
1.5.4. Retailer survey
In order to identify the organic food products that are available in the Thai markets, a field
survey of the markets is undertaken. A checklist is used consisting of:
- the availability of organic food items.
- the information provided in the market about the organic food products on both the
packaging and the shelves.
The same three market sites used for interviewing purchasers are included in this field survey.
They are Villa Market, Big C, and a traditional market.
1.5.5. Informants interviews (Qualitative Interview)

The research involves a series of key informants’ interviews as a data generation method,
including the following four informants:

ƒ The UNEP Regional Office for Asia Pacific, Bangkok - based Industry Officer, Mr.
Niclas Svenningsen, who is undertaking a sustainable consumption project in Asia
Pacific. The project aims to help the governments of Asia and the Pacific meet their
requirements related to sustainable consumption under the UN Guidelines on
Consumer Protection.

ƒ The director of the Sri Lanka-based NGO Center for Environment and Development,
Mr. Uchita de Zoysa; the project partner of UNEP who is in charge of carrying out
the Asian review of the sustainable consumption Asia project.

ƒ The UNEP Division of Technology, Industry and Economics (DTIE) Paris Regional
Officer, Mr. Bas de Leeuw, who is undertaking a sustainable consumption project in
Europe. He was interviewed to capture the idea of organic food consumption
implementation in Europe (a reflection of developed countries). Derived from this
knowledge, the implementation of organic food consumption in Asia (developing
countries) is estimated.

ƒ The UNEP DTIE Programme Officer, Ms. Wei Zhao, who is in charge of a project in
developing organic agriculture in Guiyang, China.

5
Other stakeholders, e.g., a representative of the Thai Ministry of Agriculture, could also be
interviewed depending on the time availability and upon recommendation by the above
interviewees. As part of the interviews, stakeholder identification is carried out to pinpoint the
stakeholders that are involved in influencing and promoting organic food consumption in
Thailand.
1.5.6. Reporting
The data and information gathered are reported in a document as an output of the research.
The Wageningen University thesis supervisors, Ir. Peter Oosterveer, MSc and Prof. Dr. Ir.
Gert Spaargaren, reviewed the research report as well as the UNEP Bangkok-based Industry
Officer, Mr. Niclas Svenningsen, and UNEP ROAP Project Coordinator, Mrs. Sophie Punte.
The report will be used as a complementary recommendation for the development of National
Action Plans for Sustainable Consumption.

1.6. Report Outline

The outline of the research report is as follows:

Chapter 1. Introduction
This chapter includes the problem description, research questions, and methods of research.
Chapter 2. Stakeholders and Their Influence on Organic Food in Thailand
It introduces the background information and methods used in the research, as well as the
elaboration of the theories and conceptual framework.
Chapter 3. Organic Food Availability, Purchasing and Consumption in Bangkok, Thailand
The empirical research findings are presented in this chapter, also further elaboration on the
methods used in the research.
Chapter 4. Thai Newspaper Coverage of Food and Organic Food
This chapter is mainly comprised of the research empirical findings on the content analysis of
the five newspapers in terms of news coverage of organic food issues, the types of news
presented and the profile of each newspaper.
Chapter 5. Conclusions and Recommendations
This includes the summaries of empirical and theoretical findings, and answers of all research
questions. The recommendation is for further research and tangible measures to deal with the
problems as investigated in this research.

6
2. STAKEHOLDERS AND THEIR INFLUENCE ON ORGANIC FOOD
IN THAILAND
This chapter is the result of literature which provides the background information and
elaboration on theories pertaining organic food issues.
Consumers in contemporary societies tend to have a level of consumer sovereignty, in which
consumers’ preferences determine production, thus production of goods is justified by
demand and not by itself. In other words, consumers are directly involved in the decision to
purchase, of what and how much is purchased, and the use of disposal of products. (Hake and
Jolivet, 2002). The notion of consumers as the major actor of organic food consumption
relates to Principle 10 of the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development, which states
that the environmental issues are best, handled with participation of all concerned citizens, at
the relevant level (UNEP, 1992).
There are three forms of influence that affect the preference of consumers. First, the
normative (utilitarian) influence which occurs when an individual fulfills others’ expectations
to gain a direct reward or to avoid a sanction. Second is the value – expressive influence,
which occurs when individuals use others’ norms, values, and behaviors as a guide for their
own attitudes, values, and behaviors. Third, informational social influence occurs when an
individual uses the values, norms, and behaviors of others as credible and needed evidence
about reality (Arnould, Price, and Zinkhan, 2002).
Realistic policies of organic food consumption should combine elements from all three
scenarios, which are 1) the encouragement of market forces, 2) consumers’ education and
information about the consequences of their current consumption patterns and the way in
which these should be changed, and 3) government regulations to control the consumption
process (Meulenberg and Schifferstein, 1994).
In this consumer driven food market, food safety plays a key role. There are reasons to
concentrate on food safety, as in a demand-led food market; hence the issue of food safety is
crucial. Food safety should incorporate product oriented qualities (freshness, shelf life,
additives) and in terms of process-oriented qualities (growth hormones, GMOs, organic
farming) as well as process-oriented consumer concerns (the way the products are produced,
e.g. environmentally and / or animal- friendly).
There has been evidence that global environmental institutions have made an effort to
transform widespread consumption practices (Cohen, 2003). These include the determination
of governments and institutions or organizations to establish policies to regulate organic food
consumption. Yet this watering-down process should be endorsed also with a bottom – up
approach: namely citizen – consumers, who are the major actors in daily food consumption.

This research has the importance to determine the current preference of consumers on
selecting, purchasing and consuming a range of organic food that is available in Thailand’s
market. The question to pose is: to what extent is there a demand for organic food in
Thailand?
Thai organic agriculture currently remains in its infancy, although there are signs that the
movement may be in the take-off stage. Organic farming in Thailand continues to grow at a
slow pace, with export volume of just 200 million baht and only a handful of sites operating
on a commercial scale (Bangkok Post, 2004). Yet it is important to note that the history of
organic agriculture is not a recent phenomenon as local farmers have practiced traditional
farming for hundreds of years. The re-emergence of organic farming can be traced back to the
collapse of modern agriculture in the early 1980s. Incidents of health hazards to farmers and

7
consumers occurred frequently. Against this backdrop, alternatives to conventional
agriculture, in order to break away the vicious circle of health risks, were sought (United
Nations, 2002).

The Thai government announced national standards for organic farming and organic food
production in 2001. National standards were established such as a certification system and a
state logo for organically grown products. Furthermore, state support was provided in the
form of research and development. A National Research Institute of Organic Agriculture was
set up and research programs were launched. The Ministry of Agriculture (MOA) provided
free certification for organic farmers. State support for organic farming served two purposes.
The first purpose was to limit the use of pesticides in the country. Secondly, the government
foresaw economic benefits in developing the organic food industry. It encouraged Thai
farmers and producers to capitalize on the export potential of the organic food industry. The
world market for organic foods had grown exponentially in the last decade (Organic Monitor,
2001).

The Department of Agriculture of MOA set up a pilot program of safe food in 1983, most of
which focused on setting national standards and certification services with a main objective to
facilitate organic exports. For instance, the Organic Crop Institute (OCI), initiated by the
Department of Agriculture, has raised organic crop production standards. They emphasized
only on fruit and vegetables in both fresh and processed forms. The original purpose was to
reduce chemical use in fruit and vegetable cultivation by providing educational support for
the farmers. (Kantamaturapoj, 2004) In 1991, the program was improved and the maximum
residue limit was set according to FAO and WHO standards, namely the Codex Alimentarius.
These guidelines were used for the production of, processing, labeling and marketing of
organically produced foods. The Codex is an international body who set international health,
labeling and other food standards and thereby increase food safety and promotes fair practices
in food trade on the basis of scientifically sound standards (FAO/WHO, 1999; Hooker, 1999;
in Oosterveer, 2004).

There are various kinds of safe fruit and vegetable standards in Thailand – hygienic, organic,
and Plant Quality Management System (PQMS). Each standard is unique in its cultivation
method, inspection method, inspecting agency, and logo (Department of Agriculture,
hereinafter referred to as DOA, 2002). The Division of Food in Medical Sciences department
of Ministry Of Health (MOH) is responsible for investigation, analysis and development of
the analytical method for foods, water, beverages, food additives and food packaging to
ascertain their quality and safety regarding the relevant laws of the Ministry of Public Health
on the consumer protection program of foods (MOH, 2001).

The UNCTAD/WTO International Trade Center estimated at US$ 13 – 13.5 billion the world
market value for organic retail sales in 1998, with an annual growth rate from 5% to 40%
(International Trade Centre 1999:4, in UN, 2002). The major markets are Europe, the United
States and Japan.
Despite the growing demand, Thailand currently encounters several problems in the organic
food chain. Thailand has confirmed that the ‘bird flu’ virus has attacked its chicken farms.
The avian influenza virus is a highly pathogenic A virus subtype H5N1 which is found in
poultry. In 2004 there were 44 confirmed human cases of H5N1 flu in Thailand and Vietnam
that resulted in 32 deaths. Experts fear that the H5N1 virus could acquire genes from human
influenza viruses that will transform it into a ‘superflu’ allowing rapid spread among people.

8
Influenza pandemics evidently occur on a regular cycle, with one every 20 or 30 years. The
next pandemic outbreak could be of avian flu. The Ministry of Agriculture and Co-operative
have declared dangerous zones in 31 provinces and 39 districts. One approach to preventing a
pandemic has been to eliminate the virus from its animal reservoir by killing millions of
chickens. But this is economically devastating to countries like Thailand which is the fourth
largest producer and exporter of chickens (Lovgren, 2004; Trivedi, 2004). The avian flu
outbreak in a worst-case scenario is expected to trim between 0.1 and 0.5 percentage points
from the country's 2004 economic growth (Thaiprasithiporn, 2004). Thai officials, especially
at the highest levels, are now taking the threat seriously. Prime Minister Thaksin Shinawatra
pledged to wipe out avian influenza in the country by the end of October 2004 (Walsh, 2004).
In addition to the threat of avian flu outbreak, Thailand also faces problems regarding
possible genetically modified organism (GMO) contamination in their food products. Major
organic food importers, including Japan, European countries and the US, would avoid
importing Thai organic food products for fear that they could contain GMOs (Samabuddhi,
2004).

The problems in the food chain triggered consumer concern and awareness about the
importance of food safety. There are numerous and continuous debates in the media with
respect to food safety issues, and many of them appeal to the government for a more stringent
organic labeling system that not only ensures consumers that the food is free of pesticides but
also of GMOs and avian influenza contamination (BP, 2004).

The debates related with food issues perpetuate, partly because the Thai government set aside
the year 2004 as “Food Safety Year” and furthermore introduced the campaign for the new
government policy as the “Kitchen of the World”. This course of action generates reaction
from the public to ensure that the campaigns will really be implemented and not merely
remain rhetoric. In addition to this, the Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives urge Thai
farmers to reduce the use of chemical pesticides, herbicides, and insecticides so that a five-
year master plan to make the nation a global center for organic food can be put into place
(Nutraingredients, 2002). The plan, which will be in place from 2002 to 2006, will meet the
requirements of the International Code of Conduct on the Distribution and Use of Pesticide,
with a view to implementing further research on alternatives to chemicals used in farming.
The identified problem underlined in this research is that Thai people are as yet unaware of
the benefits of organic food, both for health and environment. In short, this research largely
deals with organic food consumption from a sociological point of view. It is interesting to
perceive organic food consumption from the perspective of the consumers themselves as
important actors in the food chain.

2.1. Stakeholders of Organic Food in Thailand

Consumer preference is defined as the feelings and beliefs associated with a consumer’s like
and dislike (Arnould, Price and Zinkhan, 2002). Hence for this reason it is very important to
understand the stakeholders who are involved in organic food production in Thailand that
affect the consumer behavior.
Key Actors Roles
Thai government Department of Agriculture Completing a national guideline
for organic crop standards and
attempting to set up organic
inspection and certification.

9
Certification body Organic Agriculture Certification Thailand Thai certification body providing
(ACT) organic certification services
Foreign certification bodies: Bioagricoop Foreign certification bodies
(Italy) certifying organic farms in
Soil Association (UK) Thailand
Trader Capital Rice Co. Ltd Exporting almost all of the
River Kwae certified organic products (only a
Green Net Cooperative few products are locally sold).
Inter-government UNEP Providing consultancy and
organization lobbying government to take
appropriate measures on organic
food endorsement.
NGOs NGOs under Alternative Agriculture Providing support services for
Network, including: organic conversion and internal
- Sustainable Agriculture Foundation control
- Sustainable Agriculture Pilot Project
- Earth Net Foundation
- Surin Farmer Support
- Nature Care Club Yasothon
Media Electronic and printed press media. Providing all the necessary
information about organic food.
Producers and Individual and organized farms as producer Producing various crops
producer organizations groups
Table 1. Key actors and their roles in organic food production in Thailand
(Source: UN, 2002)

The different stakeholder groups are discussed on these following subchapters.

2.1.1. Thai Government

It is worthy to note that since Prime Minister Taksin’s rule of the administrative government
in March 2001, organic agriculture is promoted as one of the main target policies for the
agriculture department. Several government agencies, mainly in the Ministry of Agriculture
and Cooperatives, are preparing several large-scale projects for the promotion of organic
agriculture.
The Thai government is currently showing a growing interest in organic food after decades of
promoting the green revolution package. For the first time, the 8th National Economic and
Social Development Plan (1997-2001) recognized sustainable agriculture, including organic
farming. This is the result of years of campaigning and mobilizing by farmers’ movements
and NGOs. The plan sets an ambitious target of converting 20% of arable land to sustainable
agriculture, but no concrete actions have been taken to meet this goal.
As for transnational companies, the Thai authorities’ interest in safe food and organic
agriculture is largely driven by the attraction of foreign markets. One of Thailand’s main
strategies to remain competitive despite the opening of its agricultural markets to giant
producers like China is to increase food safety standards – notably under the “Good
Agricultural Practice” and “Good Manufacture Practice” concepts. It is also revealing that one
of the few strictly organic projects currently implemented by the authorities is the Department
of Export Promotion’s “Pilot Project on the Export of Organic Farm Products” initiated in
1999. Besides this project, the Department of Agriculture set up organic standards guidelines
and a certification body. To date, most of the producers certified are large exporters.

10
2.1.2 Certification Body

Currently only organic crops are produced in Thailand, which are predominantly
organic rice and vegetables, unlike other countries which are already capable of producing
organic canned goods and beverages. An estimated 0.013% of the total farmland is under
organic management. It is worth noting that since Prime Minister Taksin’s rule of the
administrative government began in March 2001, organic agriculture has been promoted as
one of the main target policies for agricultural department. Several government agencies,
mainly in the Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives, are preparing several large-scale
projects for the promotion of organic agriculture.

In terms of the organic food regulations in Thailand, the organic food standards can be
roughly divided into two channels: the state and private agencies. State standards for organic
products are enforced by DOA while private standards are made by Alternative Agriculture
Certification Thailand (ACT). The following table shows the number of farmers and size of
area for each certified body in Thailand (2002).
The details of the agencies are described below the table:

Certification Bodies Number of farmers Size of area (rai)

DOA 113 3,245
IFOAM 300 5,814
Other private agencies* 727 12,369
Total 1,140 21,428
Table 2. Number of Farmers and Size of Area for Each Certified Body in Thailand
(Source: Agriculturist newspaper, 2004)
* Other private agencies including Soil Association, SGS, Splendid, Skal international, BSC EKO-
Guarantee GMBH (EU 2092/91 standard), and so on.

The Thai government has realized the importance of organic crops in the global market. They
believe that it is necessary to set a national standard which is relevant to the international
standard. In 1999, the national standards for organic crop production in Thailand were set by
three government agencies; Scientific and Technology Research Institute, Department of
Export Promotion of Ministry of Commerce, and Department of Agriculture of Ministry of
Agriculture. The organic methods of cultivation, transformation, packaging, transportation,
and selling were established. The notification of national standards for organic crop
production in Thailand was officially declared in October 2000.

The farmers have to submit an application form to DOA (national or regional agency). Some
details are required:
• Name and address of the farmer(s)
• Location
• Detail of product and production process (the farmer(s) has to record duration of area
transforming, transformation plan and chemical analysis)
• Signature
After this, inspectors will evaluate, record, and/or analyze the samples. If the evaluation is
passed, DOA will provide an organic certificate to the farmer(s). Also, the farmer(s) will get
permission to use the organic logo of Thailand.

Another type of standard is an international standard for organic crop production called
International Federation of Organic Agriculture (IFOAM). IFOAM is a worldwide-accepted

11
standard suggested by Codex Alimentarius. The IFOAM standard has been set since 1980
and more than one hundred countries are members of IFOAM. The IFOAM standard is
accepted by the World Trade Organization (WTO).

In Thailand, ACT is the certified agency accredited by IFOAM. Their organic standards
started from simple standards on the basis of practicability by Thai farmers and progressively
developed to a level equivalent to international standards, especially IFOAM Basic Standard
which is employed as a framework. The ACT General Assembly first officially approved
ACT standards in 1999. In 2000, the ACT Standard Committee revised the standards again to
cover more categories of certification. Now ACT has the organic standards of crop production,
processing and handling, and wild production standards.
ACT has established a mechanism to inspect and certify organic production, from farming to
processing to handling to the sale of organic products in green shops. ACT has competent
independent inspectors well trained by ACT, and the certification system is ready to serve all
operators who want or apply for certification in the following categories:
1. Crop production and on-farm processing
2. Processing and handling
3. Wild production
4. Input manufacturing
5. Aquaculture (Shrimp)
Operators who have been certified by ACT are granted the use of the ACT seal on their
packaging; therefore, consumers can be confident that organic products with this seal are
genuine organic ones.
In addition, ACT has been accredited by IFOAM since January 1, 2002. ACT currently is
ready to serve operators and traders exporting organic products to other countries.
Furthermore, ACT is providing the system to offer inspection and certification services
overseas. The structure of ACT and each role is indicated below.

12
 Associate Member Full member

GENERAL ASSEMBLY
• Approve Standard
• Elect GB

GOVERNING BOARD
• Policy decision
• Appoint EB, SC, CC
• Certification appeal

EXECUTIVE BOARD
• Oversight of ACT Administration and finance

STANDARDS COMMITTEE CERTIFICATION COMMITTEE

• Recommend standards revision • Certification decision
and clarification

ACT SECRETARIAT
• General Manager
• Certification Officer
• Inspection Officer

ACT INSPECTOR
• Independent
• Trained by ACT
• No conflict of interests

Figure 4. The Structure of ACT and Roles of Each Actors

2.1.3. Trader

There are currently five major producer groups that produce organic rice, most of which is
jasmine rice. Two producers are in Chiang Rai, one in Surin, one in Yasothon and another in
Khon Kaen. Organic rice is sold mainly through three traders; Capital Rice Co. Ltd., Siam
Basmatic Co. Ltd., and Green Net Cooperative. Most of the rice is exported mainly to
European markets and only a small quantity is sold domestically.
Vegetable production is the second most important organic crop category. Fresh vegetables
and baby corn are grown. Several organic producers are engaged in this production. In terms
of land, an estimated 16,761.375 rai of farmland is now under organic management. This
represented around 0.01356 per cent of the total farmland. (UN, 2002)

13
2.1.4. Inter-governmental Organization: UNEP
The priorities of UNEP are mainly to carry out environmental monitoring, assessment,
information-gathering and research including early warning, enhanced coordination of
environmental conventions and development of environment policy instruments, freshwater;
technology transfer and industry, and support of less developed countries. In liaison with
other UNEP divisions, the Division of Technology, Industry and Economics has developed its
approach and focused its activities to respond to these priorities.3
Together with the support by the European Commission’s Asia Pro Eco Programme, UNEP
Regional Office of Asia and Pacific Sustainable Consumption Programme was established in
1998. The programme includes components on advertising, youth, eco-design, life cycle
assessments, product-service systems, sustainable procurement, and so forth. UNEP’s work
with the UN Consumer Guidelines is an integrated part of this programme. Relevant work so
far includes a number of national/regional expert meetings (aimed at better understanding the
national and regional conditions for sustainable consumption), a global review of the status of
implementation of the guidelines, and supporting resource materials.
The objective of the Sustainable Consumption (hereinafter referred to as SC Asia) project is
to transfer knowledge and experience from European countries to Asian countries and from
Asian countries to other Asian countries about the measures (i.e. policies, campaigns,
instruments and other tools) that may be applied to successfully implement sustainable
consumption in accordance with UN guidelines on consumer protection. The project responds
to the call from countries in the region to receive support in promoting sustainable
consumption, and is part of the UNEP 10-year framework programme on sustainable
production and consumption.
The main activities are:
1. Studies of the best practices in Europe and conditions in Asia for sustainable consumption
2. Asia-Europe cross learning seminar where findings from the studies of the best practices
in Europe and conditions in Asia for sustainable consumption are synthesized
3. Development of guidelines on sustainable consumption implementation, published in five
languages
4. Assistance for participating Asian countries to develop implementation plans for
sustainable consumption in accordance with UN consumption guidelines
Based on the Guidance Manual, support will be given for participating Asian countries to
draft national action plans for implementation of the guidelines (on sustainable consumption).
The action plans will include identification of national stakeholders, a programme of
information dissemination, training and monitoring needs at a national level. The aim of the
action plans is to achieve national level endorsement and commitment to a comprehensive
approach to address sustainable consumption issues. The specific characteristics, needs and
priorities of the individual countries will be taken into account. A summary report of the
action plans will be prepared by UNEP. Finally, the project closure and evaluation according
to EU and UNEP standard procedures will be carried out at the end of the project (UNEP,
2004).
In 2003 the United Nations published UN Guidelines for Consumer Protection which has
become the base of the SC Asia project. One of the most important parts of these guidelines is
section G which highlights the promotion of sustainable consumption. With regards to

3
UNEP DTIE, 2003 Activity Report.

14
sustainable food consumption, in section H article 57 and 584 emphasized particularly on food
and sustainable agriculture, as presented below.
“57. Food. When formulating national policies and plans with regard to food, Governments
should take into account the need of all consumers for food security and should support and,
as far as possible, adopt standards from the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United
Nations and the World Health Organization Codex Alimentarius or, in their absence, other
generally accepted international food standards. Governments should maintain, develop or
improve food safety measures, including, inter alia, safety criteria, food standards and dietary
requirements and effective monitoring, inspection and evaluation mechanisms.
58. Governments should promote sustainable agricultural policies and practices, conservation
of biodiversity, and protection of soil and water, taking into account traditional knowledge.”
(UN DESA, 2003: 8)

Other than the above-mentioned programme, UNEP organized a workshop about National
action on measures to reduce or eliminate the releases of by-product from unintentional
production as requested by the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants
(POPs)5. This regional workshop was held on 13 to 15 March 2002 in Bangkok, Thailand.
The aim of the workshop was to discuss how to develop regional and national action for
reducing or eliminating releases of unintentionally produced by-products6, when
implementing the Stockholm Convention on POPs.

This workshop is pertinent to the attempt for bringing about sustainable agriculture, especially
in developing countries, including Thailand. It is perceived that the total release of dioxins to
the environment is not declining, but may be rapidly rising year after year. Dioxins, one of
those unintended by-products, are a group of highly toxic chemicals that affect the health of
animals and people at exposure levels to which people are exposed in their daily lives. The
danger is cumulative because the chemicals are not easily excreted due to their poor solubility
in water. Instead, dioxins are stored in body fat and concentrate up through the food web.
Wildlife and people are exposed primarily via food, particularly meat, fish, and dairy products.
It is therefore deemed important to prevent toxication, particularly of food products (German
Federal Environmental Agency, 2002).
In line with the attempts of the UN to endorse and promote sustainable consumption on food
and agriculture, although not directly associated with the UN initiatives the Thai National
Government Agencies have undertaken several measures to endorse sustainable food
consumption by launching year 2004 as the “Food Safety Year” in which agricultural and
food producers were encouraged to adopt a food chain approach to food safety; namely the
Good Agricultural Practices and the Good Manufacturing Practices. As a future projection,
the government is in the process of restructuring the agricultural sector to deal with the global
competitiveness among trading partners. In so doing, a number of agricultural commodities
with promising potential have been selected for further development. This program includes
the improvement of organic products as one of the key agricultural sectors in Thailand.

4
Referred by Uchita de Zoysa in an interview in London, October 1, 2004.
5
Interview with Niclas Svenningsen, August 19, 2004.
6
Such as PCDD/PCDF (polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and polychlorinated dibenzofurans),
HCB (hexachlorobenzene) and PCB (polychlorinated biphenyls) which are released as unintentionally
emitted by – products from industrial and non – industrial sources contribute substantially to a
contamination of environmental media, biota and food and consequently of man with persistent organic
pollutant (POPs).

15
Furthermore the Thai national government has introduced the campaign “Kitchen of the
World” as government policy. In response to the government policy of developing Thailand
as the “Kitchen of The World”, the Bangkok Metropolitan Administration has launched a
“clean food and good taste” project by presenting certificates to various food establishments
with hygienic and sanitary conditions for the health benefits of tourists and the general public.
Aiming to achieve the “Kitchen of the World” status, the Department of Agriculture under the
Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives has worked out strategies for food safety,
implemented from 2003 to 2004. The strategies involve quality control of fruit and vegetable
exports and food processing. Emphasis is placed on the reduction of chemical use and
hygienic conditions. Food safety also involves the improvement of soil quality (Thailand
Board of Investment, 2001).
There are several requirements needed to achieve a status for Thailand as the “Kitchen of the
World”, which involve the application of a single standard of food for both domestic
consumers and foreign markets. It is also pinpointed that logistics and the supply chain must
be considered, since problems in delivery could lead to food safety hazards. One of the most
important things for Thailand’s food export industry is the issue of transportation, as food can
become unsafe during delivery (Benjaprut, 2004).
In addition to this, the Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives urge Thai farmers to reduce
the use of chemical pesticides, herbicides, and insecticides so that a five-year master plan to
make the nation a global centre for organic food can be put into place (Nutraingredients,
2002).

The initiation of organic farming projects, most of which focused on setting national
standards and certification services with a main objective of facilitating organic exports, is
also implemented by the government. For instance, the Organic Crop Institute (OCI), initiated
by the DOA, put up an organic crop production standard, based on Codex Alimentarius’s
Guidelines for the Production, Processing, Labeling and Marketing of Organically Produced
Foods. The domestic market for health food is estimated to be close to Euro 60 million per
year. Growing concern about safe and healthy food and environmental awareness among Thai
consumers further contributed to an expanding demand for organic foods and environmentally
friendly products.

Also, there is a role for non-governmental organizations to stimulate organic production and
consumption in Thailand. Green Net Cooperative is a social business organization dedicated
to fair trade and organic business. Founded in 1994, Green Net offered market access services
to Thai small-scale organic producers and other fair trade benefits. The trading operation
included home-delivery, wholesale distribution and export. Green Net has received
internationally recognized organic and fair-trade certification from Organic Agriculture
Certification Thailand (ACT) and Fairtrade Labeling Organization (FLO). The range of
products offered by Green Net includes fresh and processed fruits and vegetables, rice, grain,
eco-textiles, and herbs. Its business benefited more than one thousand farming families all
over Thailand. /
Despite the interpersonal influence of consumers’ preference, this research also deals with the
influence of the UNEP which is undertaking a sustainable consumption project, most
specifically the establishment of the UN Guidelines on Consumer Protection to assist the
governments of Asia and the Pacific. UN is an inter-governmental organization that acts as an
advising and coordinating body. UNEP in this case neither has the mandate nor the resources
to enforce any legislation and policies. Instead they provide technical advice, conduct

16
research and development, training, fact finding, and most importantly try to assist different
stakeholders in society to work together, for instance between the authorities and civil society
or between different countries.7
2.1.5. NGOs

The Alternative Agriculture Network NGO in cooperation with the Natural Resources and
Biodiversity Institute under the Ministry of Agriculture are supportive of the participatory
approach for policy development. They have just completed a research on the concept and
practice of sustainable agriculture in which organic farming is seen as one system in
sustainable agriculture. The institutional framework for a national body to be responsible for
coordinating different official projects related to sustainable agriculture is also developed
through this cooperation.
In terms of organic production, in NGO-supported organic projects, producers are organized
as farmer organizations. Only a few organizations are registered as farmer cooperatives or
farmer groups. The organization provides technical training, input credits as well as acting as
a coordinated marketing mechanism for the members.
Most NGOs continue to advocate for local knowledge as the main source for competencies on
organic farming and praise farmer-to-farmer extension as the most appropriate form of
organic conversion. Several NGOs furthermore have tried to develop specific organic
competencies for their members. The largest network of organic competencies are
coordinated by Green Net and Earth Net Foundation where a comprehensive organic
conversion programme has been developed and implemented in several provinces with over
500 farming families (UN, 2002).
2.1.6. Media

Fred S. Siebert’s classic thesis of the press describes the media as always influenced by "the
form and coloration of the social and political structures within which it operates" (Siebert in
Suriyasarn, 1997). The media reflects the system of social control whereby the individual and
institutional relations are linked. Along this line an understanding of these aspects is key to
any systematic understanding of the media in any given society.

Attitudes play a major role in shaping consumer behavior. Marketing communications such as
advertising represent a significant means for persuading consumers. (Engel, Blackwell and
Miniard, 1993). The modern systems of production, publicity and communication such as
television, newspaper or advertising, may affect an individual’s participation in this process
of making judgments and being judged (Lury, 1996).
Other writers believe that products are designed to meet existing needs, and advertising only
helps to communicate their availability. Advertising is an important source of consumer
information. This view emphasizes the economic cost of the time spent searching for products.
Accordingly, advertising is a service for which consumers are willing to pay, because the
information it provides reduces search time (Solomon, 2002). Therefore advertising gives
information to a consumer about a certain product while persuading the consumer to have a
preference for the advertised product.
The role of newspapers in comparison to other media is significant, as newspapers provide
information on local and national events, establish a platform for discussion on issues in the
public eye and provide access to a variety of sources (Bierhoff, van Dusseldorp, Scullion,
2001). In Thailand, it was noted that the influence of the press played a significant role in

7
Svenningsen, e-mail correspondence on June 7, 2004.

17
creating Thai public opinion. The event was a commencement point for a greater role of
media in democratizing the form of government in Thailand since it also led to a “literature
explosion” during which many independent newspapers and publications emerged thereafter.
(Pongpanich, 1996). For these reasons, the research is limited to newspapers research.

2.2. Organic Food Production and Availability

2.2.1. Organic Food Production
In terms of the production of organic food in Thailand, currently the organic crops which are
produced in Thailand are predominantly organic rice and vegetables, unlike other countries
which produce organic canned goods and beverages. An estimated 0.013% of the total
farmland is under organic management.
Organic products in Thailand can be divided into two categories: fresh products and
processed products. For fresh products, most organic producers focus on rice production.
There are also a small number of vegetable and fruit growers. Field crops are also expanding
quite fast. However, there are very few organic chicken farms and there is no organic farm
animal production.
For processed products, food processing is strategically important for the development of
organic agriculture and alternative marketing. Organic food processing adds value to raw
materials, leads to an increase in product variety, provides additional income for women
producers and builds up grass-roots community enterprises. It can also lead to developing new
ways of processing perishable fresh products, thus increasing the profitability of marketing
operations, and can create opportunities for foreign-exchange earnings. In Thailand, local
producers only use simple processing technologies such as sun-drying, heating, jamming and
pickling. There seems to be a large market for processed products but quality must be
improved. The Alternative Marketing Network, a network of NGOs working for fair-trade of
organic products, decided to focus its development efforts on twelve selected varieties with
good market prospects. These products are strawberry jam, dried longan, sesame oil, soy
sauce, sesame snacks, palm sugar, shrimp paste, canned water chestnut, local herb tea, dried
chilli, wild honey and rice (Panyakul, 1998).
2.2.2. Organic Food Export

Thai food exports in general are presented below. Since the financial crisis in 1997, even as
food exports have been rising, farmers have become increasingly vulnerable. While food
export volumes increased by 49% between 1997 and 2002 (from 19,421 thousand tons in
1997 to 28,926 in 2002), the total value has decreased slightly (from 10,552 to 9,997 million
dollars). Thailand is producing more for less. Under the current neo-liberal system, because of
the constant decline in commodity prices on the world market, the country needs to keep
increasing its production only to maintain the same revenue. This obviously puts a growing
pressure on farmers’ income and on natural resources such as land and water (Delforge, 2004).
‘

18
 Figure 5. Thai Food Exports 1997 – 2002
(Source: National Food Institute/Customs Department in Delforge, 2004)
The organic food produce that is exported overseas accounts for approximately 25% of the
whole production of organic vegetables and fruit, and 75% of the whole organic rice and field
crops produce.8 The rest of the products are sold on the domestic market.
The total number of land under organic farming in Thailand is presented in the table below.

Table 3. Land under Organic Farming in Thailand (in rais), as of 30 June 2004.
(Source: Organic Statistics by Green Net / Earth Net, 2004).
In terms of the value of organic produce in Thailand is presented in the table below.

Table 4. Value of Organic food produce in Thailand (in million baht), as of 30 June 2004.

8
Vitoon Panyakul of Green Net, via e-mail contact on January 24, 2005.

19
 (Source: Organic Statistics by Green Net / Earth Net, 2004).

In terms of international linkages of organic farming, they occur on both bilateral and
multilateral levels. The International Federation of Organic Agricultural Movements
(IFOAM) represents the largest umbrella network of organic agriculture in which, for
Thailand, two member organizations are Green Net and Sekai. Green Net has been the most
active in developing international linkages through IFOAM (Kantamaturapoj, 2003).
The idea of organic agriculture has always been to progress towards an entire organic
production chain, which is both socially just and ecologically responsible. The International
Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements (IFOAM), which represents the world-wide
movement of organic agriculture, has aims that relate to workers' rights, their basic needs,
adequate return and satisfaction from their work and a safe working environment (IFOAM,
1997). They also aim to encourage organic farming associations to function along democratic
lines and uphold the principles of division of power. However, issues of social justice are only
now beginning to be part of IFOAM's accreditation procedures (Browne, 2000).

On the bilateral level, there have been several exchange activities, research projects and co-
operation between Thai and foreign organizations. Thailand is well known for its well-
developed organic agriculture compared to other Asian countries, therefore often becomes the
destination of exposure and study tours as well as a training ground for organic farming. Thai
organizations also provide technical consultation for local organizations in the Southeast
Asian region.
Apart from production-related linkages, Thailand also exports organic products
internationally. In order to facilitate organic export, ACT has established several international
linkages, such as a partnership with a Swedish certification body KRAF, allowing ACT
inspected and certified organic products to enter the European market. Currently, through co-
operation with KRAF, ACT inspection and certification is recognized by certification bodies
in several European countries, including Bio Swiss in Switzerland, Blink in Belgium and Bio
in Austria. ACT is the first IFOAM accredited organic certification body in Asia.
Current information from the International Organic Conference in 2003 shows that only crops
are produced organically in Thailand and the main organic products are rice and vegetables.
There is one organic shrimp farm that has recently been certified. An estimated 24,956.39 rais
of land (3,993.02 hectares) are now under organic management, representing around 0.019%
of Thailand’s total area of farmland. Pioneers in organic farming are non-governmental
organizations, mostly under the Alternative Agriculture Network (AAN), where support for
organic conversion has been offered to small-scale producers since 1984. The Organic
Agriculture Certification Thailand (ACT) which was established by AAN in 1995 helps to
facilitate market access and export. The ACT received IFOAM Accreditation in 2001 that
further contributed to the advancement of the Thai organic movement. There are several
foreign private certifiers currently certifying Thai organic producers as well.
In the past decade, a number of environmental certificate schemes for agricultural produce
have been developed. These initiatives are taken by retailers, food processors, auctioneers
and farmers to reduce the negative impact of intensive agriculture on environment quality and
biodiversity. The first of these, EKO label, was introduced at the European level in 1991. Its
principal feature is zero use of artificial fertilizers and chemical pesticides, although several
natural pesticides are permitted. After EKO label, other labels for farming regimes have been
developed in both the US and Europe (Manhoudt, 2002).

20
2.2.3. Organic Food Availability

In terms of the organic food market in Thailand, during the last few years the organic market
in Thailand has risen and the number or green shops has increased from zero in 1992 to
around forty shops in 1997 (Panyakul, 1998). Due to the economic crisis in Thailand, some
Thai people who are affected by the crisis tend to dine at home. This situation has increased
the amount they spend on basic food items such as rice, vegetables and fruits
(Kantamaturapoj, 2004).
Currently there is only little competition among operators of organic food business as it is a
new market that involves a small number of operators. Most of the sales take place in the
green shops and green corners in the conventional shops. According to a Green Net consumer
survey research in Bangkok (1997), 58% of consumers perceive that the present price level of
organic food is too expensive, whereas 55% found the price to be appropriate. The
respondents who are non organic food consumers claim that there are very few varieties of
organic vegetables available, that the prices are too expensive, that the Green Net shops are
not within accessible distance, and that they often dine out (Green Net, 2003).
The market of organic food produce can be classified into two target audiences: domestic and
export. Domestically, DOA actively promotes organic food in Thailand to the extent of
endorsement of farmers groups to produce organic crops. The interest and movements within
Thailand follow the growth of organic produce exports overseas. The export is initially based
on the Thai – European Fair Trade partnership on organic rice; around 10 – 20% of the total
150 tons of rice is inspected by Swiss-based inspectors and certified according to European
Commission regulation (Panyakul, 1998). Other than organic rice, the European groups are
also interested in indigenous rice varieties, non-GMO and organic soya oil, and dried fruits.

2.3. Organic Food Standards and Labeling

The central goals of organic food labeling are credible labeling schemes, reasonable prices of
organic foods, and organic product availability. Consumers have become more interested in
organic food because of their concern over pesticide use, genetically modified organisms
(GMO / engineered foods), irradiated food, and mad cow disease.
In Thailand, the Organic Agriculture Certification Thailand (ACT) was accredited in 2001
and is the first certification body based in Asia to become IFOAM Accredited. ACT was
established in 1995 arising out of the Alternative Agriculture Network, a national network of
eighty-five NGOs working on sustainable agriculture. Initially the so-called Alternative
Agriculture Certification Thailand operated in the field of 'alternative agriculture', but in 1998
it revised its focus to organic farming and changed its name to 'Organic Agriculture
Certification Thailand'. ACT is committed to supporting organic agriculture, a farming
system in harmony with ecology without the use of synthetic chemicals and artificial
fertilizers. They achieved this through enhancing consumer confidence by the development of
standards and the provision of inspection and certification services. The standards of ACT
were developed from the grassroots, but always with an eye on international equivalence.
They remain practical for Thai farmers whilst meeting international market requirements.
Through a membership structure, ACT ensures participation of stakeholders. A General
Assembly meets to approve standards and elect a Governing Board that is in charge of policy.
An Executive Board oversees the day-to-day works of a secretariat led by a General Manager.

ACT is registered as a foundation in Thailand and its logo (a design inspired by the shape of
ears of rice) is a registered trademark. Certification decisions are made by a central

21
certification committee. Although rice is the main product of ACT operators, a wide range of
sub-tropical fruits and out of season vegetables are now available along with an interesting
range of wild herbs. Although much of the product is exported, there is a growing domestic
market. ACT have recently focused attention on providing services to smallholder producers
and in 2001 launched an inspection and certification system for special projects with internal
control systems which operates fully in line with IFOAM norms on smallholder certification
(ACT, 2002).
Thailand’s Department of Agriculture is also responsive in promoting organic production and
consumption in the country. DOA realized that a large amount of consumers around the
world pay more attention to their health and the level of organic consumption rises, hence
they encouraged farmers groups to produce organic products. Initially, the main purpose was
to export organic products from Thailand to the global market. A few years later, several Thai
consumer groups in the big cities were also interested in promoting healthy food consumption,
thus organic food was one of the alternatives. As a result, the Department of Agriculture
created the label “Organic Thailand” in early 2004. The farmers who had followed the state
guidelines could put the organic logo on their food package.

There is a project called “safe food” which was launched in 2004 by the MOA. This project
is limited to fresh food and vegetables. The government inspector checks whether the final
products contain any chemical contamination. If the contamination is at an acceptable level,
in the sense that it is not harmful to human health, those products would be considered as
“hygienic food”. At the same time, the Department of Medical Science of the MOH
established a “food safety” project. The project has many things in common with the project
launched by the Ministry of Agriculture. The Ministry of Public Health also made a “hygienic
food” logo to be put on product packaging.
The conventional mainstream organic food operators would require certification of their
products and it is understood that certification aims to guarantee the organic quality of the
food products. Certification is indeed a prerequisite for mainstream international trade,
however for domestic or local (national) consumption, organic certification is not as urgent
(Prawoto, 2004). For instance, in Japan there is an association of consumers-producers called
“Teikei” in which the organic farmers and consumers meet directly and complete transactions
(Japan Organic Agriculture Association, 1993).

Another example is Migro in Switzerland. As a supermarket, Migro has co-partnership

directly with the producers so that Migro understands the process of cultivation. Migro
supervises the quality of the organic products together with the farmers, and Migro markets
the products while guaranteeing that the marketed products are organic (Chambres
d’Agriculture, 2004).

These are the notions of guarantee by the first and second party. Obviously direct interaction
and trust between consumers and producers/guarantors are required. The decision of whether
or not to certify depends on the marketing orientation, international or local.

The definitions and descriptions of the types of organic and hygienic produce are as follows:

2.3.1. Organic produce

Organic food products are produced without the use of antibiotics, growth hormones,
chemicals or pesticides in the process, as explained in section 2.1 above. The production

22
process is friendly to the environment and the end product is 100% chemical and GMO
contamination free.

Organic logos are different depending on each certification body. Apart from the government,
the International Federation of Organic Agriculture (IFOAM) is one of the more prominent
and well-known certification agencies in Thailand. Organic Agriculture Certification
Thailand (ACT) is an independent organization, accredited by IFOAM. ACT has been
established in Thailand since 1995 and it focuses its effort on certifying organic food produce
only. The organic logos are shown below.

Figure 6: Organic logo of the Department of Agriculture (source: IPM Thailand, 2003)

Figure 7: Organic logo of International Federation of Organic Agriculture

(source: IPM Thailand, 2003)

2.3.2. Hygienic produce

Hygienic production process may use some kinds of allowed chemical substance. Also, the
finished products are not 100% chemical contamination free. Yet the level of chemical
substance is acceptable and is still safe for human’s health.

Figure 8: Hygienic logo by Department of Agriculture

The logo of the hygienic fresh fruit and vegetable production pilot project indicates that the farm
which produced the product has passed a food safety inspection by the Department of Agriculture
concerning the proper use of pesticides. (source: IPM Thailand, 2003)

23
 Figure 9: Hygienic logo of the Ministry of Health
The Department of Medical Science of the Ministry of Public Health has developed a system to check
that vegetables are pesticide-free. This logo is placed on products from farms that were found to
comply with these checks.

2.4. Theoretical Model

Based on the results of literature review presented in sections 2.1 to 2.4, the following
theoretical model that served as a basis for the field research is developed, of which the
results are presented in chapter 3 and 4.

Individual Government Food

Consumer Demographic Consumption
National
Culture Variables
Action Plans
Policies
Physiological
Factors for Sustainable
Psychological Consumption
Factors
Attitudes UNEP
UN Guidelines
Urban middle on Consumer
class Protection

Individual
lifestyle NGOs
Media Retailer

L P
R
I
F
Organic food O - Ministry of
V Agriculture
Individual E purchase and I - Ministry of
S consumption S Health
consumers
T I
- Ministry of
Y O
N Environment
L
E

modes of use modes of access modes of provision modes of production

CONSUMPTION--------------------------- PRODUCTION ------------------------------ CYCLES
Analysis of strategic conduct Institutional Analysis

Figure 10. Analytical Framework (adopted and further analyzed based on Shepherd and
Sparks (1994), Axelson and Brinberg (1989), Tolksdorf (1975)) in Sijtsema et al (2001), and
Spaargaren, Gert (1999).

24
Theoretically, the argument is that domestic consumption can and should be studied both on
the micro and the macro level, without creating something of a 'division' between the two
approaches. Taking domestic consumption as a focus also means developing a consumer-
oriented perspective on production-consumption cycles. Empirically, we have a myriad of
lifestyles and domestic environmental arrangements, with different modes of provision and
access both within and between different countries (Spaargaren, 1999). This research serves
to develop a framework of organic food consumption amid the plethora of influence from the
individual choice, government endorsement, retailers’ approaches, and inter-governmental
organization.

25
3. ORGANIC FOOD AVAILABILITY, PURCHASING AND
CONSUMPTION IN BANGKOK, THAILAND
This chapter presents the empirical research findings with further elaboration on the technical
methods used to answer the research questions. The level of consumer concerns in Thailand
in this paper is based on the on-ground survey results in Thai markets which are comprised of
three types of target audience. First is a supermarket targeted for the high-income Thai people
and expatriates, namely Villa Market. Second is a supermarket chain targeted for the middle-
class named Big C, and third is a traditional market that targets those on low incomes. The
main objective of the survey is to discover the trends in consumer culture that affect the
preference for organic food consumption in Thailand.

3.1. Profile of the Thai Food Markets

The traditional food distribution system in Thailand is through so-called ‘wet markets’ which
sell fruit, vegetables, meat and fish, together with small ‘mom and pop’9 food stores which
distribute dry goods. The retail food market in Thailand can be divided into four major sub-
sectors: (a) supermarkets, (b) superstores, (c) convenience store chains, and (d) traditional
markets (wet markets and ‘mom and pop’ stores) (Asean, 2000). This section further
elaborates on the two supermarkets and traditional market in which the research takes place.
3.1.1. Supermarkets: Villa Market

In Thailand the supermarket developed as an integral part of the department store which is the
primary retail distribution channel for the growing middle class. There are approximately 100
supermarkets in department stores in Thailand and because there are 14 department store
groups, the ownership is quite fragmented. The one exception is the Central Group which
owns Central and Robinson department stores with a total of 35 stores, each having a Tops
supermarket (Asean, 2000).
Supermarket Stores in Stores in Provinces Total
Chain Bangkok Outside Bangkok Stores
Tops 40 - 40
Siam Jusco 12 2 14
The Mall 7 - 7
Foodland 7 1 8
Sunny's 5 3 8
Villa 8 - 8
Food Lion 5 - 5
Table 5. Supermarket Chains(source: Asean, 2000)

Villa Market is one of the oldest supermarkets in Thailand that has been in operation for thirty
years. Their sales are focused on quality food products and wines from domestic and overseas
sources. Currently there are eight branches in major business and residential areas to serve
Bangkok customers. The stores are popular and much frequented by high-end Thai shoppers
and foreign nationals living in Thailand. At present, Villa Market draws 300,000 customers
with high purchasing power each month (Kasikornbank, s.a.)

9
‘Mom and Pop stores’ is a term to describe the businesses that are small, locally-based, and non-
chained.
Villa Market opens daily and stocks all household essentials as well as local and imported
groceries, fresh fruit, vegetables, meat, poultry, fish, liquor, electrical goods, school and
office supplies, local and imported magazines and pharmaceutical goods (Villa Market Co.
Ltd, s.a.). Villa Market offers a range of herbs and spices for Western style cooking, and also
other things that are normally not very easy to find in other local markets in Thailand such as
sun-dried tomatoes, dried beans, assorted cheeses and so on. The Villa Markets are open 24
hours, seven days a week.
3.1.2. Superstores: Big C
In the mid 1990s the rage in retailing across Asia was the rapid development of superstores
and nowhere was the competition more intense than in Thailand. A superstore, typically 15-
20,000 square meters, provides all the basic needs of a consumer under one roof, and prices
are very competitive.

Superstores can generally offer products at prices 20-30% below those of department stores
and 15-20% lower than supermarket prices. Unlike most department stores which tend to
target the middle and upper middle classes, the superstore is targeted at all classes. As such
the majority of superstores have opened in the provinces where this concept is seen to have
enormous growth potential in the long term.

Superstore Stores in Stores in Provinces

Total Stores
Chain Bangkok Outside Bangkok

Big C 40 40 80
Carrefour 10 1 11
Lotus
12 12 24
Supercentre
Makro 6 12 18
Total superstore 35 38 73
Table 6. Superstore Chains

The superstore business was dominated by the Central Group (Big C and Carrefour) and the
CP Group (Lotus and Makro) until the economic downturn during which ownership and the
competitive situation changed significantly in the superstore category. There are now five
competitors all of which are foreign owned and all with massive financial resources at their
disposal. Under these conditions and with such good long-term prospects, competition can
only be expected to increase (Asean, 2000).

Big C emerged with a new concept of retail business under the theme of ‘supercenter’ which
means the store tries to meet the consumers’ demands for daily needs. It is simply a
combination of a discounted store and food outlet, to provide customer satisfaction and
quality products at very low prices every day. The Big C Supercenter Public Company
Limited now operates forty Big C stores all over Thailand, with more than 11,500 employees,
and its 2003 total turnover amounted to 42,342 million Baht.

"Big" simplifies "respectable size and enormous space" and "C" is the abbreviation for
"Customers". Therefore, Big C store is a modern retail outlet with spacious facilities to ensure
customer needs and satisfaction. The complete product line-ups are available at the most
competitive prices designed to serve the preference of Thai consumers. Big C is a large-sized
and modern retail outlet for everyone in the family. It stocks a wide variety of quality

27
products, ranging from fresh food, personal items and clothing to household appliances. Most
of these are purchased from leading domestic manufacturers. Products available in a Big C
store can be divided into four main departments:

Fresh Food: this department includes meats, seafood, vegetables, ready-to-cook and
ready-to-eat foods, dairy products, frozen foods and bakery items. The sales of the
Fresh Food Department amount to 10% of the total sales.
Dry Food: this department includes ready-made food, condiments, beverages, snacks,
liquors, personal effects, chemical products for cleaning, dry foods and general articles
for pets. The sales of the Dry Food Department amount to 50 % of the total sales.
Soft Line: this department includes clothes and cosmetics. The sales of the Soft Line
Department amount to 15% of the total sales.
Hard Line: this department includes bedding, appliances, kitchenware, furniture, sports
equipment, car accessories, toys and renovation equipment. The sales of the Hard Line
Department amount to 25% of the total sales.
3.1.3. Traditional Markets: Sri-Sa-Wad
There are an estimated 300,000 small "mom and pop" stores in Thailand selling rice and dry
grocery products and some 600,000 "wet market" vendors selling mainly fruits and vegetables,
meat and fish. As the Thai economy continues to develop there will be a significant shift in
consumer buying habits from the traditional markets to the new supermarkets and superstores.

The trade advises that as much as 60% of the food retail trade in the Bangkok area is now
through supermarkets, superstores, or convenience stores with the traditional wet markets
now accounting for about 40% of the volume. The percentage of food distribution through the
wet markets is, however, much higher in the provinces.

The table below indicates that 75% of the Thai food retail trade is still through traditional
markets and is the primary reason why foreign retailers are so optimistic about future growth
prospects (Asean, 2000).
$ US Millions Share (%)
Supermarkets 1762 12
Superstores 1325 9
Convenience Stores 503 4
Traditional markets 10969 75
Total 14559
Table 7. Retail food sales by major segment (source: Asean, 2000, 1998 estimate)

The traditional market used in this survey is Sri-Sa-Wad, located in 23 Pradipath Street,
Saphankwai. It is one of the many mushrooming ‘wet’ traditional markets throughout
Bangkok.

3.2. Organic Food Products Availability in Surveyed Markets

The types of organic food available in the supermarket Villa Market and superstore Big C are
organic vegetables, white rice, eggs, tofu, corn, brown rice, butter and wheat. It is noted
through on-ground research in the supermarkets that sell organic food products that some
products are certified by IFOAM while some products are certified by other certifiers.
Moreover, some of the organic food products, if not placed with the healthy, hygienic, and

28
pesticide-free food products, are placed on shelves assorted with other regular food products
that do not allow consumers to distinguish and identify them. In some supermarkets, organic
food products are placed under a large caption board stating “Pesticide-free”; hygienic food
products are also put in this area.
Based on the retailers’ survey the types of organic food items for sale are as follows:

Markets Villa Market Big C Traditional market

“Sri Sa Wad”
Organic food items - Eggs - Vegetables No organic food products
- Vegetables - Corn are available.
- Butter
- Brown rice
- White rice
- Tofu
- Corn
- Wheat
Table 8. Organic Food Products Available in Surveyed Markets
Villa Market evidently offers more variety of organic food products which implies that there
already is an existing niche market of organic food in this supermarket. Big C, on the other
hand, only offers a limited number of organic products, although the sorts of organic
vegetables are diverse. There is apparently a small amount of organic food consumers in the
Big C, although not as many as in Villa Market. In the traditional market “Sri Sa Wad”, no
organic food products are available whatsoever.

3.3. Organic Food Purchasing and Consumption

3.3.1. Personal Information of Respondents
Of the 60 respondents who represent Thai consumers, 53% of them are females with an age
ranging between 25 to 34 years old, with the number of family members in the household
mostly is under four. A 60% majority have attained an education level of bachelor degree,
with the main occupations being employees, students, and private businessmen. Thai people
normally do not have any special dietary requirements; however, of all respondents at the
three market places, 20% of the respondents of Villa Market claim to be vegetarians.
In terms of food items purchasing for daily food consumption purposes, most of the Thai
people interviewed prefer to purchase food from the supermarkets (20%) rather than the
traditional market (15%) or local shops (5%). They normally go to the market everyday
(15%) or twice a week (11.7%) for routine grocery shopping.
3.3.2. Eating Habits
The eating habits of Thai people can be inferred from the food items consumed daily for
breakfast, lunch, and dinner as presented in the tables below.
Breakfast consumed on the day of interview Breakfast normally consumed 10
Plain rice (43%) 26 Plain rice (45%) 27
None (26%) 16 None (26%) 16
Rice and coffee (5%) 3 Milk (5%) 3
Milk (3%) 2 Bread (3%) 2
Rice and eggs (3%) 2 Coffee (3%) 2

10
Note: 48.3% of all respondents usually eat breakfast at home whereas 10% eat breakfast in the office.

29
 Soup (1.6%) 1 Rice and eggs (1.6%) 1
Biscuit and juice (1.6%) 1 Rice and curry (1.6%) 1
Sweets (1.6%) 1 Sandwich (1.6%) 1
Rice and pork (1.6%) 1 Rice, coffee, and tea (1.6%) 1
Rice, coffee and tea (1.6%) 1 Seafood, vegetables, meat & rice 1.6%) 1
Bread and coffee (1.6%) 1 Bread and coffee (1.6%) 1
Rice and vegetables (1.6%) 1 Rice and coffee (1.6%) 1
Coffee (1.6%) 1 Cereal and low fat milk (1.6%) 1
Doughnut and low fat milk (1.6%) 1 Noodles (1.6%) 1
Noodles (1.6%) 1 Cereal (1.6%) 1
Eggs (1.6%) 1
Total 60 Total 60
11
Lunch eaten on the day of interview Lunch normally eaten
Rice (46%) 28 Rice (56%) 34
Noodles (23%) 14 Noodles (18%) 11
Rice and pork (6%) 4 Rice or noodles (12%) 7
None (6%) 4 None (3%) 2
Salad (5%) 3 Seafood, vegetables, meat & rice (1.6%) 1
Noodles and meatballs (3%) 2 Rice, coffee, and tea (1.6%) 1
Rice and chicken (1.6%) 1 Rice and curry (1.6%) 1
Rice and curry (1.6%) 1 Rice and pork (1.6%) 1
Rice and vegetables (1.6%) 1 Sandwich and juice (1.6%) 1
Rice, soup and eggs (1.6%) 1 Salad (1.6%) 1
Rice, coffee and tea (1.6%) 1
Total 60 Total 60
Dinner eaten on the evening prior to interview Dinner normally eaten12
Rice (68%) 41 Rice (82%) 49
Seafood, vegetables and meat (10%) 6 Seafood, vegetables and meat (5%) 3
None (3%) 2 Soup (3%) 2
Noodles (1.6%) 1 Rice and eggs (3%) 2
Milk (1.6%) 1 Rice and noodles (3%) 2
Rice and eggs (1.6%) 1 Vegetables (1.6%) 1
Rice and vegetables (1.6%) 1 Meat, vegetables and rice (1.6%) 1
Noodles and milk (1.6%) 1
Chicken burger (1.6%) 1
Salad (1.6%) 1
Rice and pork (1.6%) 1
Noodles and pork (1.6%) 1
Chicken and vegetables (1.6%) 1
Rice, soup and tofu (1.6%) 1
Total 60 Total 60
Table 9. Types of Food items for Daily Consumption (source: consumers’ survey)

11
Note: 26.7% of all respondents usually eat lunch at the office, 20% eat their lunch at a street stall,
18.3% eat at home, and 16.7% eat at a restaurant.
12
Note: 66.7% of respondents normally eat dinner at home, 15% dine out at a restaurant and 11.7% at a
street stall.

30
In terms of grazing / snacking, 50% of all respondents normally eat snacks between meal
times such as sweets (13%), bread (10%), and chips (10%); whereas the other half are not
accustomed to snacking.

3.3.3. The 'Social Organization' of the Eating Process

The 'social organization' of the eating process as part of eating habits characteristics and the
criteria for purchasing food and organic food is elaborated by Thai people as follows: up to
30% of respondents strongly agree, and 20% agree, that they often dine / eat out in restaurants
or other types of eating places. Most of them normally enjoy their meal with their friends or
family / spouses instead of eating alone.

3.3.4. Criteria for Purchasing Food and Organic Food

The criteria that Thai people apply when choosing, purchasing and consuming food in general
can be reflected by respondents’ judgments as presented in the following table.

Priority Criteria for Selecting Food

1 Freshness
2 Taste
3 Information on labels of packaged products
4 Health
5 Cost / price
6 Brand image
7 Advertisements in media
8 Special offers
9 Animal friendliness
10 Environmental friendliness
11 Organic
12 Fair trade
13 Calories
14 Epidemics, e.g. avian flu
15 Local produce
Table 10. Criteria and Priorities for Selecting and Purchasing Food
(source: consumers’ survey)

Whereas the criteria to purchase organic food by organic food consumers are as follows.

Priority Criteria for Selecting Organic Food

1 Health (69%)
2 Safety (19%)
3 Advertisements / Information on Media
4 No particular reason
Table 11.. Criteria and Priorities for Selecting and Purchasing Organic Food
(source: consumers’ survey)

31
3.3.5. Underlying Reasons for Purchasing Organic Food

Of all respondents interviewed in this research 26.7% are organic food consumers, 18.3%
from Villa Market respondents and 8.3% from Big C respondents. The percentage of organic
food consumers from the twenty respondents from Villa Market is 55%, and from the twenty
respondents from Big C is 25%. None of the respondents from Sri-Sa-Wad traditional market
are organic food consumers.

The organic food consumers found the information about organic food mainly from
newspapers (50%), from magazines (25%) and the internet (12.5%). The main reasons for
consuming organic food are because of health concerns (68.8%) and safety reasons (18.8%).

The availability of organic food products in Thai supermarkets and consumption of organic
products by Thai respondents can be seen in the table below in the order of frequency of
consumption.
Organic products consumed Frequency of purchase and consumption
Frequently Sometimes Never No response
Organic vegetables 68 % 31 % - -
Organic white rice 56 % 37 % 6% -
Organic eggs 37 % 43 % 12 % 6%
Organic tofu 25 % 56 % 18 % -
Organic corn 18 % 62 % 18 % -
Organic brown rice 12 % 68 % 18 % -
Organic butter 6 % 56 % 31 % 6%
Organic wheat 6 % 37 % 50 % 6%

Table 12. Purchase and Consumption of Organic Products by Organic Food Consumers

Of all the organic food purchased by organic food consumers, most of the products are
usually purchased from the supermarkets (87.5%).

Most of the consumers have been consuming organic food for more than a year. The range of
period of consuming organic food is diverse; however the majority of respondents have been
consuming organic food for four years (10%) and five years (10%). There were several
respondents who were unable to respond to this due to failure to recall for how long they have
been consuming organic food.

53.3% of the organic food consumers agree that organic food is indeed more expensive than
regular / non-organic food, although most of the organic food items needed by the consumers
are available in the supermarkets. 46.7% of the respondents strongly disagree with the
statement that the organic food items they need are not available in the supermarkets.

Apart from the availability of organic food in the supermarkets, the perception of consumers
in terms of organic food availability in restaurants or street stalls is researched. In the
questionnaire responses, there are several respondents who claim that organic food is
available in the restaurants and stalls (33.3%) and a similar majority believes that organic
food is not available in such places (33.3%).

A contradiction of opinion also occurred in the perception of consumers with respect to the
availability of information in the market where organic foods are usually purchased. Of all the
organic food consumers, 26.7% agree that the market where they purchase organic food

32
already provides ample information on organic food. On the contrary, an equal 26.7% of
respondents disagree.

The majority (73.3%) of the organic food consumers strongly agree that organic food is
healthier than non-organic food. In terms of freshness, 40% of respondents agree that organic
food would stay fresh as long as regular / non-organic food.

It is also worthy to note that with regards to the avian flu outbreaks, 26.7% of respondents
strongly agree with the statement that the outbreaks have increased their interest in organic
food, and 26.7% of respondents agree with the statement.

Although the organic food consumers claim that the information about organic food is
obtained from the newspapers, 53.3% of them agree that the information is still considerably
low.

The majority (40%) of the organic food consumers strongly agree that if organic food would
cost the same as regular food, they would willingly consume more organic food produce.

3.3.6. Willingness to Consider Organic Alternatives by Non-Organic Food Consumers

According to the responses of the questionnaires with non-organic food consumers, 84.1% of
respondents are willing to consider consuming organic food produce.
Of the major types of food consumed, the types of organic food alternatives which Thai non-
organic food consumers are willing to consider are as follows.

Organic food Consideration to purchase and consume

products
Most likely Likely Quite Quite Unlikely Least
likely unlikely likely
Organic 73 % 2% 21 % - - -
vegetables
Organic eggs 64 % 4.5% 27 % - - -
Organic white rice 59 % 9% 25% - - 2%
Organic tofu 32 % 18 % 39 % 2% 2% 2%
Organic corn 32 % 9% 39 % 2% 11 % 2%
Organic brown 36 % 22 % 16 % 9% 11 % -
rice
Organic butter 18 % 25 % 11 % 14 % 20.5% 7%
Organic wheat 16 % 14 % 4.5 % 27 % 9% 25 %

Table 13. Willingness to consider purchasing organic food products

According to the above table, the currently non-organic food consumers were most willing to
consider purchase and consume organic vegetables, which is the most common organic food
product that generally available in the supermarkets and superstores. Organic eggs turned out
to be the second most considered organic food products purchase and consumption, yet this
organic food item is only available at Villa Market. As Thai people consume rice which they
incorporate as their daily diet, organic white rice becomes one of their considerations for
purchase and consumption. Unfortunately organic white rice was also found in Villa Market
only.

33
4. THAI NEWSPAPER COVERAGE OF FOOD AND ORGANIC FOOD
This chapter further elaborates on the methods and research empirical findings of the content
analysis of the five newspapers in terms of news coverage of organic food issues, the types of
news presented and the profile of each newspaper.

4.1. Media Coverage on Issues Pertinent to Food

As mentioned in the previous chapter, the issues pertaining to food particularly on the safety
and quality sides have been subjected to tremendously heated debate in the media. Although
the discussions were not directly aimed at organic food, the media paid a considerable amount
of concern to the health and safety sides of food provisioning. Moreover there were a number
of articles published on a frequent basis in response to the attempt of the Thai government to
set 2004 as “Food Safety Year”. This endeavor is in contrast to the current situation on the
ground as since early 2004, avian flu outbreaks emerged and became the main point of
discussion in the media and brought about continuous debate in public. Other than issues
relating to food safety and avian flu, there were several more debates regarding food
contamination, illegal and over use of pesticide in food production, food poisoning, GMOs,
health food (misinterpreted by some as organic food), chemical contamination in food, and so
forth.
Based on research of the five different newspapers, it was apparent that there were no
advertisements found on organic food products whatsoever. On the contrary, the number of
non-organic food advertisements was high. Although there were a few articles specifically
discussing organic food, in general the media paid attention to food issues beyond the food
chain such as the avian flu outbreaks and food safety.

180
160
140
120 Organic food
advertisement
100 Organic food articles
80
Non organic food
60 advertisement
40 Non organic food
article
20 Birdflu
0
Thairath Ban Muang The Nation Bangkok Bangkok Foodsafety
Business Post

Figure 11. Media coverage of organic food, non-organic food, avian flu outbreaks and food
safety

Among the sixty respondents interviewed, the majority of respondents (50%) read Thairath.
However, in regards to Figure 11 above, Thairath was the newspaper with the lowest
coverage of issues pertaining to food.

34
4.2. Further Elaboration of Methods

Prior to selecting the newspapers that were going to be researched, the researcher undertook a
desk study that involved internet investigation to decide which Thai newspapers have the
widest circulation and popularity, based on the number of readers.

The final list of the newspapers were Kom Chad Luek, Bangkok Post, Naewna, Bangkok
Business, The Nation, Thaisarn News, Thairath, Khao Sod, Ban Muangand Matichon. During
the survey in Thailand, the researcher also informally interviewed and observed the local Thai
people to determine which five newspapers would best represent the 460 newspaper titles that
are available in Thailand.

After further assessment measures were taken, the final list of the newspapers included only
the five newspapers which were perceived as best representing Thai newspapers: Bangkok
Post, The Nation, Bangkok Business, Thairath and Ban Muang. Of the five selected
newspapers, the former three newspapers are in English language and the latter two
newspapers are in Thai language.

During the research of newspapers, a Thai research assistant was present to support the
process, which was essential and substantially helpful to the whole content analysis research.
The essence of the content analysis research was to calculate the number of information items
devoted to food issues.

The information taken from the newspapers was divided into two groups: advertisements and
articles. These groups were then sub-divided: the advertisements into advertisements of
organic food or non-organic food; the articles classified as organic food, non-organic food,
avian flu or food safety. The types of articles include news coverage, features, editorial,
commentary, analysis, readers’ opinions, etc. The section on recipes was not included in the
research.

The newspapers were drawn in stratified random sampling of four issues within each calendar
month between the periods of 1 August 2003 until 31 July 2004. In order to better understand
the technical implementation of this content analysis research, the figure below is presented.

4.3. Politics in Thai Media

The four-year-term government under the Thairakthai Party led by Prime Minister Thaksin
Shinawatra has had an effect on the condition of the Thai media (he was appointed early this
year for the second term as Thai Prime Minister). The year 2002 was declared by the Thai
Journalists Association as the “year of media interference”, while 2003 was the “year of
media round up” since there were some obvious efforts from the authorities to penetrate
media workings, although the Constitution of Thailand 1997 guarantees and supports more
freedom of media reporting and opinion-giving than previous constitutions enforced in the
kingdom of Thailand. Finally, 2004 was claimed as the “year of division and destruction” of
Thai media.

35
 English language newspapers Thai language newspapers

Bangkok Post The Nation Bangkok Business Thairath Ban Muang

Advertisements Articles

Organic food Non-organic News coverage, features, editorial,

food commentary, analysis, column,
readers’ opinion, etc.

Organic food Non-organic Bird flu Food safety

food

Figure 12. Implementation of Content Analysis Research

Throughout 2004, Prime Minister Thaksin often criticized the media in a way which suggests
that Thaksin experiences unpleasant feelings towards exposure in the newspapers. Yet
Thaksin’s objections were mainly focused on two of the English language newspapers of
Thailand: Bangkok Post and The Nation. The interference measures taken by the Prime
Minister were not merely forceful criticism, but also led to the impeachment of the Bangkok
Post editor Veera Prateepchaikul on February 20, 2004. (Thai Journalists Association, 2004).

Despite such incidents, the Thai press was considered one of the freest in Southeast Asia. The
western "free press" ideology was introduced to Thailand after a change in the political
system from absolute monarchy to constitutional monarchy in 1932. The Western Fourth
Estate philosophy has been taught in all Thai journalism schools and press freedom was stated
as the ultimate importance for journalists in the Press Association Code of Ethics in Thailand.

In comparison with Thai broadcasting media such as television and radio that have always
been under the control of the state government, Thai printed media is considerably more
independent. Moreover, it was evident that the Thai press emerged prior to the significant
change of the political system in 1932 that affected the way in which Thai printed journalism
developed, as it did not fall under robust control by a military-dominated government as
happened to the broadcast media which emerged after the 1932 revolution and then quickly
became the state government’s propaganda machine. Private ownership patterns have been
established for the Thai press and there has been little attempt by the government to change
such patterns, despite the ubiquitous government policy to suppress freedom of the media in
general (Suriyasarn, 1997).

To sum up, Thai newspapers have always remained privately owned since the beginning. It
can be argued that this private and relatively diverse ownership pattern of the printed media in
Thailand has resulted in relatively more independence and freedom for the Thai press.

The importance of undertaking research on newspaper and disclose the political backgrounds
in relevance to organic food can be explained as follows. It is evident that printed media plays
pivotal role to bring out public opinions in the open. The more freedom the press media

36
obtains, the better quality and quantity of expressions to constructively criticize or give
feedback to the government (i.e. consistency of Thai government to bring about food safety
amidst the various problems occur on the food chains) and share personal insights (for
instance to promote organic food consumption as healthier alternatives and to encourage
government to make more stringent measures in promoting organic food consumption).

4.4. Profiles of Thai Printed Media

As previously mentioned, the printed media are largely privately-run, with a handful of Thai-
language dailies accounting for the majority of newspaper sales, represented by Thairath and
Ban Muang in this research. Thailand has two major English language newspapers for general
news which are the Bangkok Post and The Nation. Both are large and prominent
newspapers, and furthermore over the years have been leading newspapers in Asia, having
won many awards from international trade organizations. Expatriates have consistently rated
Thailand's newspaper status as among the best in Asia.13 Comparing the two newspapers was
not applicable as each has its own strengths and weaknesses relative to the other; nonetheless
they were equivalently excellent in terms of quality and quantity of news and information.

Although both of the aforementioned newspapers include decent business sections, English-
speaking readers who strive for business news and information were encouraged to read
Bangkok Business, which is claimed to be "Thailand's first international business daily".

The news presented in the five newspapers was deemed similar in terms of the issues and
topics discussed, since the research was conducted over the same period of time. Most of the
newspapers brought up the issues of the Food Safety Year 2004 campaign, the government’s
policy of “Kitchen of the World” and the avian flu outbreaks in the headlines during the given
research period, as they were on-going debates in the public eye. Each newspaper presented
in a different way discussions and points of view, although they were focused on similar - if
not the same - issues.

As the Thai government gave more attention to food safety issues, there were a number of
articles discussing this particular matter. Although the number of articles about organic food
were considerably less than articles pertaining to non-organic food, it was indeed interesting
to reveal the discussion of the Thai public about food in general as a response to the food
safety issues and policies put forward by the government. The Thai people became more
sensitive about the problems created by the widespread avian flu outbreaks and the quality,
safety and health of the food they consume, and thus strove for healthier and safer food
alternatives.

This subchapter elaborates on the profile of each newspaper, newspaper type and news
content.

4.4.1. Thairath
Thairath is the biggest newspaper in Thailand with a production capacity of 360,000/hour,
total production of 1,000,000 per day and successfully draws the attention of approximately
25,000,000 readers.14 The target audience of Thairath is referred to as ‘omni-directional’. The
distribution of Thairath is nationwide and the typicality of this newspaper is a colorful blend
of sensationalism, crime and politics.

13
Based on observation and informal interview with UN expatriates in Bangkok, Thailand.
14
http://www.thairath.co.th/

37
Thairath exposes news with a critical way of writing the reportage, and it is designed to
appeal to a wide variety of readers by supporting different political parties and interest groups
through its spread of columns. The types of news published in the newspaper with regards to
food were as follows:
- In the headline section, there was coverage of several news items:
• In relation to the latest government policy on food safety, it was reported that one of
the government’s main priorities was the implementation of the campaign to establish
Food Safety Year in 2004. The official announcement from the Thai Prime Minister
was also published, in which he stated that the foods either intended for local
consumption or for export must be of the same standard and safe for consumption.
The responsibility to ensure food safety has been assigned to the Ministry of
Agriculture and Cooperatives and the Ministry of Public Health. Other than that, the
government’s policy to launch Thailand as the “Kitchen of the World” was also
covered. The main concern addressed was to prepare Thailand in promoting Thai
restaurants and Thai grocery businesses overseas.
• The newspaper exposed the avian flu outbreak, the current state of the epidemic in
Thailand, the death tolls in Thailand and Vietnam, avian flu vaccination for poultry,
and printed confirmation of the first human cases of avian flu in Thailand.
• It covered GMOs in food, particularly the latest GMO papaya scandal in Thailand
and the pressure on the Food and Drug Administration to issue a labeling policy to
give people information that will help them to make their consumer choices.
- In the scientific column of Thairath, information regarding organic vegetable farming
was exposed. It wrote that organically grown vegetables have a great potential for export,
besides sales in the domestic market, yet many aspects of the organic farming system
have to be studied in detail and standardized. Apart from that, it stated that the cost-
effectiveness of this agricultural system was also deemed important, But that nonetheless,
organic farming is a challenging business.
- News articles that covered relevant topics of public heated debate were those about:
• Raw and ready to eat food as the new trends in Thai modern culture, and the safety
measures in those particular types of food.
• Illegal and excessive use of pesticides in food and the establishment of safety
measures on exported food items. It was reported that the measures were deemed
necessary as Thailand is a major food exporting country, and to decrease food
contamination by chemicals and other harmful substances, the cooperatives approach
a solution encompassing cooperation and coordination of food safety control.
• Information regarding the consumption of chicken, fried food, pork and fast food
safely. The recommended usage and dosage of food coloring in food items were also
published as ‘tips’ for readers.
4.4.2. Ban Muang
Ban Muang is a Bangkok – based reportage newspaper that is mainly distributed in Bangkok.
It is not as popular as Thairath, which is nationwide. Apart from news, it has a special section
of advertisements and most Thais use this ads section as a reference for buying and selling
products. This newspaper reached a daily readership of approximately 290.000 people in
2002.15

15
http://www.banmuang.co.th/

38
Ban Muang is owned by Ban Muang Kan Pip (Ban Muang Printing Press). This newspaper is
owned by politician, Banharn Silpa-Archa, who was prime minister from July 1995 until July
2000.
News items that were published in Ban Muang with respect to food issues were:
- In the front page headlines, it reported on the government policies of the “Kitchen of the
World” and “Food Safety Year 2004” campaigns. It generally aimed to publicize the
decisions and measures taken by the government to combat the avian flu epidemic.
Moreover, field journalism covering the occurrences of and deaths caused by avian flu in
certain areas of Thailand and other countries such as Vietnam was reported.
- A number of articles appeared in the scientific column with regards to organic spices,
organic vegetables and organic farms. It was reported that Thailand has now become one
of the biggest organic spice exporters in the area, competing with other Asian exporters
such as India, China, and Vietnam.
- Other types of news referring to food in general included articles covering:
• New varieties of mangos that were grown using hybrid methods.
• Pasteurized milk; commercially sold milk products were pasteurized or
heat-treated which kills the bacteria that may be present in raw milk.
• Health food; it reported that the wealthier economy has increased the level of
consumer health awareness that in turn has resulted in the Thai health food business
flourishing.
4.4.3. The Nation
The Nation is one of the English language newspapers in Thailand (others being the Bangkok
Post and Bangkok Business). The slogan of this newspaper heralds itself as the “Independent
Newspaper” and the target audience of this newspaper is well-educated people and foreigners
(expatriates) in Thailand. The Nation is owned by Nation Multimedia Group, who also own
the Bangkok Business.
The distributor is SED Group, which is also one of the companies in the group. The Nation is
circulated in Bangkok and other big cities such as Phuket, Chaimai and Nakorn Ratchasima.
By 2002, the total number of readers had reached up to 43,000.16
The Nation to some extent possesses similar qualities to the Bangkok Post. However some
people who compare the editorials in the Bangkok Post and The Nation feel that The Nation is
usually more critical of the government, though clearly both were critical to similar degrees.
The Nation somewhat provides more in depth coverage at local news and analysis than the
Bangkok Post. The Nation is sometimes qualitatively measured as being fairly radical in this
typically conservative culture, yet it seems to address the questionable cultural values more
often than other newspapers.17
One could argue that The Nation is preferable to the Bangkok Post because it seems to be
multifaceted and more sensitive and respectful to a diversity of viewpoints, in addition to
providing somewhat more profound local analysis. In a nutshell, The Nation is seemingly a
bit more courageous, cutting edge and ambitious. Nonetheless, both papers complement one
another, especially in their analysis sections, and there is not a lot of difference between the
two.

16
http://www.nationmultimedia.com/
17
Based on observation and discussion with the UN expatriates and officers in Bangkok, Thailand who
read The Nation.

39
Based on the content analysis research, the researcher found several interesting articles, for
instance:
- The headlines published news on food safety and the government’s policies regarding
food safety. The avian flu outbreaks were also in the headlines, as was the case with other
newspapers in Thailand. The rise in death tolls caused by avian flu in Thailand and
Vietnam was reported. While exposing the truth, The Nation tried to discourage mass
panic by ensuring the readers that the government has and continuously is taking actions
to tackle the problems of avian flu, and the statements were mostly on Prime Minister
Thaksin Shinawatra’s behalf.
- The ‘Opinion’ section provides commentaries, both from the editor of the newspaper and
contributors. Specifically relevant to organic food consumption were articles such as:
ƒ The growing concern for organic food in Thailand as a healthier, safer alternative
that guarantees produce that is free from contamination by chemicals, pesticides,
GMOs, or other harmful substances..
ƒ Several comments in response to the government’s new policies in relation to
food safety which contain skepticism in spite of the hope that the policies will be
put into practice for the sake of the whole Thai nation.
ƒ Commentaries that assert the recommendations of the government, i.e. provincial
governors were enforced to make sure that all chicken slaughterhouses use
standard procedures when slaughtering chickens, the provincial governors across
the country shall adopt strict control measures banning the movement of poultry,
and they will report chicken deaths in all areas.
- In the ‘National’ section, occurences of chemical contamination in seafood, pesticide
contamination in vegetables, and food poisoning were published. As the government
launched the Food Safety Year 2004 campaign, more attention was drawn to food safety
issues that included contamination and the health impacts of consuming certain foods.
- In the ‘Weekend’ part of the newspaper that was only published on Saturday and Sunday,
news was provided about the promotion of organic coffee products from Sumatra by
Starbucks in Thailand as an alternate, healthier, more environmentally friendly coffee.
- Other relevant news published in The Nation included:
ƒ Chemical contamination in seafood and GMOs in papaya.
ƒ Different varieties of beverages such as beers and soft drinks in Thailand.
ƒ The bad effects of fizzy drinks and alcoholic beverages on human health.
ƒ Fast food as a reflection of Thai contemporary society’s unhealthy eating habits.
ƒ A report on state agencies that are working with private industries to develop and
promote the country’s herbal products to promote the country's herbs in the world
market.
ƒ The new hybrid rice variety that was distributed to farmers across Thailand.
ƒ The risks of consuming cereals, as some products contain more sugars and fats that
may increase the risk of obesity and high blood fat levels.
ƒ News on sugar production, reporting that Thailand is now the world's third largest
sugar exporter after Brazil and Europe.
ƒ An article on Thai coffee that is roasted for local and export market.
ƒ Food borne illness and food poisoning caused by pesticides and contagious chemicals,
and the measures to prevent such ailments.
ƒ The benefits of food, herbal supplements, milk, and green tea for human health

40
4.4.4. Bangkok Business
Bangkok Business is a daily newspaper with a circulation throughout Bangkok metropolitan
areas and the nearby provinces. This newspaper attracted around 8,000 readers in 2002.18

Bangkok Business is a newspaper that is focused on reporting all types of business related
news. The main news coverage is business, both in the local and international sphere.
Nonetheless, more than half the news coverage is for other types of news including politics,
education, sport and entertainment. Bangkok Business is owned by Nation Multimedia Group,
the owner of The Nation newspaper. Apart from these two newspapers, Nation Multimedia
Group also owns a nationwide tabloid called Kon-Chat-Luk , which is another printed media
business. Nation Multimedia Group is also the owner of a news TV cable station and news
radio station.19

The reportage in Bangkok Business pertaining to organic food was mostly from a business
perspective, as well as being linked to the constraints of business opportunities. The organic
food market in Thailand is perceived as a growing niche and therefore many investors are
eyeing up the possibilities of this business to continue.

The news that was published in Bangkok Business was classified in different columns.
- The ‘Business and Finance’ section covered information on the current existence of
organic farms and organic vegetables in Thailand. It was mentioned that since the
“green market” continues to expand in response to the new trend of health-conscious
consumers, organic products are now in greater demand in the world market. It said
that Thailand’s organic products have vast opportunities, because the markets for
these products are large. As for non-organic food news, the publicity of the dried
tropical fruit business and the future of food exports were presented.

- In the ‘Editorial’ column, the Bangkok Business editor commented on the latest news
and happenings, in which avian flu outbreak issues were presented. Other news
related to the epidemic bird flu outbreaks was also analyzed, aimed at turning the
threat into business opportunities. For instance, it reported on the shift to
competitively priced soybeans in an attempt to keep costs to a minimum amid fears of
avian flu that may cut down on the demand for soybeans feed from poultry farmers.

- The ‘Local’ column presented news such as the current state government policy on
“Kitchen of the World” and “Food Safety Year 2004” to inform readers about the
business opportunities which could arise from these. The standards on food were also
elaborated upon in articles within this column to make the readers well-informed on
the food standardization and specification as well as hygienic and labeling
requirements that are regulated by the Thai Food and Drug Administration of the
Ministry of Public Health.

- Other news that discussed food in general included articles concerning:

ƒ Food contamination with intense amount of pesticides, hormones and chemicals
as well as GMOs.
ƒ Health food as an alternative option to bring about a healthier lifestyle.

18
www.business.vu.edu.au/bho2250/Top20media/TopmediaSE-Asia.html#Thailand
19
http://www.bday.net/

41
 ƒ The previous outbreak of mad cow disease in Europe and the brain-damaging
disease which causes death for humans who eat the infected beef.
ƒ Information about food additives, stating that in Thailand the usage of food
additives was regulated by food regulating agencies or health ministry
departments
ƒ Fast food, indicating the increasingly high rates of fast-food consumption in Thai
society despite its vicious effects on health.
ƒ Canned goods as one of the important manufacturing exports involving large
investments made by private firms.
ƒ The wide range of appetizing snacks available in the Thai market.
ƒ The recent soaring business of fruit drinks ( pure fruit juices and concentrated
fresh juices mixed with water) in the Thai malls and superstores.
As Bangkok Business newspaper is written in English, the target audience is not merely the
well-educated Thais and expatriates, but also prospective foreign investors that may invest in
Thai business. The newspaper has a website that is updated daily and contains the news as
printed in the newspaper. Therefore this newspaper is accessible to foreigners who are
interested in investing and establishing businesses in Thailand.

4.4.5. Bangkok Post

Bangkok Post was founded by an American in 1946 and is staffed with a mix of foreigners
and Thais. As a newspaper that prides itself on being the voice of the times and a mirror of
Thailand, the Bangkok Post has continued to evolve while maintaining its core values of
impartiality, accuracy and fair reporting and analysis. Daily news and analysis remain the key
focus of the Bangkok Post with special effort given to key events and developments (Bangkok
Post, 2004).

The number of Bangkok Post readers has reached 480,000 and this newspaper’s distribution is
nationwide (Victoria University, 2002). The target audience of this newspaper is English-
speaking expatriates and intellectual Thais. The typicality of Bangkok Post is that the news is
presented in a way that indicates a more ‘internationalist’ point of view due to the influence
of foreign journalists’ on the editorial team. Bangkok Post is a conservative newspaper that
presents the news with little propensity to take a position against the government.

According to the research observation on Bangkok Post news reporting, there were several
types of news published, such as:
ƒ Headline coverage and exposure from the government’s points of view, especially on the
current Thai government policies, i.e. “Kitchen of the World” and the campaign for
“Food Safety Year 2004”. These articles included:
- Reports on meetings conducted within the government that brought about decision
making in relation to the various measures taken vis-à-vis the avian flu outbreak and
excessive use of pesticides in food production.
- Publicity of meetings, conferences and seminars conducted by government and inter-
governmental organizations. For instance, from 12 to 14 October 2004 the United
Nations (FAO) and the World Health Organization (WHO) jointly organized the
Second Global Forum of Food Safety Regulators in Bangkok on the theme of
"Building Effective Food Safety Systems" as the follow up of the first FAO/WHO
Global Forum of Food Safety Regulators conducted in Marrakech, Morocco in
January 2002, and this was covered by the newspaper.

42
 - Official statements from the government and inter-governmental organizations such
as WHO and FAO.
It is important to note that each reportage were always finished off with an explicit
message that encouraged readers not to panic and ensured that the government had taken
emergent measures to tackle the current problems in the food chain, especially on avian
flu outbreak issues.
ƒ Critical writings arranged in the Commentary and Analysis sections about the importance
and promotion of sustainable and pesticide-free food, the current state of the avian flu
epidemic spread in Thailand and how it affects the community and national economy.
ƒ Editorials about the recent avian flu outbreaks and encouragement for the public to
change their preference to healthier, more natural food alternatives. This section was
slightly different from the Commentary and Analysis section since the Editorial is usually
written by the editor of the newspaper and contains commentary on selected most recent
topics and happenings.
ƒ Readers’ comments by letters and e-mails that were arranged in a special section named
“Postbag”. This section of the newspaper is mainly a sort of readers’ forum in which the
readers can express their thoughts and opinions on a given topic. With regards to the
organic food topic, there were several comments from readers in response to current news
coverage. The readers statements were diverse, including:
- voicing concerns and worries about the avian flu epidemic and furthermore
encouraging the government to establish more stringent measures
- Petitioning the government to provide a well-informed organic labeling system and to
ensure that the food products are truly free of pesticides and other harmful substances.
- Rejection of GMO-produced foods to be marketed in Thailand.
- Demanding the government to regulate the economic instruments that endorse
organic food farmers as a way to get the “right price”.
- Their two-fold food anxiety which was on the one hand doubting and lacking in
confidence to consume non-organic “regular” food as it is perceived that the usage of
pesticides, growth hormones and other chemical substances is excessive, and on the
other hand, distrusting the reliability of current organic labeling to provide correct
rationalization according to the standards of pesticides and chemical use.

43
5. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATION

In line with the discussion on organic food, it is worth first of all to consider and appraise the
contextual approach to food-consumption practices by analyzing the consumption behavior as
a whole before moving on to the issues of ‘green’ provisioning.
This conclusion chapter is divided into three parts that involve different points of discussion.
The first subchapter elaborates the general nature of food consumers’ culture and its relation
with social practices. The second part is the analysis of discourse about food in the Thai
media. The third subchapter is the framework that elaborates the chain of providers and
consumers of organic food in Thailand.

5.1. Perspectives of Food Consumers’ Culture within Social Practices

As is the case with many other South East Asian people, Thais mostly eat rice for their daily
three-times-a-day meal. Rice is their source of carbohydrates, and is more popular than other
types of carbohydrate such as potatoes, bread or noodles. Normally rice is accompanied with
other food items, for instance, meat, vegetables, eggs, seafood, and so on.
The food that respondents eat for breakfast is mostly typical Thai food, yet for some
respondents, especially from Villa Market, the breakfast eaten is to some extent influenced by
a western selection of food items, such as cereal and low fat milk, bread and coffee,
sandwiches, biscuits, and juice. Most of the Thais interviewed eat their breakfast at home.
In terms of lunch, most of the Thai respondents prefer to eat typical Thai food, i.e. rice with
chicken, meat, vegetables, seafood, or noodles with meat. Then again the western influence
somewhat penetrates the selection of food, especially for respondents who are vegetarians or
more health concerned and prefer to eat healthier alternatives such as salads, sandwiches and
juice. Most respondents eat lunch in the office, at street stalls, and in restaurants. Lunch time
is usually used to attend office business meetings or soiree. Although this may be the case for
some people, others would prefer to prepare their lunch or cook and eat lunch at home.
Dinner, as one may argue, can be distinguished as the ‘main’ meal eaten during the day.
People would eat a full course meal at this time of the day. Unlike other meal times, 88% of
Thai respondents would include rice in their dinner among other sources of carbohydrate food
items. In particular, western food selections are not of their preference during dinner time.
They combine rice with other varieties of dishes. More than half of the respondents have
dinner at home, and only a few dine out at restaurants and street stalls. It is apparent that Thai
people use dinner time as a family occasion and most families cook at home for dinner.
It is worthy to note that although more than half of all respondents claim that they often dine
out, the above responses evidently suggest on the contrary. Most of the meals are prepared
and eaten at home. Therefore one could argue that Thais dines out during the weekends or
holidays, and most Thais prepare, cook, and eat their food at home.
In general, the criteria which Thai consumers’ apply to the selection of food are primarily
freshness and taste, whereas the organic food consumers state that the main reasons they
consume organic food are health concerns and safety. It is interesting to note that as criteria
used to select food in general, environmental friendliness is ranked as the 10th priority. Yet for
organic food consumers, environmental reasons are not regarded as priority given that they
are more concerned on the health and safety aspects of organic food products that are better
assured in comparison with regular non-organic food products.
In terms of willingness to shift preference to a healthier and more sustainable alternative of
food produce, more than 80% of the non-organic food consumers stated that they are willing

44
to consider organic food. They are well aware about the problems on the food chain including
the threats and importance to shift to organic food. The items of organic food produce that are
most likely to be considered are organic vegetables, organic eggs and organic white rice. The
reason is because 1) These are the food items Thais need for daily meals, and 2) these are the
most widely-available organic food products among the range of organic food items in the
supermarkets and green shops.

The total number of organic food consumers interviewed in this research is mostly consumers
from Villa Market. However, Villa Market is a supermarket targeted at high incomers and
therefore does not represent the whole population of Bangkok. The number of organic
consumers shopping in Big C is only half the amount of organic consumers in Villa Market,
and there is only a small organic range available.

Hence one could argue that the organic food niche is already established in the high-class
society, but since no organic food is available in the traditional market and only a little
organic produce is offered by the middle-class Big C, the creation of a new market for the
majority of Thai people (who are lower to middle-class) becomes the challenge, to ensure the
same access to green food provisioning.
Despite the above argument, the attempt to fully accomplish food safety20 and food security21
remains a discussion as to whether or not it is possible to achieve food security and safety for
all. 22 This can in fact be achieved by intensification of agricultural practices. In order to raise
agricultural productivity, seeds and other agricultural technologies required must be
environmentally friendly (IFPRI, 2003).
With the exception of the established niche market in Villa Market, it can be concluded that
there is still a relatively low level of organic food consumption in Bangkok, Thailand. This
condition is caused by several factors: 1) the high prices that the lower-class society find
difficult to afford; 2) the small number of available varieties of organic vegetables in the
markets; 3) the location of Green Net shops that are not within an accessible distance; 4)
preference of some people to dine out rather than prepare, cook, and eat their meals at home;
5) confusing and unexplained terms of organic, hygienic, health, and pesticide-free food in
the markets that results in ‘badly-informed’, confused consumers; and 6) the antipathetic
manner and reaction of a given group in the society to all sorts of organic or other ‘green’
products.
It is important to highlight that the future possibility of organic food consumption in Bangkok
is positive given that there was a high level of willingness to shift preference to healthier,
more sustainable alternatives by non-organic consumers. The loyalty of organic consumers is
evident by the fact that most of them have been consuming organic food for years. Moreover
the linkages among stakeholders in organic farming are already established that brings about
more optimism on the success of organic consumption encouragement in the future.

20
Food safety can be defined as "agricultural practices that promote the safe production of fresh fruits
and vegetables, taking into account the conditions specific to a particular production area, the type of
product and methods used in such a way so as to minimize potential human health hazards due to the
contamination of fresh fruits and vegetables." (Canadian Horticultural Council)
21
Food security relates to availability of food and access by people to food sufficient for a healthy life
(IFPRI, 2003).
22
Interview with Wei Zhao in Paris, 22 December 2004.

45
5.2. Thai Media’s Discourse on Food and Organic Food

It is previously mentioned that half of the organic food consumers obtain their information
from the newspapers, yet more than half of them agree that the information still remains low.
The most-read newspaper by Thais interviewed in this research is Thairath. Despite its
popularity, Thairath pays less attention to food issues and the problems in the food chain
compared to the other newspapers. The news presented in Thairath falls mostly under
controversial and sensational themes such as politics, crime and entertainment. One may
distinguish Thairath as a ‘tabloid’ in terms of its style of presenting the news.
The research found that there are no advertisements whatsoever for organic food, but on the
contrary, advertisements for non-organic, commercial food products are numerous.
Theoretically, advertising is a service for which consumers are willing to pay, because the
information it provides reduces search time (Solomon, 2002). Yet the price of organic food
produce is above that of regular food products, and if advertisements are employed, the price
would be even higher than it already is.
Hence as long as economic instruments are not applied, it is impossible to compete with non-
organic food products, including the use of advertisements. Organic food has its own niche
market along with its loyal customers consuming the products over a long, spread-out period
of time. Therefore advertisement provision is only deemed important if the aim is to create a
new niche market.
Although there are no organic food advertisements in the newspapers, the readers may find
information about organic food in the articles published in the scientific column, features,
readers’ opinions and feedback, and so on. The articles presented in the newspapers are
deemed as being rather more informative than persuasive.
The issues pertaining to food have become a heated debate, especially as the government set
up the new policy of ‘Kitchen of the World’ and the campaign of ‘Food Safety Year 2004’.
This set of actions triggered many pluses and minuses in public reaction. Some reactions are
skeptical, yet others are rather optimistic, with a certain expectation of achieving food safety
while setting Thailand as a hub for food industries on a global scale.
In line with the government’s policies, the media also pays attention to problems occurring in
the food chain, such as the emergent avian flu outbreak with its increasing death toll. The
news items presented are mainly general knowledge items about the avian flu virus, the
effects of avian flu on certain regions of Thailand in which animal culling measures were
conducted to avoid the spread of the disease, and commentaries that question the
government’s consistency in their commitment to food safety amidst the avian flu outbreak.
It is perceived that although the Thai printed media has generally been considered one of the
freest in Southeast Asia, the types of news presented can still be classified as political news
stories with quotations of politicians’ statements contained in the article. Government
intervention on the media was rigorous given that initially the bird flu outbreak issues were
not approved to be publicized, but the vast spread of the epidemic eventually allowed the
media to disclose this issue to public.

5.3. Chain of Providers and Consumers of Organic Food in Thailand.

The ‘green’ food provisioning is initially intended for export, but later domestic demands
started to emerge. It could be implied that Thai organic food provisioning started from export,
and Thai consumers followed the lead from that point onwards.
The chain of providers and consumers has two aims: 1) exports, and 2) domestic consumption
within Thailand.

46
The certification of organic food in Thailand is under the government’s Department of
Agriculture and IFOAM-based ACT (in addition to other international certifications that
depend on the intended country to where produce is being exported). This sub chapter further
discuss about the providers-consumers’ chain of organic food provision.
Prior to the marketing of organic produce, the organic farmers first ought to attain organic
accreditation by ACT or DOA. The organic certification by DOA and ACT are both for
exports and domestic market purposes, yet each has strengths and weaknesses. The DOA
certification is free of charge, whereas to get ACT certification one must pay a fee. However
as ACT is a member of IFOAM, it has a wider international network that enables better
possibilities for export of products compared to DOA. ACT has the network to enable
cooperation with other international certification so that the products will be acknowledged
more by the destined country of export.
Apart from the organic certification, Thailand acknowledges the hygienic certifications by the
Ministry of Health and DOA as another category of organic food. Hygienic food is the food
produced with hygienic processes that may use chemical substances at an acceptable level
that are harmless to human health. Therefore hygienic food is slightly inferior compared to
organic food which ensures it is 100% chemical free. The hygienic logos provided by MOH
and DOA are both in Thai, however the DOA label is accompanied with a small English
translation at the bottom of the label. One may conclude that food accredited with ‘Hygienic’
certification is mainly intended for the Thai market rather than export. Hygienic food
provides better opportunity for Thais to consume less-polluting, less-contaminated food
produced at more affordable prices.
Subsequent to the attainment of accreditation, the food producers are ready to supply the
products for local supermarkets or export. At this stage, Green Net is available to assist the
food producers, as a provider-oriented NGO that aims to organize the export production of
Thai farmers and ensure fair trade to maintain the welfare of farmers.
As previously mentioned, for organic food to have better access to foreign markets, several
international linkages have been established. Most organic certification is based on
international agencies related to the country of exports, for instance, the partnership with a
Swedish certification body KRAF. This certification is recognized by certification bodies in
several other European countries to help the Thai organic food produce enter the European
market.
In line with the emergence of a dynamic organic food consumption movement, the
government and inter-governmental organizations such as the UN undertake measures to
promote this subject. The publication of the UN Guidelines for Consumer Protection raises
public awareness of consuming sustainably, of which section H article 57 emphasizes the
urgency of food safety and security. Yet the Guidelines are deemed too general, and are rather
perceived by the government as recommendations rather than stringent measures. However
the UN has no mandate to enforce any legislation and policies. Therefore the technical advice
addressed by the UN Guidelines should be persistently followed with assistance for the
different stakeholders in society to work together and develop policies and measures to
promote organic food consumption in Thailand.
The other programme undertaken by UNEP is the workshop to eliminate the Persistent
Organic Pollutants (POPs). This programme is particularly correlated with the
discouragement of excessive pesticide use in food production. This workshop has brought
together stakeholders from developing countries and OECD countries to discuss further the
measures to be conducted to control the use of toxic chemicals.

47
The UNEP’s approach to both programmes is similar, in which UNEP is positioned as
stakeholders’ advisor and facilitator to accomplish the goal of the programmes, which is to
enforce the government to establish blueprint policies to be implemented for a given issue. In
the case of the SC. Asia programme, UNEP assists and encourages the government and
NGOs from Asian countries to draft the blueprint of a National Action Plan (NAP) on
sustainable consumption.
The effectiveness of the programme on Asian governments, and specifically Thailand, in
promoting sustainable consumption depends on the detailed goals entailed in the NAP. For
instance, if the government emphasizes the focus of sustainable consumption of food, the plan
should be detailed with regards to labeling schemes or other practical, realistic measures.23
The policies derived from the NAP for sustainable consumption will be the base of stringent
measures, such as the enforcement of organic food labeling. The government has the authority
and mandate to establish the country’s legislation and policies, therefore UNEP’s initiatives
will be effective as long as followed with control measures.

5.4. Recommendations
Several recommendations that are herewith addressed consist of policy recommendations and
a recommendation for further studies to be conducted in this research.
5.4.1. Policy Recommendations
1. A strong political will and policy consistency for organic agriculture. The attempt of the
Thai government to make Thailand the “Kitchen of the World” and 2004 as the “Food
Safety Year” has shown Thailand can be the organic food ‘trend-setter’ in Asia, yet it
should be further followed up by stringent measures and policies to put strategies into
practice. The government can create economic incentives for the organic food producers
and farmers to further encourage organic grown crops.
2. The government is also responsible to provide more information on organic food to Thai
consumers via the media and government publications. The Thai government should be
more open and not suppress the exposure of epidemics within the country so that the public
are better informed and more aware of the possible threats.
3. Government cooperation with NGOs and farmers’ organizations is strategically important
and therefore needs to be further strengthened. NGOs such as the Green Net already have
wide networks that can assist the government helping local organic farmers market their
products overseas in line with the government attempt for public service.
4. The existing private initiative of ACT should be further supported by the government so
that it can facilitate organic trade, both within Thailand and for exports. It should avoid
competing with ACT in organic inspection and certification as global organic certification
is conducted by the private sector. ACT is already internationally recognized, therefore is
more effective and flexible, enabling the participation of all stakeholders and ensuring the
independence of the certification process.
5.4.2. Recommendations for Thai Markets
1) The markets that offer organic food should provide more items to meet the needs of
consumers. Furthermore, the organic food products should be placed on distinctive shelves
that help consumers to identify organic food products, and they should be separated from
regular food. Information on the meanings of organic, pesticide-free, health, and hygienic
logos should be placed adjacent to the shelves to better inform the consumers about the
healthier alternatives.

23 Interview with Bas de Leeuw in Paris, January 5, 2005.

48
2) In order to create a new niche market of organic food, convenience stores such as Seven-
Eleven, Family Mart, Fresh Mart, AM/PM, and Central Minimart could play an important
role in promoting organic food consumption in Thailand. Since most consumers in the
metropolitan areas strive for convenience, they would buy food items from these types of
shops, which are often located near to residential areas. According to observation, consumers
would buy things in the convenient store regardless of the price because they are accessible
and therefore minimize transportation costs. If providers could distribute organic food
products to convenience stores throughout Bangkok, consumers will be more familiar with
these types of products and the growth of organic food consumers will be enhanced.
5.4.3. Recommendations for Further Studies

Subsequent to this thesis, it is recommended that these following further studies are pursued:
1) The assessment of possibilities, opportunities and obstacles for establishing new organic
food niche markets in Thailand.
2) The roles of DOA vis-à-vis ACT in providing access to organic food markets in a
domestic and international perspective
3) International linkages in the context of globalizing the food chain: foreign certification
bodies and the effects on increasing organic food exports
4) Assessment of implementation on regulation and control measures of organic food
production.
5) Hygienic food as the initial stage to endorse organic food consumption in Thailand:
current state, problems and prospects.

49
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54
Annex 1 List of Interviews Conducted for the Research

Name Organization Position Place and date of

interview
Niclas UNEP ROAP Project coordinator of Bangkok, August 19,
Svenningsen Sustainable Consumption 2004
Asia
Uchita de Center for Executive Director London, October 1,
Zoysa Environment and 2004
Development
Bas de UNEP Division of Regional Officer Paris, January 5, 2005
Leeuw Technology, Industry
and Economics
(DTIE) Paris
Wei Zhao UNEP Division of Environmental Affairs Paris, December 22,
Technology, Industry Officer 2004.
and Economics
(DTIE) Paris

55
Annex 2. Questions for Informants Interview
The purpose of each individual question is outlined below.
Purpose Questions
Collect general details and background information of the expert 1 - 5 (open – fill in)
respondents.
To identify the stakeholders that is of influence on organic food 6-9
consumption, their responsibilities, effectiveness in influence, and
existing bilateral cooperation.
To gather information about the available policies set up by UNEP 10
that involves organic food consumption endorsement.
To find out to what extent these policies affect the government 11 - 13
policies in motivating organic food consumption, the role of the
government policies and the instruments that is most suitable in the
different kind of food chain
To know the expectations toward Asian governments upon the 14
implementation of the National Action Plans for Sustainable
Consumption, mainly in food consumption issues.

A. Personal Information

1. Name ____________________________________
2. Agency ____________________________________
3. Position ____________________________________
4. Duration of employment _______________________

B. Stakeholders

6. What are the factors of influence on Thai people to consume organic food?

7. Who are the stakeholders that are of influence on organic food consumption in
Thailand?

8. What kinds of roles do the different stakeholders have in the organic food
consumption in Thailand?

9. What is the effectiveness of their actions in influencing organic food consumption?

10. What is the importance of the government compared to other stakeholders?

11. What is the significance of advertising in influencing consumers’ preference on

organic food products?

12. How can other countries assist Thailand in the promotion of organic food
consumption and vice versa?

C. Policies of UNEP

13. What programmes do UNEP undertake in relation with the endorsement of organic
food consumption?

14. What is their effectiveness on the Asian governments, specifically in Thailand, in

endorsing organic food consumption?

56
 15. To what extent will the National Action Plans on Sustainable Consumption be
influential in promoting organic food consumption?

D. Policies of Thailand Government

16. What type of instruments do Thai government agencies prefer to use to promote
organic food consumption in Thailand?

- Legislation

- Economic instruments (e.g. taxes, subsidies)

- Information / Education

17. What is the effectiveness of these instruments?

18. What is the expectated role of the Thai government in the implementation of the
National Action Plans for Sustainable Consumption, specifically in organic food
consumption as an element of sustainable consumption?

19. Has the bird-flu outbreak give impacts on the Thai government’s policies regarding
organic food?

E. Closing
20. Do you know of any useful publications for this research?

21. Is there anybody else I can contact for more information regarding this research?

57
Annex 3. Questions for Consumers
The purpose of each individual question is outlined below.
PURPOSE QUESTIONS
Collect general details of the respondent to analyze result by education 1 (open – fill in)
background, socio-economic status, etc.
To find out the main characteristics of the eating habits (including the 2– 5 (open)
‘social organization’) and purchasing of food by Thai people.
To understand the criteria of Thai people for purchasing food. 6 (closed)
To find out the reasons for purchasing and not purchasing organic food. 7 – 14 (open & closed)
To observe the willingness to purchase organic food in the future by the 15 – 16 (closed)
Thai people.

Introduction
My name is Aretha Aprilia, I am an Indonesian who currently a student at Wageningen
University – the Netherlands. I am now undertaking a research for my thesis, which is about
organic food consumption. As part of the research, I interview Thai people to understand the
characteristics of food consumption. This interview will take 10 minutes of your time. I thank you
in advance for your kind cooperation.

1. Personal Information
a. Name:
b. Gender:
c. Age:
15 – 24 45 – 54
25 – 34 55+
35 – 44
d. Education:
e. Occupation:
f. Number of family members in your household:
g. Special dietary requirements:
h. Newspaper you mostly read:
Note: Your personal information(s) will neither be enclosed nor visible in the report.

2. Eating habits and characteristics

Breakfast (7.00 – 10 AM):
a. What did you eat this morning for breakfast?
b. What do you normally eat for breakfast?
c. Where do you usually eat breakfast?
Home street stall other ____________
Office restaurant
Lunch (12.00 – 2.00 PM):
d. What did you eat this afternoon?
e. What do you normally eat for lunch?
f. Where do you usually eat lunch?
Home street stall other ____________
Office restaurant

58
Dinner (6.00 – 8.00 PM):
f. What did you eat yesterday evening?
g. What do you normally eat for dinner?
h. Where do you usually eat dinner?
Home street stall other ____________
Office restaurant
Others (snacks – in between meal times):
g. Do you usually have snacks in between meals? Yes No
h. What type of snacks do you normally eat in between meal times?
3. Where do you normally purchase your food for daily consumption?
‫ ٱ‬Supermarket
‫ ٱ‬Traditional market
‫ ٱ‬Local shop
‫ ٱ‬others, _________________
4. How often do you purchase food in the market?
‫ ٱ‬everyday
‫ ___ ٱ‬times per week
‫ ___ ٱ‬times per month
‫ ٱ‬others, ___________________
5. [I am going to read a few statements.] Please give a number between 1 and 6, of which 1 is
strongly disagree and 6 is strongly agree.
No. Statements Strongly Strongly Don’t
Disagree agree know
a. I am often eating out. 1 2 3 4 5 6
b. I mostly eat with friends 1 2 3 4 5 6
c. I mostly eat with my family / 1 2 3 4 5 6
spouse
d. I mostly eat alone 1 2 3 4 5 6

6. When I buy food, I consider:

No. Statements Strongly Strongly Don’t
Disagree agree know
a. Costs 1 2 3 4 5 6
b. Health 1 2 3 4 5 6
c. Local produce 1 2 3 4 5 6
d. Environmental friendliness 1 2 3 4 5 6
e. Organic 1 2 3 4 5 6
f. Fair trade 1 2 3 4 5 6
g. Information on labels of 1 2 3 4 5 6
packaged products
h. Brand image 1 2 3 4 5 6
i. Freshness 1 2 3 4 5 6
j. Taste 1 2 3 4 5 6
k. Animal friendliness 1 2 3 4 5 6
l. Calories 1 2 3 4 5 6
m. Special offers 1 2 3 4 5 6
n. Advertisements in media 1 2 3 4 5 6

59
o. Epidemics, e.g. bird flu 1 2 3 4 5 6
p. Hygiene 1 2 3 4 5 6
q. Others 1 2 3 4 5 6

7. [I am now going to ask you about organic food]. Organic food is food that is free of antibiotics,
growth hormones, chemicals, and pesticides.
Do you purchase and consume organic food? Yes Æ go to the next question
No go to question 15
Don’t know

8. How did you find out about organic food?

‫ ٱ‬newspapers
‫ ٱ‬magazines
‫ ٱ‬television
‫ ٱ‬radio
‫ ٱ‬Internet
Government’s publication
Supermarket’s products information
Others __________________
Don’t know

9. Why do you purchase organic food?

______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________

10. What kinds of organic food do you consume and how often?
Food products Often Sometimes Never Don’t know
Eggs
Vegetables
Butter
Brown rice
White rice
Tofu
Corn
wheat
Other …………

11. Where do you usually purchase organic food products?

‫ ٱ‬Supermarket
‫ ٱ‬Traditional market
‫ ٱ‬local shops
‫ ٱ‬Others, please specify _________________
12. How long have you been consuming organic food?
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________

60
13. [I am going to read a few statements. Please give a number between 1 and 6, of which 1 is
strongly disagree and 6 is strongly agree.] What makes it difficult or easy for you to consume
organic food?
No. Statements Strongly Strongly Don’t
Disagree Agree know
a. Organic food is more 1 2 3 4 5 6
expensive than regular food
b. Organic food is not available 1 2 3 4 5 6
in the supermarket
c. Organic food is not available 1 2 3 4 5 6
in the restaurants / stalls
d. Organic food is healthier than 1 2 3 4 5 6
regular food
e. Organic food does not stay 1 2 3 4 5 6
fresh as long as regular food
f. There is very little 1 2 3 4 5 6
information on organic food
in the newspapers.
g. The bird-flu outbreaks have 1 2 3 4 5 6
increased my interest in
organic food.
h. This [market] gives no 1 2 3 4 5 6
information on organic food.
i. If organic food would cost the 1 2 3 4 5 6
same as regular food, I would
buy more organic food.

14. Is there anything else that would make it easier for you to buy organic food?
Yes No Don’t know
15. Would you consider purchasing organic food?
Yes No Don’t know
16. [Please give a number between 1 and 6, of which 1 is strongly disagree and 6 is strongly
agree.] If the organic food is available at the same price as regular food, how likely would
you purchase organic food?
No. Least Most Don’t
Products likely likely know
a. Organic eggs 1 2 3 4 5 6
b. Organic vegetable 1 2 3 4 5 6
c. Organic butter 1 2 3 4 5 6
d. Organic brown 1 2 3 4 5 6
rice
e. Organic white 1 2 3 4 5 6
rice
f. Organic tofu 1 2 3 4 5 6
g. Organic corn 1 2 3 4 5 6
h. Organic wheat 1 2 3 4 5 6

Comments
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

61
Annex 4. Outputs of SPSS Data Processing

Gender

Cumulative
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent
Valid Male 28 46.7 46.7 46.7
Female 32 53.3 53.3 100.0
Total 60 100.0 100.0

Age

Cumulative
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent
Valid 15-24 12 20.0 20.0 20.0
25-34 30 50.0 50.0 70.0
35-44 7 11.7 11.7 81.7
45-54 4 6.7 6.7 88.3
55+ 7 11.7 11.7 100.0
Total 60 100.0 100.0

Education level

Cumulative
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent
Valid none 2 3.3 3.3 3.3
Primary
11 18.3 18.3 21.7
education
Bachelor
36 60.0 60.0 81.7
degree
Post
11 18.3 18.3 100.0
graduate
Total 60 100.0 100.0

Number of family members in household

Cumulative
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent
Valid 0-4 34 56.7 56.7 56.7
5-9 25 41.7 41.7 98.3
10+ 1 1.7 1.7 100.0
Total 60 100.0 100.0

Place to eat breakfast

Cumulative
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent
Valid Home 29 48.3 61.7 61.7
Office 6 10.0 12.8 74.5
Street
3 5.0 6.4 80.9
stalls
Restaurant 5 8.3 10.6 91.5
Other 4 6.7 8.5 100.0
Total 47 78.3 100.0
Missing 9.00 13 21.7

62
Total 60 100.0

Place to eat lunch

Cumulative
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent
Valid Home 11 18.3 18.6 18.6
Office 16 26.7 27.1 45.8
Street
12 20.0 20.3 66.1
stalls
Restaurant 10 16.7 16.9 83.1
Other 10 16.7 16.9 100.0
Total 59 98.3 100.0
Missing 9.00 1 1.7
Total 60 100.0

Place to eat dinner

Cumulative
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent
Valid Home 40 66.7 66.7 66.7
Street stalls 7 11.7 11.7 78.3
Restaurant 9 15.0 15.0 93.3
Other 4 6.7 6.7 100.0
Total 60 100.0 100.0

Snacks between meal times

Cumulative
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent
Valid Yes 30 50.0 50.0 50.0
No 30 50.0 50.0 100.0
Total 60 100.0 100.0

Type of snacks

Cumulative
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent
Valid bread 6 10.0 10.0 10.0
chips 6 10.0 10.0 20.0
coffee 1 1.7 1.7 21.7
depends 1 1.7 1.7 23.3
desert 1 1.7 1.7 25.0
fruit 3 5.0 5.0 30.0
fruits 1 1.7 1.7 31.7
milk 2 3.3 3.3 35.0
none 30 50.0 50.0 85.0
potato 1 1.7 1.7 86.7
sweets 8 13.3 13.3 100.0
Total 60 100.0 100.0

Place to purchase daily food consumption

63
 Cumulative
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent
Valid Supermarket 20 33.3 62.5 62.5
Traditional
9 15.0 28.1 90.6
market
Local shop 3 5.0 9.4 100.0
Total 32 53.3 100.0
Missing 9.00 28 46.7
Total 60 100.0

How often food is purchased from the market

Cumulative
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent
Valid everyday 9 15.0 29.0 29.0
three times a
3 5.0 9.7 38.7
week
twice a week 7 11.7 22.6 61.3
once a week 4 6.7 12.9 74.2
twice a month 3 5.0 9.7 83.9
Once a month 5 8.3 16.1 100.0
Total 31 51.7 100.0
Missing 9.00 29 48.3
Total 60 100.0

Respondents often eating out

Cumulative
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent
Valid Strongly
5 8.3 8.6 8.6
disagree
Rather
5 8.3 8.6 17.2
disagree
Disagree 10 16.7 17.2 34.5
Agree 8 13.3 13.8 48.3
Rather agree 12 20.0 20.7 69.0
Strongly
18 30.0 31.0 100.0
agree
Total 58 96.7 100.0
Missing 9.00 2 3.3
Total 60 100.0

Respondents mostly eat with friends

Cumulative
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent
Valid Strongly
7 11.7 12.3 12.3
disagree
Rather
4 6.7 7.0 19.3
disagree
Disagree 11 18.3 19.3 38.6
Agree 9 15.0 15.8 54.4
Rather agree 13 21.7 22.8 77.2
Strongly
13 21.7 22.8 100.0
agree

64
 Total 57 95.0 100.0
Missing 9.00 3 5.0
Total 60 100.0

Respondents mostly eat with my family/spouse

Cumulative
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent
Valid Strongly
5 8.3 8.5 8.5
disagree
Rather
6 10.0 10.2 18.6
disagree
Disagree 6 10.0 10.2 28.8
Agree 8 13.3 13.6 42.4
Rather agree 18 30.0 30.5 72.9
Strongly
16 26.7 27.1 100.0
agree
Total 59 98.3 100.0
Missing 9.00 1 1.7
Total 60 100.0

Respondents mostly eat alone

Cumulative
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent
Valid Strongly
12 20.0 20.7 20.7
disagree
Rather
18 30.0 31.0 51.7
disagree
Disagree 11 18.3 19.0 70.7
Agree 7 11.7 12.1 82.8
Rather agree 5 8.3 8.6 91.4
Strongly
5 8.3 8.6 100.0
agree
Total 58 96.7 100.0
Missing 9.00 2 3.3
Total 60 100.0

Cost

Cumulative
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent
Valid Strongly
1 1.7 1.7 1.7
disagree
Rather
3 5.0 5.2 6.9
disagree
Disagree 7 11.7 12.1 19.0
Agree 7 11.7 12.1 31.0
Rather agree 18 30.0 31.0 62.1
Strongly
22 36.7 37.9 100.0
agree
Total 58 96.7 100.0
Missing 9.00 2 3.3
Total 60 100.0

65
 Health

Cumulative
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent
Valid Rather
1 1.7 1.7 1.7
disagree
Disagree 8 13.3 13.6 15.3
Agree 12 20.0 20.3 35.6
Rather agree 15 25.0 25.4 61.0
Strongly
23 38.3 39.0 100.0
agree
Total 59 98.3 100.0
Missing 9.00 1 1.7
Total 60 100.0

Local produce

Cumulative
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent
Valid Rather
14 23.3 24.6 24.6
disagree
Disagree 24 40.0 42.1 66.7
Agree 11 18.3 19.3 86.0
Rather agree 6 10.0 10.5 96.5
Strongly
2 3.3 3.5 100.0
agree
Total 57 95.0 100.0
Missing 9.00 3 5.0
Total 60 100.0

Environmental friendliness

Cumulative
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent
Valid Strongly
1 1.7 1.8 1.8
disagree
Rather
4 6.7 7.0 8.8
disagree
Disagree 16 26.7 28.1 36.8
Agree 13 21.7 22.8 59.6
Rather agree 14 23.3 24.6 84.2
Strongly
9 15.0 15.8 100.0
agree
Total 57 95.0 100.0
Missing 9.00 3 5.0
Total 60 100.0

66
 Organic

Cumulative
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent
Valid Rather
5 8.3 9.1 9.1
disagree
Disagree 14 23.3 25.5 34.5
Agree 11 18.3 20.0 54.5
Rather agree 13 21.7 23.6 78.2
Strongly
12 20.0 21.8 100.0
agree
Total 55 91.7 100.0
Missing 9.00 5 8.3
Total 60 100.0

Fair trade

Cumulative
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent
Valid Rather
12 20.0 22.6 22.6
disagree
Disagree 16 26.7 30.2 52.8
Agree 14 23.3 26.4 79.2
Rather agree 4 6.7 7.5 86.8
Strongly
7 11.7 13.2 100.0
agree
Total 53 88.3 100.0
Missing 9.00 7 11.7
Total 60 100.0

Information on labels of packaged products

Cumulative
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent
Valid Rather
3 5.0 5.1 5.1
disagree
Disagree 5 8.3 8.5 13.6
Agree 8 13.3 13.6 27.1
Rather agree 30 50.0 50.8 78.0
Strongly
13 21.7 22.0 100.0
agree
Total 59 98.3 100.0
Missing 9.00 1 1.7
Total 60 100.0

67
 Brand image

Cumulative
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent
Valid Strongly
1 1.7 1.7 1.7
disagree
Rather
4 6.7 6.8 8.5
disagree
Disagree 7 11.7 11.9 20.3
Agree 17 28.3 28.8 49.2
Rather agree 25 41.7 42.4 91.5
Strongly
5 8.3 8.5 100.0
agree
Total 59 98.3 100.0
Missing 9.00 1 1.7
Total 60 100.0

Freshness

Cumulative
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent
Valid Agree 2 3.3 3.4 3.4
Rather
15 25.0 25.4 28.8
agree
Strongly
42 70.0 71.2 100.0
agree
Total 59 98.3 100.0
Missing 9.00 1 1.7
Total 60 100.0

Taste

Cumulative
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent
Valid Strongly
1 1.7 1.7 1.7
disagree
Agree 1 1.7 1.7 3.4
Rather agree 10 16.7 16.9 20.3
Strongly
47 78.3 79.7 100.0
agree
Total 59 98.3 100.0
Missing 9.00 1 1.7
Total 60 100.0

Animal friendliness

Cumulative
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent
Valid Strongly
3 5.0 5.6 5.6
disagree
Rather
15 25.0 27.8 33.3
disagree
Disagree 20 33.3 37.0 70.4
Agree 7 11.7 13.0 83.3
Rather agree 2 3.3 3.7 87.0
Strongly
7 11.7 13.0 100.0
agree

68
 Total 54 90.0 100.0
Missing 9.00 6 10.0
Total 60 100.0

Calories

Cumulative
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent
Valid Strongly
1 1.7 1.7 1.7
disagree
Rather
9 15.0 15.5 17.2
disagree
Disagree 18 30.0 31.0 48.3
Agree 11 18.3 19.0 67.2
Rather agree 11 18.3 19.0 86.2
Strongly
8 13.3 13.8 100.0
agree
Total 58 96.7 100.0
Missing 9.00 2 3.3
Total 60 100.0

Special offers

Cumulative
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent
Valid Strongly
4 6.7 6.8 6.8
disagree
Rather
2 3.3 3.4 10.2
disagree
Disagree 9 15.0 15.3 25.4
Agree 13 21.7 22.0 47.5
Rather agree 25 41.7 42.4 89.8
Strongly
6 10.0 10.2 100.0
agree
Total 59 98.3 100.0
Missing 9.00 1 1.7
Total 60 100.0

Advertisements in media

Cumulative
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent
Valid Strongly
1 1.7 1.7 1.7
disagree
Rather
5 8.3 8.5 10.2
disagree
Disagree 8 13.3 13.6 23.7
Agree 13 21.7 22.0 45.8
Rather agree 27 45.0 45.8 91.5
Strongly
5 8.3 8.5 100.0
agree
Total 59 98.3 100.0
Missing 9.00 1 1.7
Total 60 100.0

69
 Epidemics, e.g. bird flu

Cumulative
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent
Valid Rather
1 1.7 1.7 1.7
disagree
Disagree 3 5.0 5.1 6.8
Agree 11 18.3 18.6 25.4
Rather agree 23 38.3 39.0 64.4
Strongly
21 35.0 35.6 100.0
agree
Total 59 98.3 100.0
Missing 9.00 1 1.7
Total 60 100.0

Consumers of organic food

Cumulative
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent
Valid Yes 16 26.7 26.7 26.7
No 43 71.7 71.7 98.3
3.00 1 1.7 1.7 100.0
Total 60 100.0 100.0

Organic food consumers in Villa Market

Cumulative
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent
Valid Yes 11 55.0 55.0 55.0
No 9 45.0 45.0 100.0
Total 20 100.0 100.0

Organic food consumers in Big C

Cumulative
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent
Valid Yes 5 25.0 25.0 25.0
No 15 75.0 75.0 100.0
Total 20 100.0 100.0

Organic food consumers in Traditional Market "Sri-Sa-Wad"

Cumulative
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent
Valid No 20 100.0 100.0 100.0

Organic food consumers in Villa Market out of all Respondents

Cumulative
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent
Valid Yes 11 18.3 55.0 55.0
No 9 15.0 45.0 100.0
Total 20 33.3 100.0
Missing System 40 66.7
Total 60 100.0

70
 Organic food consumers in Big C out of all respondents

Cumulative
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent
Valid Yes 5 8.3 25.0 25.0
No 15 25.0 75.0 100.0
Total 20 33.3 100.0
Missing System 40 66.7
Total 60 100.0

Organic food consumers of all respondents from Villa Market, Big C, and Sri-Sa-Wad

Cumulative
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent
Valid Yes 16 26.7 26.7 26.7
No 44 73.3 73.3 100.0
Total 60 100.0 100.0

Reasons of purchasing organic food

Cumulative
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent
Valid advertsm 1 6.3 6.3 6.3
health 11 68.8 68.8 75.0
none 1 6.3 6.3 81.3
safety 3 18.8 18.8 100.0
Total 16 100.0 100.0

Source to obtain information about organic food

Cumulative
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent
Valid Newspaper 8 50.0 50.0 50.0
Magazine 4 25.0 25.0 75.0
Television 1 6.3 6.3 81.3
Internet 2 12.5 12.5 93.8
Supermarket's
product 1 6.3 6.3 100.0
information
Total 16 100.0 100.0

Organic eggs

Cumulative
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent
Valid frequent 6 37.5 37.5 37.5
sometimes 7 43.8 43.8 81.3
never 2 12.5 12.5 93.8
no response 1 6.3 6.3 100.0
Total 16 100.0 100.0

71
 Organic vegetables

Cumulative
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent
Valid frequent 11 68.8 68.8 68.8
sometimes 5 31.3 31.3 100.0
Total 16 100.0 100.0

Organic butter

Cumulative
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent
Valid frequent 1 6.3 6.3 6.3
sometimes 9 56.3 56.3 62.5
never 5 31.3 31.3 93.8
no response 1 6.3 6.3 100.0
Total 16 100.0 100.0

Organic brown rice

Cumulative
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent
Valid frequent 2 12.5 12.5 12.5
sometimes 11 68.8 68.8 81.3
never 3 18.8 18.8 100.0
Total 16 100.0 100.0

Organic white rice

Cumulative
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent
Valid frequent 9 56.3 56.3 56.3
sometimes 6 37.5 37.5 93.8
never 1 6.3 6.3 100.0
Total 16 100.0 100.0

Organic tofu

Cumulative
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent
Valid frequent 4 25.0 25.0 25.0
sometimes 9 56.3 56.3 81.3
never 3 18.8 18.8 100.0
Total 16 100.0 100.0

Organic corn

Cumulative
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent
Valid frequent 3 18.8 18.8 18.8
sometimes 10 62.5 62.5 81.3
never 3 18.8 18.8 100.0
Total 16 100.0 100.0

72
 Organic wheat

Cumulative
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent
Valid frequent 1 6.3 6.3 6.3
sometimes 6 37.5 37.5 43.8
never 8 50.0 50.0 93.8
no
1 6.3 6.3 100.0
response
Total 16 100.0 100.0

Place where organic food products are usually purchased

Cumulative
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent
Valid Supermarket 14 87.5 87.5 87.5
Local shops 2 12.5 12.5 100.0
Total 16 100.0 100.0

Length of period consuming organic food

Cumulative
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent
Valid 1 week 1 5.0 5.0 5.0
2 weeks 1 5.0 5.0 10.0
3 months 1 5.0 5.0 25.0
6 months 1 5.0 5.0 55.0
2 years 1 5.0 5.0 15.0
3 years 1 5.0 5.0 30.0
4 years 2 10.0 10.0 40.0
5 years 2 10.0 10.0 50.0
20 years 1 5.0 5.0 20.0
norespon 9 45.0 45.0 100.0
Total 20 100.0 100.0

Organic food is more expensive than regular food

Cumulative
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent
Valid Strongly
1 6.7 6.7 6.7
disagree
disagree 1 6.7 6.7 13.3
Agree 3 20.0 20.0 33.3
Rather agree 8 53.3 53.3 86.7
Strongly
2 13.3 13.3 100.0
agree
Total 15 100.0 100.0

73
 Organic food items needed by the consumers are not available in the supermarket

Cumulative
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent
Valid Strongly
7 46.7 46.7 46.7
disagree
Rather
1 6.7 6.7 53.3
disagree
disagree 2 13.3 13.3 66.7
Agree 1 6.7 6.7 73.3
Rather agree 3 20.0 20.0 93.3
9.00 1 6.7 6.7 100.0
Total 15 100.0 100.0

Organic food is not available in restaurants/stalls

Cumulative
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent
Valid Strongly
2 13.3 13.3 13.3
disagree
Rather
1 6.7 6.7 20.0
disagree
disagree 5 33.3 33.3 53.3
Rather agree 2 13.3 13.3 66.7
Strongly
5 33.3 33.3 100.0
agree
Total 15 100.0 100.0

The market where organic foods are purchased gives no information on organic food

Cumulative
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent
Valid Strongly
1 6.7 6.7 6.7
disagree
Rather
2 13.3 13.3 20.0
disagree
disagree 4 26.7 26.7 46.7
Agree 4 26.7 26.7 73.3
Rather agree 2 13.3 13.3 86.7
Strongly
2 13.3 13.3 100.0
agree
Total 15 100.0 100.0

Organic food is healthier than regular food

Cumulative
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent
Valid Agree 3 20.0 20.0 20.0
Rather
1 6.7 6.7 26.7
agree
Strongly
11 73.3 73.3 100.0
agree
Total 15 100.0 100.0

74
 Organic food does not stay fresh as long as regular food

Cumulative
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent
Valid Strongly
1 6.7 6.7 6.7
disagree
Rather
6 40.0 40.0 46.7
disagree
disagree 2 13.3 13.3 60.0
Agree 2 13.3 13.3 73.3
Rather agree 3 20.0 20.0 93.3
9.00 1 6.7 6.7 100.0
Total 15 100.0 100.0

The bird-flu outbreaks have increased respondents’ interest in organic food

Cumulative
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent
Valid Strongly
2 13.3 13.3 13.3
disagree
Rather
1 6.7 6.7 20.0
disagree
disagree 3 20.0 20.0 40.0
Agree 4 26.7 26.7 66.7
Rather agree 1 6.7 6.7 73.3
Strongly
4 26.7 26.7 100.0
agree
Total 15 100.0 100.0

There is very little information on organic food in the newspapers

Cumulative
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent
Valid Rather
1 6.7 6.7 6.7
disagree
disagree 3 20.0 20.0 26.7
Agree 2 13.3 13.3 40.0
Rather
8 53.3 53.3 93.3
agree
Strongly
1 6.7 6.7 100.0
agree
Total 15 100.0 100.0

There is very little information on organic food in the newspapers

Cumulative
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent
Valid Rather
1 6.7 6.7 6.7
disagree
disagree 3 20.0 20.0 26.7
Agree 2 13.3 13.3 40.0
Rather
8 53.3 53.3 93.3
agree
Strongly
1 6.7 6.7 100.0
agree
Total 15 100.0 100.0

75
 If organic food would cost the same as regular food,
respondents would consume more organic food

Cumulative
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent
Valid disagree 2 13.3 13.3 13.3
Agree 1 6.7 6.7 20.0
Rather
4 26.7 26.7 46.7
agree
Strongly
6 40.0 40.0 86.7
agree
9.00 2 13.3 13.3 100.0
Total 15 100.0 100.0

Consideration of organic food consumption by non-organic consumers

Cumulative
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent
Valid Yes 37 84.1 84.1 84.1
No 1 2.3 2.3 86.4
Don't
6 13.6 13.6 100.0
know
Total 44 100.0 100.0

Organic eggs

Cumulative
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent
Valid likely 2 4.5 4.5 4.5
quite likely 12 27.3 27.3 31.8
most likely 28 63.6 63.6 95.5
No
2 4.5 4.5 100.0
response
Total 44 100.0 100.0

Organic vegetables

Cumulative
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent
Valid likely 1 2.3 2.3 2.3
quite likely 9 20.5 20.5 22.7
most likely 32 72.7 72.7 95.5
No
2 4.5 4.5 100.0
response
Total 44 100.0 100.0

Organic butter

Cumulative
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent
Valid Least
3 6.8 6.8 6.8
likely
quite
6 13.6 13.6 20.5
unlikely
unlikely 9 20.5 20.5 40.9
likely 11 25.0 25.0 65.9

76
 quite likely 5 11.4 11.4 77.3
most likely 8 18.2 18.2 95.5
No
2 4.5 4.5 100.0
response
Total 44 100.0 100.0

Organic brown rice

Cumulative
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent
Valid quite unlikely 4 9.1 9.1 9.1
unlikely 5 11.4 11.4 20.5
likely 10 22.7 22.7 43.2
quite likely 7 15.9 15.9 59.1
most likely 16 36.4 36.4 95.5
No response 2 4.5 4.5 100.0
Total 44 100.0 100.0
Organic white rice

Cumulative
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent
Valid Least
1 2.3 2.3 2.3
likely
likely 4 9.1 9.1 11.4
quite likely 11 25.0 25.0 36.4
most likely 26 59.1 59.1 95.5
No
2 4.5 4.5 100.0
response
Total 44 100.0 100.0

Organic tofu

Cumulative
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent
Valid quite
1 2.3 2.3 2.3
unlikely
unlikely 1 2.3 2.3 4.5
likely 8 18.2 18.2 22.7
quite likely 17 38.6 38.6 61.4
most likely 14 31.8 31.8 93.2
No
3 6.8 6.8 100.0
response
Total 44 100.0 100.0

Organic corn

Cumulative
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent
Valid Least
1 2.3 2.3 2.3
likely
quite
1 2.3 2.3 4.5
unlikely
unlikely 5 11.4 11.4 15.9
likely 4 9.1 9.1 25.0
quite likely 17 38.6 38.6 63.6
most likely 14 31.8 31.8 95.5

77
 No
2 4.5 4.5 100.0
response
Total 44 100.0 100.0

Organic wheat

Cumulative
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent
Valid Least
11 25.0 25.0 25.0
likely
quite
12 27.3 27.3 52.3
unlikely
unlikely 4 9.1 9.1 61.4
likely 6 13.6 13.6 75.0
quite likely 2 4.5 4.5 79.5
most likely 7 15.9 15.9 95.5
No
2 4.5 4.5 100.0
response
Total 44 100.0 100.0

78
Annex 5. Content Analysis on Newspapers
5.1.Thairath

Date/year ORGANIC FOOD Date/year NON-ORGANIC FOOD

Ads. Article&News Info of article and news Ads Article&News Info of article and news

03/08/03 none none 03/08/03 3 none

05/08/03 none none 05/08/03 3 1 Raw and ready to eat food

1 Safety measure for exported food
1 illegal pesticide contaminated in food

16/08/03 none none 16/08/03 3 1 Safety measure in exported food

20/08/03 none 1 Organic vegetable 20/08/03 2 1 Health food

31/08/03 none none 31/08/03 1 1 Safety measure in ready to eat food

04/09/03 none none 04/09/03 1 1 Safety measure for chicken

12/09/03 none none 12/09/03 none 1 Safety of fried food

15/09/03 none none 15/09/03 2 1 Government policy in food safety

24/09/03 none none 24/09/03 4 none

02/10/03 none none 02/10/03 none 1 Health food

07/10/03 none none 07/10/03 2 none

18/10/03 none none 18/10/03 none none

22/10/03 none none 22/10/03 1

01/11/03 none none 01/11/03 1 none

79
07/11/03 none none 07/11/03 none 1 Food colorings

11/11/03 none none 11/11/03 none 1 Safety measure for pork

26/11/03 none none 26/11/03 1 none

03/12/03 none none 03/12/03 none 1 GMOs rice

1 Chemical contamination in food
14/12/03 none none 14/12/03 none none

20/12/03 none none 20/12/03 none none

26/12/03 none none 26/12/03 2 1 Mad cow disease

1 GMOs
1 Herbal beverage

01/01/04 none none 01/01/04 none none

07/01/04 none none 07/01/04 none none

15/01/04 none none 15/01/04 none 1 Bird flu

1 Chemical contamination in food

24/01/04 none none 24/01/04 none 1 Bird flu

1 Bird flu
1 GMOs

01/02/04 none none 01/02/04 2 1 Bird flu

1 Bird flu
1 Food safety for fast food

02/02/04 none none 02/02/04 none 5 Bird flu

1 Health fruit

11/02/04 none none 11/02/04 1 none

80
17/02/04 none none 17/02/04 1 3 Bird flu
1 Bird flu vaccine

28/02/04 none none 28/02/04 1 1 Bird flu vaccine

1 Health food

03/03/04 none none 03/03/04 none 1 Food quality

12/03/04 none none 12/03/04 1 1 Health food

1 Food Safety
2 Bird Flu
1 Thailand to be kitchen of the world policy

19/03/04 none none 19/03/04 3 1 Bird Flu

1 Health Food
1 Fast Food

25/03/04 none none 25/03/04 1 none

31/03/04 none none 31/03/04 none none

06/04/04 none none 06/04/04 1 none

14/04/04 none none 14/04/04 none none

20/04/04 none none 20/04/04 1 1 Fruit

26/04/04 none none 26/04/04 none 1 Health Food

1 Rice

06/05/04 none none 06/05/04 2 none

14/05/04 none none 14/05/04 2 1 Food fair

81
18/05/04 none none 18/05/04 1 1 Food Safety
1 Fruit

27/05/04 none none 27/05/04 4 none

31/05/04 none none 31/05/04 1 1 Bird Flu

07/06/04 none none 07/06/04 none none

17/06/04 none none 17/06/04 none none

26/06/04 none none 26/06/04 none none

30/06/04 none none 30/06/04 none none

10/07/04 none none 10/07/04 none none

17/07/04 none none 17/07/04 1 1 Bird Flu

22/07/04 none none 22/07/04 none none

82
5.2. Ban Muang

Date/year ORGANIC FOOD Date/year NON-ORGANIC FOOD

Ads. Article&News Info of article and news Ads Article&News Info of article and news
03/08/03 none none 03/08/03 none 1 New fruit variety

05/08/03 none none 05/08/03 none 1 Pasteurized milk

16/08/03 none 1 Organic spice 16/08/03 none none

20/08/03 none none 20/08/03 none none

31/08/03 none none 31/08/03 none 1 Milk

04/09/03 none none 04/09/03 none none

12/09/03 none 1 Organic vegetable 12/09/03 1 none

15/09/03 none none 15/09/03 none none

24/09/03 none none 24/09/03 none 1 Food safety

02/10/03 none none 02/10/03 none 1 Health food

07/10/03 none 1 Organic vegetable 07/10/03 1 none

18/10/03 none none 18/10/03 none none

22/10/03 none none 22/10/03 none none

01/11/03 none 1 Organic vegetable 01/11/03 none none

07/11/03 none none 07/11/03 none none

11/11/03 none none 11/11/03 1 1 Food safety

83
26/11/03 none none 26/11/03 1 1 Instanced food

03/12/03 none none 03/12/03 none none

14/12/03 none none 14/12/03 1 none

20/12/03 none none 20/12/03 none 1 Rice

26/12/03 none none 26/12/03

01/01/04 none none 01/01/04 1 none

07/01/04 none none 07/01/04 none none

15/01/04 none none 15/01/04 1 none

24/01/04 none 1 Organic farm 24/01/04 4 3 Bird flu

01/02/04 none none 01/02/04 4 2 Bird flu

02/02/04 none none 02/02/04 none 1 Bird flu

11/02/04 none none 11/02/04 none 1 Bird flu

17/02/04 none none 17/02/04 1 1 Bird flu

1 Food poisoning

28/02/04 none none 28/02/04 1 1 healthy drink

03/03/04 none none 03/03/04 1 1 Beverage

12/03/04 none none 12/03/04 5 none

19/03/04 none none 19/03/04 4 none

25/03/04 none none 25/03/04 3 none

84
31/03/04 none none 31/03/04 1 1 Hybrid rice

06/04/04 none none 06/04/04 3 none

14/04/04 none none 14/04/04 3 none

20/04/04 none none 20/04/04 3 none

26/04/04 none none 26/04/04 1 1 GMOs

06/05/04 none none 06/05/04 5 none

14/05/04 none none 14/05/04 3 none

18/05/04 none none 18/05/04 3 none

27/05/04 none none 27/05/04 3 1 Bird flu

31/05/04 none none 31/05/04 2 none

07/06/04 none none 07/06/04 none 1 Rice Research

1 High fat food

17/06/04 none none 17/06/04 2 none

26/06/04 none none 26/06/04 3 1 New plant food

30/06/04 none none 30/06/04 1 none

10/07/04 none none 10/07/04 3 none

17/07/04 none none 17/07/04 3 1 Bird Flu

1 Healthy snack

22/07/04 none none 22/07/04 3 none

85
5.3. Bangkok Bussiness

Date/year ORGANIC FOOD Date/year NON-ORGANIC FOOD

Ads. Article&News Article and news Ads Article&News Article and news
03/08/03 none none 03/08/03 none none

05/08/03 none none 05/08/03 none none

16/08/03 none none 16/08/03 1 none

Food
20/08/03 none none 20/08/03 3 1 contamination

31/08/03 none none 31/08/03 2 none

04/09/03 none none 04/09/03 1 none

12/09/03 none 1 Organic farm 12/09/03 3 1 Health food

15/09/03 none none 15/09/03 3 1 Food safety policy

24/09/03 none none 24/09/03 1 1 GMOs

02/10/03 none none 02/10/03 1 1 Food standard

1 Food safety

07/10/03 none none 07/10/03 1 1 Health food

18/10/03 none 1 Organic vegetable 18/10/03 1 none

22/10/03 none none 22/10/03 1 none

01/11/03 none none 01/11/03 3 none

07/11/03 none 1 Organic farm 07/11/03 4 1 GMOs

86
11/11/03 none none 11/11/03 3 none

17/11/03 none none 17/11/03 4 1 GMOs

26/11/03 none none 26/11/03 4 none

03/12/03 none none 03/12/03 2 1 GMO rice

14/12/03 none none 14/12/03 none none

20/12/03 none none 20/12/03 1 none

26/12/03 none none 26/12/03 4 1 Health food

1 Mad cow
1 Bird flu

01/01/04 none none 01/01/04 1 1 Mad cow

1 Hybrid rice

07/01/04 none none 07/01/04 5 1 GMOs

1 Food additive
1 Food poisoning

15/01/04 none none 15/01/04 1 1 Bird flu

24/01/04 none none 24/01/04 none 5 Bird flu

1 GMOs

01/02/04 none none 01/02/04 none 5 Bird flu

02/02/04 none none 02/02/04 3 4 Bird flu

2 GMOs
1 Health food

11/02/04 none none 11/02/04 1 5 Bird flu

87
17/02/04 none none 17/02/04 2 1 Bird flu

28/02/04 none none 28/02/04 1 1 Bird flu

03/03/04 none none 03/03/04 2 2 Bird flu

12/03/04 none none 12/03/04 1 none

19/03/04 none none 19/03/04 3 1 Bird flu

25/03/04 none none 25/03/04 4 1 Fast food

31/03/04 none none 31/03/04 1 1 Fast food

06/04/04 none none 06/04/04 1 none

14/04/04 none none 14/04/04 1 none

20/04/04 none none 20/04/04 2 none

26/04/04 none none 26/04/04 1 1 Bird flu

1 Fruit
1 Energy drink

Food
06/05/04 none none 06/05/04 4 1 Contamination
1 Food Safety
1 Fruit juice

14/05/04 none none 14/05/04 2 1 Food Safety

Dried fruit for

18/05/04 none none 18/05/04 2 1 export
1 Food Safety

27/05/04 none none 27/05/04 4 2 Bird flu

88
 1 Green tea

31/05/04 none none 31/05/04 2 1 Beverage

07/06/04 none none 07/06/04 5 none

17/06/04 none none 17/06/04 4 1 Canned food

1 GMO

26/06/04 none none 26/06/04 none none

30/06/04 none none 30/06/04 3 none

10/07/04 none none 10/07/04 3 2 Bird Flu

1 Rice

17/07/04 none none 17/07/04 4 2 Bird Flu

1 Snack

22/07/04 none none 22/07/04 3 1 Bird Flu

89
5.4. The Nation

Date/year ORGANIC FOOD Date/year NON-ORGANIC FOOD

Ads. Article&News Articles and news Ads Articles&News Info of article and news
03/08/03 none none 03/08/03 1 1 Food Safety

05/08/03 none none 05/08/03 none none

16/08/03 none none 16/08/03 3 none

20/08/03 none none 20/08/03 1 1 Beer

31/08/03 none none 31/08/03 4 1 GMO

04/09/03 none none 04/09/03 3 1 Soft drink

1 Fast Food

12/09/03 none none 12/09/03 7 none

15/09/03 none none 15/09/03 4 1 Sugar

24/09/03 none none 24/09/03 4 1 Food Safety policy

02/10/03 none none 02/10/03 7 1 Herb

1 Risk of consuming cereal

07/10/03 none none 07/10/03 5 2 Beer

18/10/03 none none 18/10/03 1 1 Beer

22/10/03 none 1 Organic Food concern in Thailand 22/10/03 1 1 GMO

1 Sugar

90
01/11/03 none none 01/11/03 3 1 Coffee

07/11/03 none none 07/11/03 4 1 Food poisoning

1 Exported food
1 Pork quality

11/11/03 none none 11/11/03 5 none

17/11/03 none none 17/11/03 5 1 Coffee

26/11/03 none none 26/11/03 7 1 Beer

Pesticide contamination in
1 vegetable
1 Thai food

03/12/03 none none 03/12/03 2 none

14/12/03 none none 14/12/03 2 none

20/12/03 none none 20/12/03 1 1 Food poisoning

Chemical contamination in sea
1 food

26/12/03 none none 26/12/03 none 1 Food life cycle

1 Food poisoning
1 Mad cow
1 Fast food

01/01/04 none none 01/01/04 2 1 Food seasoning

1 Hybrid rice
1 Healthy food

91
07/01/04 none none 07/01/04 2 1 GMOs
1 Bird flu
1 Mad cow
1 Shrimp

15/01/04 none none 15/01/04 none 1 Bird flu

1 Fast Food
1 Food contamination
1 Ice cream

24/01/04 none none 24/01/04 1 9 Bird flu

01/02/04 none none 01/02/04 2 7 Bird flu

1 Food contamination
1 Healthy Food

02/02/04 none none 02/02/04 4 4 Bird flu

1 Health food

11/02/04 none none 11/02/04 2 8 Bird flu

1 Food retailing
1 Beverage

17/02/04 none none 17/02/04 2 4 Bird flu

28/02/04 none none 28/02/04 4 1 Bird flu

1 Healthy beverage
1 Food contamination

03/03/04 none none 03/03/04 5 1 Green tea

12/03/04 none none 12/03/04 none 2 Bird flu

92
 1 Snack food

19/03/04 none none 19/03/04 1 1 Bad effect of fizzy drink

25/03/04 none none 25/03/04 3 1 Bad effect of alcoholic beverage

31/03/04 none none 31/03/04 1 1 New benefit from milk

1 Prevention of food poisoning
1 Beer

06/04/04 none none 06/04/04 2 1 Ice cream

14/04/04 none none 14/04/04 none 1 Bad effect of fizzy drink

20/04/04 none none 20/04/04 none none

26/04/04 none none 26/04/04 3 none

06/05/04 none none 06/05/04 2 none

14/05/04 none none 14/05/04 3 none

18/05/04 none none 18/05/04 1 1 Rice

1 Food supplements
1 Healthy food

27/05/04 none none 27/05/04 2 1 Bird flu

1 Energy drink
1 Food exhibition

31/05/04 none none 31/05/04 2 none

93
07/06/04 none none 07/06/04 1 none

17/06/04 none none 17/06/04 1 1 Canned food

26/06/04 none none 26/06/04 1 none

30/06/04 none none 30/06/04 1 1 Food poisoning

1 Coffee
1 Wine
1 Chocolate

10/07/04 none none 10/07/04 3 1 Herb for supplement food

17/07/04 none none 17/07/04 3 2 Bird Flu

22/07/04 none none 22/07/04 2 2 Bird Flu

94
5.4. Bangkok Post

Date/year ORGANIC FOOD Date/year NONE ORGANIC FOOD

Ads. Article&News Articles and news Ads Articles&News Info of article and news
03/08/03 none none 03/08/03 29 none

05/08/03 none none 05/08/03 28 1 biology farm

16/08/03 none none 16/08/03 22 3 sugar, fast food and cuisine

20/08/03 none none 20/08/03 26 none

31/08/03 none none 31/08/03 23 none

04/09/03 none none 04/09/03 26 none

12/09/03 none none 12/09/03 78 4 fast food and soft drink

15/09/03 none none 15/09/03 25 1 food safety policy

FAO/WHO
24/09/03 none none 24/09/03 25 1 Global Forum of Food Safety Regulators

02/10/03 none none 02/10/03 26 none

07/10/03 none none 07/10/03 27 none

18/10/03 none none 18/10/03 28 4 Beer, cuisine, cofee, soft drink

22/10/03 none none 22/10/03 24 1 beer

01/11/03 none none 01/11/03 31 3 low fat, cuisine, exported food

95
07/11/03 none none 07/11/03 40 none

11/11/03 none none 11/11/03 26 2 cofee, thai food

17/11/03 none none 17/11/03 26 7 food poisoning, exported food

Pork quality, low fat, dairy milk
26/11/03 none none 26/11/03 24 1 Beer

03/12/03 none none 03/12/03 33 1 food safety

14/12/03 none none 14/12/03 28 3

20/12/03 none none 20/12/03 32 2 Food poisoning

traditional market
26/12/03 none none 26/12/03 29 4 Food life cycle, food poisoning
Mad cow, sea food contamination
01/01/04 none none 01/01/04 23 none

07/01/04 none none 07/01/04 none 1 shrimp export

15/01/04 none none 15/01/04 3 8 Bird flu, poultry, food safety

24/01/04 none none 24/01/04 24 9 Bird flu, food contamination

01/02/04 none none 01/02/04 22 3 fast food, bird flu opinions, rice.

02/02/04 none none 02/02/04 22 1 Bird flu statement from WHO

11/02/04 none none 11/02/04 21 4 Bird flu, beverage

17/02/04 none none 17/02/04 18 4 Rejection of GMOs

96
28/02/04 none none 28/02/04 27 1 Anxieties of consuming food.

03/03/04 none none 03/03/04 25 1 potatoes

12/03/04 none none 12/03/04 51 2 Bird flu, fast food

19/03/04 none none 19/03/04 35 4 bird flu, f safety, healthy pills

25/03/04 none none 25/03/04 24 3 Health food, bird flu, GMO rice

31/03/04 none none 31/03/04 15 3 Bird flu aftermath, children’s diet

06/04/04 none none 06/04/04 22 1 Ice cream

14/04/04 none none 14/04/04 15 1 Bad effect of fizzy drink

20/04/04 none none 20/04/04 21 none

26/04/04 none none 26/04/04 23 none

06/05/04 none none 06/05/04 21 none

14/05/04 none none 14/05/04 88 none

18/05/04 none none 18/05/04 19 1 sustainable agriculture

27/05/04 none none 27/05/04 15 none

31/05/04 none none 31/05/04 20 1 health food

07/06/04 none none 07/06/04 25 none

97
17/06/04 none none 17/06/04 19 none

26/06/04 none none 26/06/04 25 none

30/06/04 none none 30/06/04 19 1 chocolate

10/07/04 none none 10/07/04 16 1 bird flu

17/07/04 none none 17/07/04 21 1 Bird Flu

22/07/04 none none 22/07/04 19 none

98
Annex 6. Pictures of the Markets and Presentation of Food Produce

Villa Market Shelves of fruits and vegetables

inside the supermarket

Big C Shelves of fruits and vegetables

inside the superstore chain

Sri-Sa-Wad traditional market Presentation of fruits and vegetables

99