Chapier

PRIHCIPLES OF HEAT
TRAIISFER

1.1 INTROOUCTION
Whenever a temperatr
r.anrr..r.a-rroln't'J:::-1lff:rence exists in the universe. energ/ will
remperarure.A.'.".o;'r.lJ.,?:H"ffi

bc

:.*f

::,:::,':.,[:::-""".U,Jffi
rr*fl.r*..ffi.;:.
is cared rear. Arthoueh

transferred as a resurt
tire laws of rhermodvnamia
"r " aeat
sysreins rhar are in equitibrium.

;,h;;;nsfer,

they

only tre_et
n.;;;;:.1r1.., u. used can
amounr of ener_*y required
to predict rhe
,o
one cquilibrium
to.anorher' but rhey cannor
"1.uis,.;;r;#;;".
predic,i"*
i* ii.* changes wi'occur. stare.
scrcnce of heat rransfer
The,
rupjr.rn.no ,h.;;,';il second
laws of crassical
thermodynamics by providinc
;;il;;l;;il.,
-- -- v' *'.ry
rhar can be used ro
predrct.rates

ro

of energy

transfei.

tltustrate the difft

1'."11iy'-".il;;:T::i:::,[j]::Hii"1, ji:,","i:,T;,i:1ff :
;:ff':'l#triiff'l#::-lt" *"*' ri#'or"?mic ta*s can be used rJ'
equiribrium.;;il;'i,,11;:?.J$**H..il,n'"AHT'*j

|;il::i:r;I,.*:; o"t ,n* "i,l*i."i',T*r",rhc tarc or hcat

r *iii t;; #;ilT::i;:;,H#,f.:f
n;ruI:fi f;
on the orher hand'
ro ne. i

can predict

,r'r.."i"Ji'i.",?in.t,

from rhe warer ro

f,

2 hnerls

or Heer Trlr.rsrm,

thc stccl r'rd and from rhis informadoa

cc caa rhcn carcurate lhc tcmpcrarh; rcd as wcll as ttc
wrrcr.s

r.lnpcn;;il

r function of
For a comprctc heat-''ansfcr. anarysis
it is ncccssary to dcat with thrcc
differenr mcchanisms: conduction,
;ilfi;d
radiatisn The design
and

H:."

analysis

of

hcar-cxchaage and

;r;;;;;on

sysrens requires
as wclr as their
In this.chapter we will consider rti UaSc principles
lll.T"Uorl
of heat
transfcr
and. somc simple applicarions
In *Ldu.ot cbapten each heat_
transfcr

familiarity with cach of

these-mech^ri;;;;;transfcr,

modc will bc trcared in dcrail

1.2 CONDUCTION HEAT TRANSFER

conduction is thc only hear-rransfer
mode in opaque soiid media- when
a
tempe*rurc.eradienr exisrs in such
a body. h; *i' U.

the highcr- to the lower-temperarure

roa Trrc iate dt rhich hcat is
transfcrred by conducrion, q1, is proponi;Ja
dr. renpcranrrc gradicnl
dT/ d", times the area rhrougi *hi"lrhe"t

"r*f.,,Jld

;,

**i*.C,f

fFig t-l(a), or

u^*4

{r-r)

*'here

_ tem;rcraturc

x = direcdon of rrrarrcrr,

The actual rare

physical

ol heat flow depcnds on rbc thcrmal conductivity,

/r,
;Gdon caa therefore
.propeny of the mediu;.

quan dtativel-v expressed

as

'n.
.dT
q^: -ME

(t-2)

Dircction ot hcst tlos.

I
I

re+l
Fqg11c

l-t {r) S*ctch illustrar;lg

be

sign oo,avcltba for oonducrbl

hcar flow.

.. ,.r.:

colquctrol l{err Te'rrartr

:t-i..

t"*
The minus sip is a consequcnce of thc sc^con-d.
of lower tcrnpcraTlt:'
direction
the
in
which requires that hcat -tt no'"
b.c ncgative if thc tempcraturc
l-l(b)'
Fig
in
as
sho*n
n" tt"aL;i,
-wiil
or *. rr vye designate that hcat transferred
decrcascs wirb increasing
must
""r"L
dircction*is to bc a poitiui-quanrity' the negativcsign
of tlttttsdynamic$

ilTlfiri,i".

be inscned in thc right-hand side

of Eq' l-2'

dT

7?

*:=JJ#

-niqetiaa-of

hcat condrnicn'

scrves o ac!11y
Eqg:rion 1-lisfo!rt?r''t !at' of t*at cfu*tiott'and
thc tcmellurc
melers'
sguarc
in
aiea
is
the
ft.
lf
rt.rirat co"a,rctivity
'n
in natts t harrk
transfer
degrees Kelvia' irr' *t'*"oiJ't't-ttt "f-!-"it

"
units of wattstrermcter
Per degrcc Kclvin

(w/n'{)'

Plane Wall

through

the case-of heat transfer

A simple illustration of Fourier's law is
zurfaces of thc wall are at
both
when
ri,.*" i" Fis:l-i'
. ;i;;[
,rill
flow only in one dire.;doru
-the
unifornr, bur different, ,.rlip.r","r.r iear
conductivity is unifonrL
thermal
perpendicular to trre *arr s,iriiJ-s.-if

integration of Eq. l-2 gives

o,:-fG,-r,)=
where

'
I

L:thickness of

wall

temperature et left surface (x:0)

(x: t)
fl=:cmPeraturc at right surface

Friiiricr sas

(r-3)

$e:

'

Tr:

Frerch methcrnatiqlan ( l ?6E- r

rnilytic rcatmqrt o( conduci'on (sce Rcf' l)'
.

le,-r)

g30) wiro madc

importert conrribudoas

rotib

;_::

nnr<ri.er or b.

_..ooa

.r=0

Iigurt f-2 Conrt,'.1isr rrrrougi'e

planc rralt

=,;rr.

*;

rhcrmal coaducrivity.

A g.lass window a srorefronr

,.,?ypt.]-_l-' --i.-]'-;'1t",
&lckness of I crn- T1e rhcmol in

on

a c.o)d

h an area
nas

of

12 m2

and

ffi ,il/;."rJ
;:ffru:?.",*H:i5.**;
'.ft'
gass
dre insidc
is'272

(3-9. *Dctcrminc (a) rhci

";;;;ii:"{
:,-r.r:-,1,
mici*,ayu.*..no1","-1*-5*hlr"11).,ilr.6'.-;;:".t3#

I-''c)'

surracc
-and
icar-u_ausfcr
rale t116'sh ,h. ;::

i,

Solution
a-

Thc hcar-rransfcr ratc througfi

thc aiass is

o.b.

kA(r'-Tr)

o";;i".

=3840w

Thc rcmpcrarurc of thr

(r at Ly' 2) is274 I( which is the

mcan
r"-:3:1"ne
-*
bccausc thc rcmperature
'rruPCrslut6
profile is line-^
in rhc glass.
of rhc rwo surfa*

JH#ffiff:*"

o'o

k(r)* rst+

whcrc

lo:
d

I.

is nor uniforrr our vades

"*-1-conductiviqr
"o,ijo ;;;'Hoff";: :m*l;:nnffiHlffi
BT)

r-4)

valuc of conducriviU
at rcfcrencc tcmpcfalure

* cmpirically d3lgmircd

constan r

*#.Egffi

!$FEr 5
cio"'ucnoN HE^TTI
cases

in ChaPtcr Lin "'"1

more dctail
As shown in
givcs
n,

$\tr,-

or
u\cre k-

r) + +(r

Eq' f-2
intcgration of
(r-5)

r'1]
"_

(t-5)

.r,=bl{rr-T)
is dre

plane Walts tn

'"lue

tempraturc
of k at rhc nlu""'"

scd

(TiT)/7'

)od thermal conlacq-as

nmff***gg$**m
n-\Y)'tt'- t;l
i.mt*'*
*

=(f ),t', -",=t?)

!'-

intermediate tempcratures
Etiminating the

I'

(1-7)

the ratc of
and T' in Eq' l-?'

. q,

';fr$J#"iil'
(*)" (*), (*).

,.""n**H*l?;tl':ffi';rbrough
J-l

.hnrcrr.es or

HrlrTr^ilscn

hcat llow caa bc rnittca in thc iorm

't

Tr-?,
(L/IcAra+{Lltat)r+(L/kt)6

(l-8)

For a iaultilaycrcd slab of IV layas io pcrfcct thcrmat contact, thc ratc

of beat flow is

,r-:,-r'*'
n,:TfI+=
(L/ktr), ,{
,-l

(l -e)

e/*),

where T, is the surfacc tcmpcratur of layer

temperature of laycr N.

I and 7rr*,

is tbc

surfacc

Example.l-l A furnacc wall (sec Fig- l-a) consists of a l.2-cm-thick

stainlcss stcel inner laycr covcrcd by a lcrn-thick outcr laycr of asbcstos
board insularion. Thc tcmpcratnrc of the insidc surface ef &g slainless
steel is 800 K and the outsidc surfacc.of the asbestos is 350 K. Determfurc
thc hcat-transfci i?tc through tb furnacc wall per lnit arca and the
ternperature of the interfacc bctqrcea lhe stainlcss stecl a:rd the asbestos

Thc thcrnral conducrivitics for tlrc steel and thc asbestos arc, respectively:

&r-19W/m'K
kz-OJ W/m'K

fr-350N

ft 'tOO X

T1
@

T'
Lr

ffi
Iigtu
.',

:.

::

l-l

-q
Furnacc

T2

L2

i;;
*all for cpnf.lc l-2

CoNDUcrroNHeltTielarer, 7
Solution: Thc hcat-uansfer.rate is

Tt-Tz

^ - Lt/k/+12/kl
Yt
The heat-transfcr rate per unit arca is

: =,T'-T-'
r. - =0-012/19+0.05/0.7
='=8,9-3=1,= = =6245 wlmz
k* Lzllk2
A Lt/

o!

The interface lempcrarurg ?,, b determined from the equation

4*

A
Solving for

_ Tr-

T,

Lt/ kl

gives

-,,

,.

-*(+) :'*-u'o'( lF

-7e6 K

The lempcrature drop across the stainlcss steei is thcreforc only about4tK;
the temperature drop across the asbestos is 446'K.

Eleclrlc

AnaloJj

lotConducllon

This is a convmient staning point to introduce a diflcrent vicwppinf

for

thc analysb of trcat transfer *hich can be appliett to morc corrplex

problenis and will be followed up in later chaptcrs. The new approach
makes usc of conccpts developed in electric-circuit theory and is oftcn
callcd thc analogt bmryeen the low ol heat and electricity.Il thc leat-transfer rate is considercd to be analogous to the flow of clectricitn the
combination L/kA is viewed as a resistance. and the tempcrature difference as analogous to a potential differcnce, Eq. l-2 can bc irnitten in a
form similar to Ohm's

/ar+

in elEctric-circuit theory:

AT
qr:T

(t-ro)

whcre

'

T=Tr-

rRr

The reciprocal

12, a thermal potential

= kA.
I rthermal resistance

of thc thermal resistance is

referred to as the therrnal

conductance, and k/ L, the thennal conductance per unit arear is called the
unit thermal conductance for conduction hcat flow. Similarln Eq. l-8 can
be extcnded to heat flow through thrre scctions in series, ns shonn in Fig

l-4. in the form

t:rt

AT
R.. + Rs + Rc.

(r-r r)

6r

whcrc

LT-Tt-Tt

^^-lhl;,
^,_(h\,

*:(#),

morc complex
can also be uscd to solvc
in matcrials
Thc clectric'analog approach
occurs
conductlon
tt"';;il;;s

oroblcms. For cxamplc'

il#;A, ;:'*:l i rully.X.:;:mf.m:',X !j!i:! I

a givcn
and 12 rtr Paral
this.lroblcm note that for
physical
fi;-';;;it
thc
of
right
rhe
of lhc compositc can bc
i*;'tilscuaycr
rcmperature dilrcttnce
for onc dimcn'
zrea

scParatcly' #id"d t;;.condiT1s,:cccssarv

^r,"irzcd
J""-t'it
,ior,.l .ondu'tion ri"ou]'
adjacenr matcnals
thc
between
,lr"r.-aifi"..ntc

* lt:::::t;':*il

;"","ffi

;t-";i. ,i,;,#I*g*::ililil1,':$',::"i'li

and thc Problcm maY

loss of accurrcY'

thtj::iT:als
dtltceo:
sun
lhc
is
I!o*
*tt

through
Sincc ireat can flow

*li-...f

t:t?tt:IT:";

along seParatc paths' the

4*- 4t* th

-ffi,.ffi-l{*d)rr'-r;
^''

l'--*--1

through r rrall with two

Rgvc f'5 Hcat colduction

(r'r2)

sections ia parallcl'

Coootrctror HerrTrer.rsen 9

^Lt
' li,tt
Figure

l-6

!t
R.=
' ko-.|o

n.=3'
4c..lc

Scries/parallet thermar circuir. rectangurar

coordinarcs.

observe that rhe totar heat'transfer

area is trrc sum of the two iodividual
6"-,
q
reciprocal
tfr"
ot"f ,.rirln-* equals rhe sum of the
T.T
{: the individual
recrprocals of all
"i ,.rirt
n".r--a, ,fro*r, in Fig l-5, the
thermal circuit for this problem

i,

tances. Rr and R..

A
...

more

application

" ;;;L';*"ngemenr of rwo resis-

of the therrial network . approach

ruustrated in"ompl.x
Fig. l-6, where heat is
strucrure involving thermal resistance

system rhc resistance

*;;;
ir.i.l*'*a
of the niddle,"y*, X;;;;t{,

is

through a composite

in paralrel. For this

becomes

RtRc
R.' Rr+-Rc

(l-13)

e-:*3snc

(l-r4)

and the ratq of heat flow is

Xn.
where

ly': number of tayers in scries

& - thermal resistance of nth layer
A ?"o*.,,

= tempcrature differcnce acrriss two outer surfaces

il

hnriinrs a llrrrfhArsrrr

Tbc prcoedia cirotit anab'sis assumes that thc hcat flor is one-dimcoarc sigdlicantly diffcrcot, n*,o-dirocosiond cffccts caa beeomc imporunr Such twodimcnsiooal conduaion
problcns sill bc discusscd in Cbaptcr 2

tiun{ If thc resistenccs R, and X.

Contacl Reslstancc
Whco diffcrcnt conducting surfaccs are placed i:o contacr as shown in
a thermal rcsistancc is oftcn prcscnt at the interfacc of the solids.
Tbc intcrfacc resistancc, frcquently izlled the contact rai.stance, is dcvclopcd whcn two materiah will oor fit rigbtly rogether and a thh layer of
nuid is trapped bcwecn rhem. Examinad6o of an cnlarged view of the
contact betveen thc two surfaces shows that lhc solids toucl only at pcaks

Fig la,

in thcsurfacg and that.tbc valleys in the mating surfaccs arc occupied by a

fluid, possibly air, a liquid or a vacuum.
The iatcrfacc resistance is primarily a function of surfacc roughness, the
prassu* holding tbe two surfaces in contacl, thc inrerfacc flui4 and the
intcrfacc temperaturc. At the interfacc. tle mechanism of heat transfcr is
-*-drx- 4eaducrionl*ce pl*e $*ea3h *-*oracr g**s of rirc eoli4
ttrih tcut is transferred Ly convection and radiation across thc rrapped
inrerlacc fluid.
If lhc hcat flux through rwo solid suilecee in contact

k q/A andthe

tcmperature differcncc across the fluid gap scpararing tlre trvo solids is
the intcrface rcsistancc R, is defined by

LT,
R,:fr

Af,,

(t-r5)

Ulhen two surfaces are said to be in perJect thermal contact, the intcrfacc
rcsistancc approaches zcro and therc is no tcmpemturc differcnce across
thc interfacc. For imperJect thermal conract. a tempcraturc differcncc
ocqrrs al thc intcrfacc.
Mct of thc problems at thc end of the chaprcr do not consider intcrface
rcsistaacc, orcn tbough it cxists whencvcr solids arc rincchanically joincd.
Rcgardlcss of this fact, we should always be aware of lhe existencc of lhe
inrcrfacc rcsisrancc and thc rcsuhing tempcraturc diffcrcnce across $e

inrerfacs Panicularly with rough surfaces and low bonding

pressurcs,

tbc tcmpcraturc drop across thc interface can bc significant and should not
bc ignorcdThe subjcct arca of intcrfacc resistancc is a compler oDci aDd no single
Soory or ea of empirial dara rccrrrarcly dcccribcsthc incrfacc rsictaae
for surfaccs of cngineedng importancc. .Rcfcrcnces 2 and 3 should bc
consultcd for a morc dctailed discussion of this subjcct

F=='--=.

,+_-.

.\

CoxouclroN

HertTnrrsrer'

ll

. Exemplc l-3- The wail of a house consists of a laycr of common brick

(1,:0.tOC 6. ft=0.?0 W/m'K) and a la-rcr of gyPsum plastcr (Io:0'038

rr''k:O.rt8 W/m.K). Compare $e rate of heat transfcr througb this wall

with anothcr which has bctween thc brick and Spsum an interfacc
resistance of 0.1

K/w.

Solutioo: Thc ntc of heat transfer through the idealized wall pcr squarc
meter area apd per dcgrec kelvin temperature difference is

-J!-=
A(Tt- Td

Lt/ ki

L2/ k2

0.

r@/0.70 + 0.038/0.48

:4.50 W/m2-K

The intcrfacr will add a third resistance in series. and thc rate of heat
transfer will be reduce4,to

:===]

,4r ,
A(Tt- To) Rr+ R.+ Rhi., 0.222+O-l
-:3.11w/m2'K
Thermal ConducllvltY

'I'lre thennat conductir;ity is a material property defined by Eq' l-2'

Ercept for qases at low temperatures it is not possible to predict this
property analytically. Available inJormation about the thermal conductivity of materials is therefore largely based on experimental measurcmcnts
In general the thermal conductivity of a material varics with temPeratrrfe,
but in many practical situations I constant value based on the average
temperaturc of the systcm will give salisfactory results Tablc l'l lists
Teble

l-l

Tbermal Conductirities of Sorc

Noioehllic
Mertnrer

Trcr.vrr Coxoucrrvrrr
et 300 K (W/ra'K)

Coppcr

386.

Aluminum

20l..

Carbon stccl
Glass
Plastics

Enginc

54.
0.?5

0.2-0.3

Water
Ethylcne glycol

oil

Met'l\

SoUds. Uquids. and Gascs

.0.6

0.25

0.t5

Freon (liquid)
Hydrogcn

0.07

Air

0.026

0.r8

12 hnergorHarTrnrset
qpicai valucs of thc tbcrrril condrrcrivitic fm lomc mcta\ noanctallic
solidt liquids, and gascs to illusrraa Oc ordcr of magnitudc to bc cxpcctcd
in practice. Addirional informatiol is prcscutcd in Appcadixcs E Gough

H.
Thc mcchaaism, of thcrmal conduction in gascs caa bc cxplaincd quaF
tativcly by thc Linaic rhcory. All molcctlcs in a g;as arc in random motion
and cxchrngc cnergr and momcntum wbcn thcy collidc with onc another.
Howcvcr, sincc higher temperatucs arc associated with motcculcs posscssing morc kinctic crcrgr, whcn a molcculc from a high-tempcrature rcgion
movcs into a region of loyer tempcf,aturg it transports kinetic energr oa a
molccular scale to the lowcrtemperaturc rcgion. Upon impact *iO
molcculc of lowcr kinetic encrgr, aD cnergt transfcr occun which is sccn"
as a transfcr of hcat from a macroscopic viewpoint The physical
mcchanics of conducrion in liquids is qualitarively similar, but sincc

Bcm

,50

.s0

t50 6J0
lopnrmtll

7t0

l-7 Veriation of tbcrmal coaductivity rirh

. EmPcflalut" for rrarious gascs ald liguids"

Figru!

L_.,

tJo

CoNDrrcnoN

HrerTnelrsrsn

13

molecules in liquids arc morc closcly spaced and thcir forcc ticlds play a
significant role in the cnergr rransfer during collision, rhe picturc is even
more complex dran in gascs.
fi$rc tt shows how the lbcrmal conductivity oI rcmc gascs varies with
tcmpcrature Thc thermal conductivity of gascs is almosiindepcndcnt of
pressure, excepr near thc critical point. According to a simplificd analysis
bascd on a kinctic exchange modcl the thcrmal conductiviry of gascs will
increasc as the squarc root of the abdutc tmperature.
Figure l-7 also shows rhc rhermal conductiviry of some liquids as a
function oI temperaturc. It can be scen that except for warer, thc thermat
conductivity of liguids dccrcascs wirh incrcasiag rempcraurcs, bur the

:s0

150

4J0

550

650

.!SO

850

TffiFErurc(l(l
Figurc

l-E

Variation of thcrmal conductivity wirh tempcraurc for somc mctals.

la

hnorr-cs gf

HEAT

Tr.rNsFEl

is rc small that in most practical situations the thcrmal conducthr

assumcd constant at some average tcmperature; tbere is ao
apprcchblc dcpcndcncc on prc$ruc in liquidsfigurc l-E shows thc thcrmal conductivitics of some metals and nonngrrllis solids In solids, thermal cncrgy is transporrcd by frce elccrons
and by.vibrations ia thc latdcc stnrcturi In gcncrat thc movcmcnt of frce
clet'ons is thc morc important modc, and since in good clccrrical conductors a largc number of frec elcctons move within rhe lanice structurc,
good clcctrical conductors are alrc good hcat conducton (c.g. coppcr,
silvo, ald aluminum). on the o&cr iand good,elcctricar insutarions'arc
abo good thcrmal insularor: (e.g; glass and plastics). Thc bcst rypcs of
thermal insulators, howevcr, rely for thcir insutating effcctivcness on
trapping e 3ns within a porous slrucrurc. In those matc;ah rhe transfcr of
hc11may occ'r by several modes: conduction through a fibrous or porous
solid strucnrrc; conduction and,,for convcction ttrrough air rrapped in thc
void spaccs; and radiation between portions of tlre solid srru.tut which is
,
cspecially important at high tempeiatures or in cvacuatd enclosurcr
Spccial tlpes of superinsularion marerials have been developcd for cryogcrfc appacatlons at verJ torv tcmpcrerures, donn to aboui 25 K. Thisc
kinds of supcrinsulators oonsist of scvcral raycrs of highty reflecdve marerials,-scparared by cvacuated spaccs lo minimizc conduirion and convecriorl
aad caa achievc effective conducriviries as lou,as 0.02 W/m.K. Morc.

$*g.

ity nay bc

complerc inJormation on superinsuladon is givcn in References 4 and 5.

T3

CONVESTION HEAT TMNSFER

\llhca a fluid comes in contact with a solid surface ar a diffcrent tempcra-

turc' lbc rcsulting

thermal-energr-exchange process is called conrxction

transler. This process is a common experience, but a derailed dcscrip
tion of thi mcchanism is complicatcd In this introductory scction *,. titt

hut

not ancnpt to cover analyical procedurcs, but rathcr conccntrate on

prcscatiag an overview of the mccbanism and pr.cscni thc basic cquarions
thar e' bc used to calculate thc rate of convection hcat transfcr in thou.
su\rstcms which are importatt parts of complerc headng and cooling
qlstcms
Thcre arc two kinds of convcction processes: natural or./ree comxctian
aad trccd com;ection. In the first tlpe rhe morivc force comes from
thc
dansity difference in rhe llui4 whictr results from irs contact with a surfacc
at .a differcnt rempcrNtwc and gi'es risc to boo!"afl forccs" Tpical
cramplcs of such frcc csnvcction arc rhc heat rransfcr bcqvecn oe vialt or
fbc roof of a housc on a calm day, rhc conrrccdon in a rnk in which a
hcating coil is immersed, or thc bcat transfer from thc surfacc of a solar
collector whcn there is ho,..ind blowing"
{
i

CoNrrEctroNHEAITn^NSFER

t5

Forced convection occurs when en outside motive forcc mov6 a fluid

past a surfacc at a higher or lower tcrnperature than thc fluid- Sincc the

Iluid velocity in forced convectiou is larger than in frec convcctiorl more

Thc pricc to be
paid for this increase in the rate of heat transfcr is thc work requircd to
move the fluid past the surface. But regardless of whether lhe coavcction is
free or forccd, th rate of heat transfer, q., can bc writtcn in the form of
N*tton's lat, ol cooling:
heat can bc transferred at a given temperature differerrce

q,;

E,A(T,-T|)

(I-16)

whcre
;1-

= unit thcrmal convective conductance, or

aver:rge

convection heat-transfer cocfficient, at fluid-tosolid interface. W/m:. K

rl

surface area in conract with

fldid,

m2

4 :surfacc temperature. K

|.-:

temperature of undisturbed
heat-transfer surface, K

fluid farauraytrom

Equation t-16 scrves only as a definition of 1.. The numerical valuc of li.
must be determined anal-vtically or experimentally. The SI units for lr. are
watts per square meter per degree Kelvin and Table l-2 lists some
.approximatc values of convection-heat-transfer coefficients, including boil-

ing and condensation, usually considered to be a part

of the area of

conveclion.

Table l-2 Appmxirnate Velues

of Coovection-HeacTraasfer Coefliciens
Co$vEcnoN Mooe euo

Fr-rro

$/mrK)

Free convection, air

5-25

Frcc convcction, water

Forccd convcction. air
Forccd convcction, wa(cr
Boiling watcr
Condensinq water vapor

20-100

tG200
50-10,000
3,000-t00"0@
5,000-t00.000

Example l-4. Water at 300 K flows over one sidc of a platc of t x2 m in

lf the convection-hcat-traasfcrcscff,icbnr is 200
W/ml-f" calculate thc nrc of hear transfrr'by conuection frorn dre ptare
to the watcr..

area, maintained at 400 K.

Solutipn: Using Eq. l-t6. the rate of heat transfer is

q.

- i ".'t (7, -

4.

200

xzx

(4oo

?cn)

ul'o,ooo

L--/

f6

hnrcu-es or Hr.rr Trensrtr,

Fhrid flog

?::T:'r
4.

l,-

I,

Iigute l-9 Vclocity and tcmpcrature disrributions

for forccd convcctioa ovcr r bcetcd plarcMerhods for calculating a hcat-transfcr cocfficient arc ukca up in
Chaptrs 4 and 5. Herc ure shall mctcly cxanine tlrc p'rocess and qualita'
rivcly rclatc tbc coavcction of hcat to thi flow of the fluid- Figurc l-9
shows a hcated flat platc coolcd by a srrcam of air flowing ovcr it Also

'rtmrar*crctttity'rnfi{tia?rnp.tfiuefistrflrrtioniftrt=fu$

poinr ro
notc is that tbc velocity, z(y). dccreases in rtrc dircctioa toward rlcsurfacc
as a rcsuh of viscous forccs. Sinct the vclqgity of rhe tluitl layer adjaccnt to
the n'all is zcro, thc hcat traasftr pct unit arcat betwecn lhc surface and
this Ruid laycr must bc by conduaioa alonc:

* - o: = - \#l

,-=E

(r'-

T.-)

(r-17)

Atbougb this viewpoint sugg6ts thar thc proccss can be viewed as

conduction, lhe temperature gradicnt at tbc surface' (?I/dy)lr-" is derermiacd by the ratc at which thc fluid farrher from thc wall can transpon
tlrc cncrgr into the mainsuearn- Thus thc tcmPcraturc gradicnt at thc wall
dcpcods on the flow nd4 s'ith highcr vdocitics ablc to produce largcr
tcmpcrrurc gradicnts and bight rares of lrcat transfcr. At rhe samc timg
hovcrrcr, the thcrmal conduaivity of thc fluid plap a role. For cxamplc,
tbc valuc of /9 for the watcr is an ordcr ol magrritudc larger tban that of
air; tbug as iho*n in Tablc l-1 lbc convection-hcat-traasfcr coefficient
for rratcr G largcr than thc cocfficicnr for air.
Tbc situation is guite similar in free convecdorl as shown in Fig l-10.
The principal difference is that in forccd convcction thc vclociry ap
proacbes the frec-strcam value impoccd \t an cxtcrnd forcc, rhcrcar ia
irce oavcction lhc vclocity at frrst incrcascs witl incrcasing distane frorn

.t! rhb r.xl r prioc npcrsig'. indicercs r qmtity pa uit lcagtb, r doublc primc is
qursiiry p.r urit rra, ud r u^ph Firc dgilics the quearity PGt urit volur

rbr

Cor.rrccnoxHrmTn*rsrrn

F-lgure

l-10

17

Vclocity aad tcmpcraturc disaibutioos

for frce @Evecu:on

ovcr a lreatcd platc inclincd oo *t"

p-i;

thc horizontal.

the plate because rhe action

of viscosity diminishes rather rapidry whire
the
densit_v difference dec

1";t;;,i;;il"il:::.:*T:i,itx?;,i"ilffi
H;J:H:I;"':;
thesurroundingfl uid;this"dussse;:4];;bi;re.rirrnainnrmand

apjroach zcro lar auzv frcm dr

,."r.d
ilc rempcrature fields in
frec and forced convicti"" ;;;-;i"J;:;"p"r,
"rrh;;: and in
bsth cases the
heat-transfer
mechanism at rhc

fluidr/solid;r*;

is couduction.
Thc.preceding discussion ioa;"ai",
trr"t--ttJ-"on"."tion-heat-transfer
coefficient will depend on thc
density,dr*i,y,'""i velociry of the fluid as
well as on its thermar nroperties
(thermar *io*,iu,y and specific
heat).
w''creas in forced .onu."rion
trt. i.ro.itrL *ily
on the svstem
by a pump or a fan and can
be directly spccifid

l"?;;;;;;H;:
'rpor.a
velocity will depend on the-tempcraturc
difference
the fluid, the coefficient of th.'-rd;;p;ri*; between the surface and
* fluid (it determines
change per unit
.*""i
and the force field,
:11.,*fit
wnrch rn systems located
".p.-i"[Iin
on curth
is simply ,f," gru"io,ional forcel
Also, convecrion hcat traosfer
oo U" irJ"rA fiti" ,t. framework of a
resisrance nerwork. Fr"c,
lh.*^1.
resistance in
-'
convection heat transfer is given
by

;;--i:iltiltr,""r"t

&-+
hoA

(t-18)

and this resistance at a surfac.e

to fluid interface can easity be incorporated
Into a network. For example,
the heat *rii* irr'o thc interior
'at through
of a room
a walr to atmosphcre oursia.
f'
in
Fig.
r-r l. The
rate of heat transfer.is gu.n
"i{-;"rrtr*t,
Ly

T,-r,
o=1-T.:
- RFT'l+&
'

't&

t-t

(r-le)

It

tinrcu.rs orHr,{tTrensa'

nr"
M

'r,-=l
'

hc-t{

F4ure

l-ll

n..!*..1

n..J' hrn.l

Tbcrmal nctwork for bcat rratsfcr through

r planc wall with convcction ovcr bolh rutfacca

shcre
|
n,' F,.,A

Rr-*
Rr:i
h..oA

F,xemple !.i A 0.1 rn-thick brick wall (/t-0.7 W/m'K) is cxPoscd m a

cold wind at 270 K through a convcction-heat-ransfer cocfficicnt of 40
W/m2-IC On thc otber side is calm air at 330 K with a frecconvection'

bcar-tassfcr coefficient of l0 W/m2'K. Calculatc thc ratc of bcar rransfer

pcr.unit arca (i-e. the hcat flux).
Solutioo: From Eq. t-19 thc thrcc rcsistanccs are

K/w

^,-*-"h=0.o25
n,=h: #=0.t43 K/w

\**:fth:oro,:</w
Tbus rbc bcar rrnsfcr rate pcr unit arca is
q

330-270

0.025+0.t43+0.10 -724W/m2

-:

Riou.norrIIeetTrAr.rsfER t9
.

i{-

RADIATION HEAT TRANSFER

Whereas conduction and convecdln heat transfcr can ouly takc placc
through a material mcdiunr, radiation can transport heat cnen tbrough a
perfect vacuum. In the radiatiae mde o! heat tmrcfer thc eacrgt is
transportcd in thc form of electromagnctic wavcs which tnvcl at thc spccd
of light-. Thcre are many different electromagnctic radiatioa phcaoocoa
(e.9. x rays), bur here we will consider only thermal radiation that
transports cnerSl as heat.
Thc quantity of energy leaving a surfacc as radiant hcat depca'ts rpoo
thc absolutc temperarure and the narurc of thc surfaie- A perfcct radiator,
or blackbd.v,' cmits radiant energy from is surface at a rate q. given by

(r-20)

q..= aATa

The ratc of heat flow by radiarion, a, will ti in r.atts if the sr.sface arcal
is in square meters (m:), rhe surface remperature f in K and rhe dimensio- ^ I 66s51rr,4-{,.4alld the S*{a'el&olr:.rleria torrom, * t&:a !r iB 6{
value of 5.6?x l0-r w/m:.Kr.
An inspcction of Eq. l-20 shows that any blact surface radiatcs i
ratc proportional to the fourth power of dre abcolute terapcrranra
thc ratc of cmission is independent of the conditions of the surroun<^
thc cvaluation of a net transfer of radiant lrcat requires a difference in .
surfacc tcmpcraturc of two or morc bodies bctween which thc cxchaage is

taking place.

If a blackbody radiares to an enclosure that completely

surrounds it, whose surface is also black (i.e., absorbs all the radiant enerry
incident upon it), the nct rate of radiant heat transfer is girrca by

q,:o4r(rl-Tral

(l-21)

wherc 11 is the tempcrature of thc blackbody in degrees Kclvin (K) atd T2

is thc surfacc ternpcrature of thc cnclosurc in degrccs Kchin (K).
Real bodics do nor mccr the specificatioas of an idcal"radiaror but cait
radiation at a lower ratc than do blackbodies. If tt cy cmit, at r, temperature equal to that of a blackbody, a consr"nt f.raction of blackbody
cmissioo a! cach wavelength, thcy are called gray bdies- A gray body
'cmits radiation at thc rate eoA.f . The.net rdtc of heat transfer from a gray
body at a tcmperature I, to a black sirrroundiag bodyat I, is

q,- oArcr(Trt- Tf!.

'A dctrilcd

discrssioa of

ttc nceniags of 6csc tcrnr

id p,acnted

{-nt
i! Clr.ilrt

6.

l1:

:lj'

:i

20 hnorrs cHr.rrTrlrsrn
wbcte

c1

cmission

ihc ..mitrancc of tf,: gray surfacc and is cqual to thc ratio of

rbc gray surfacc to the cmission from I pcrfec ndiator at

frm

thc sanc trycratura

Ex.ilrylc l-6. Calculatc tbe ratc of beat loss into spacc by radiation from
thc uppcr surfacc of a horizonral squarc flat platq 2x2 m in arca, at a
tcmpcraturc of 500 K with aa cmittancc of 0.6.
Solution: From Eq. l-20 thc ratc at which radiation is cmitted from a
blackbody at 500 K is .
c,

-5.6?x tO-rxn x1500)'

:14,180 W

Howevcr, since rhc ernittancc is 0.6 for the surfacc, lhe acrual heat loss will
bc 0.6 x 14,180*8508 W.
If ncithcr of two bodics is a pcrfet tad'iatort and if rhc rwo bodics
posscss a givcri geomctrical relarionship to cact other, lhc Dct hat transfcr
by radiation bctwcen thcm is givcn by

{.-4'{rq.q(jli'-4'J
wherc

$-1 ise :nodulus whjch rnd.ifics.tbc cquarioa

{=23)
for pcrfccr radiarors

to accotrnt for thc emittances and relative Sqomctries ol {he actual bodics.
In many cnginccring problcms, radiation is combincd with othcr modcs
of beat ransfer. Thc solution of such problems can oftcn bc simplificd by
using a thermal rcsistancc, rR. for radiation- The dcfinition of .R, is similar
to that of &e tbcrmal rcsisancc for convcction and conduction. I[ thc heat

tr:nsfcr by raciiation is writtcn

(t-24)

a'
^:Tt-Ti
R,
the resistancc, by comparison with Eq. l-23, is given by

Tr- Ti

&- ote rSr-r(ff - fr1)

Also a unit thcrmal conductancc can be dcfincd for radiation

.-

I
RJ,

a5r-r(rl-rr')
Tr-Ti

(r

r1],

-25)

by
(r-26)

whcrc I is any convenicnt refcrcncc tcmPcraturg whosc choice is oficn

didarcd by lbc convection cguation.

Exrmph l-?. Calculatc the radiation unit thcrrnal oonductancc for e

small spberical thermocouple junction locarcd in a large black pipe carrying air- Thc pipe temperaturc is 300 K tbc thermocouplc tcrnpcraturc is
500 K and thc i^nittancc of rhc thcrmocouplc surface is 03.

Cou{rmo Heet-TnHrsrrn lr{Eo{^M$,rs 2l

Solutioa: From Eqs. l-22 arrd l-26, ,rsumirt that thc refereacc tcmpcrature is thc pipc tcmpcraturc Q wc get

er (r._ ra\
F_
,r1,_2rr\.t '21
=d(r(rrr+ rr2)(rr+rS
= 5.67

x ro- t x oi(5od

+ rod;1tm1

:463 W/rn2-K
1.5 COMBIIIED HEAT.TRANSFER MECHANISMS

ln practice, heat is &ually transferred in steps through a number of

difrerent series-connecred scctions and heat transfer frequently occurs by
1qp6 ps6henisms ia garallcl. The trrnsfer of heat from the producs of
combustion in the chambcr of a rocker ms161 thlerrgh a thin u/all to a
lrralu:{goudpSjalarpa4{$ovcrlhc ourside of the wall will illustrate
suchaosc{Fig. t-12).
Producrs

of cornburtios conrain

gases, such

as CO, COr, and HrO,

ryhich cmit and absorb radiation. In the first section of this systcrg hcat is
therefore transferred. fiom thc hot gas to the inner surface of thc wall of
thc rocket motor by thc mcchanisms of convection and radiadon acting in
parallel. Thc total rare of heat flow 4 to the surface of thc wall some
Phvsiel Sl srem

Coolanr

r..n.

Thcrml Groir
Qc

+'la

-tt4

al.

I1

9t

Itgurc

l-f2

Hcat lraasfef in a rockct motor.

6)

22 hlrcrrrs q llrrr Trrxsrs,

-distane from thc aorzlc is

4- 4.*

4,

- it(rr-

Trl+ F"t(Tr- T",l

ol
o

-(F,,t + i4)(rrT -',r

rr)

. -T

wberc

Tr= tcmPeraturc of bot

0-27)

gas

L - temperature

al inner surfacc of e'all

xr=

f?:T:#L'fd

#.

resistancc

In the steady statg hcat is conducrcd through thc shcll, thc sccond scction
of rhc sysrcra, at thc sa.src ratc as lo thc surfacc and

e-4t-lQ,-r*\
.T' _T

: 'o = '*
rR2

(l-2S)

where

I-:surface

temPcraturc ar wall on coolant sidc

.Rr: thermal resistancc of sccond scction

Afrer passing through the wall, the heat llows through thc third scction of
thc sysrem by convection to thc ooolanL Thc ratc of hcat flow in the last

stcp is

q=

qr-irA(T*-'7")

=T.JT,
i,

(l-29)

wherc

o'Nt sbortd

tcmPcraturc of coolanl
thcrmal resistancc in

third scrrion of rysrcm

bc notcd that the symbol f] srands for conrycction-unir-surfacc

il gcncral but thc numcrical valtcs of thc convcction ccf-

conductancc

ficicnts in thc

irst and third

sccrions

of thc

systcm dcpcnd on many

Covatxto He^r-TrlNsrER MEfi^tq$.s Zt

factors and will in general be diffcrent- ,rlso, the arcas of thc thrcg
heat-flow sections arc not cqual- But sincc the wall is vcry thin" thc ctrangc
in thc heat-flow area is so small thar it can be neglected in this systcmIn practicg oftcn only the tempcratures of the hot gas atrd trc coolarrt
arb known. If intermediate tempratures are eliminated by algcbraic addition of Eqs. l-27,1-28, and l-29, the rate of heat flow is

Tr- T,
R,+ R2+

Rr

a?,_nr
Rr

(r-30)

+R2+ Rl

whcrc the thermal resistances of the three series-connected scctions r

heat-flow steps in thc system are defined in Egs- l-27, lA8, and l-29.;
In Eq. l-30 the ratc of heat llow is expressed only in terms of an overall
temprature potential and the heat-transfer'characteristics of individual
sections in the heat-flow path. From these relations it is possible to
evaluatc quantitativelyJhe importance of each individual rhcrmal resistance in the path- An inspection of the order of mapitudcs of the
individual tcrms in the dcnominator often indicates thc means of simplify-

ing a problem. When one or the other term dominates quandtativcly' it is

es+acrins gcr**imiSh *o {Egh r**'ecs{-'4s*ea.,+iury ir r$'

techniqucs of dctermining individual rhermal rcsisranctt and unduc-

tanccs, thcrc will bc numcrous occasions wlrcre such approximations wiil

certain typs of problcnrs. notably in ?hc
design of heat exchangers, where it is convenient to simplify the writing of
Eq. l-30 by combining the indiviciual resistances or conducances of the
thermal s)rstem into one quantity, called the overall unit conductance, the
overall transmittance, or the overall coefficient of heat transfer, U. Tiic usc
o[ an overall coefficienr is a convcnience in notation' and it is important
not to lose sight of the significance of the individual iacto6 that detcrmine
the numerical value of U.
Writing Eq. l-30 in tcrms of ap overall coefficient givcs
be illustrated- There are, however,

(l-: r)

q= UAJT-',
wherc

,rA--

ll
Rr+R,+Rt

(l-32)

Roor

arl

To avoid
Thc overall cocfficient (J may be bascd on any choscn
misundcrstandings, thc area basis of an ovcrall coefficicnt should thaeforc
always bc stated. Additional informatioh about the ovcrall hcat transfer
cocfficicnt U will be presentcd in larcr chaptcrs.

Thc ovcrall [at-tf,ansfr cocfficicnt witl bc fmrad rreful prinnrily in

problems involving thermal systcms consisting of serrcral scries-connected
sections. Thc enalysis of hcat flow at boundafes of complicatcd Scometry
and in unstcady-statc conduction problems can bc simplificd by using a

2f

Prnrcrrr.rs dr Hser

lluxrrnr

l-' Thc combincd unit'

combincd unit'thcrmal'surfacc coodudancc
lor sbort' cornondrctancc
or
wit'nrlu
colductalcc'
tt
bctwecn a
iadiatioa
and
"i"t-srrrtac.
of hcat now ty aootrcri'on
;;;;"ff*ts
surfacc and a lluid antl's &Iincilby
(

F-fr.+E

-33)

averagc total ralc of hcat flow

The unir-surface conductancc spccifice &c
noia pcr unit lemPeraturc diffcrcncc'
ocr unit arca between a surface
"na "

irc unis arc w/m2'K.

stcam ,has a
ls. A O5-mdiarncrcr ernc {e-O'l).carrying
is tocatca in a room at 300 K and
pl-[
rnt
rc'
soo
of
,";;i;;;rature
pipc surfacc and-rhc
the convcction-heat-traRsfcr cocflicient bctwcen the
unit surfacc
rhc
Calcularc
wr/mz'K
it o. room is 20
^combincd
pcr
mtitcr of pipe lcngth'
"ii
loas
of
hcat
,h"
;;"d"";;;;,1
-t"

,E.xrqpls

small objea (the pipe)

solufion: This-problcm may te id..ti.4 as a
radiation-hcat'transfer
rhe
Ihus
iJJt; iargc utact cnclosurc-1rhc room!

coeffiocaris

i:

a4T: + T :}(7,

+r; - 13'e w/trf ' K

The combined unit surfacc conduoanccis

i: i*

i,-20+

t3-9=33.9

w/mr'K

and rhe rate of heat lsss pcr mettris

;DLi('T'*-r'i')=ax05x

x33'9x200-

10'650

for aircraft application

Example l-9. In &c dcsign of a hcar exchangcr
to
exceed 8S K' For the
(Fig. l-13), the maximum *"ull t"tptra'oo is not
pcrmissible unit
maximum
tlrc
dacrminc
l"t?ii*t'Lbulat"d bclw'
mctal wall betwcen hot gas
thc
of
area
squarc-mctcr
thergral rcsistancc Per
on the onc sidc and cold gas on lhc otbcr'
Hor-gas.temPcraturc-

4-

13fl) K

Unit'surface conductane on hor sida

ft-'

-200 w/m2'K

W/maK
Unit-surfacc conductancc on cold sidc' il:am
Ccolanr tcrnPeranr-

?i-3d) K

Solution: In thc stcady state urc can

(q

/ A) trom

gas to bor sidc

-(q /

*ritc

of walt

tl) from hot sidc of wal! t'\rough wall to cold gas

DBcNsioNsAt{D
?lryrioi Systm

Uxns 5

llcril nll

Ir----1
Hot

trr

(lfor suafrcct

-Tr

fCold surt'aet

k-r+!
D.rrilcd Thcml

G.ait

n,.'-.1=
..1h.

r,.=

SimpliliclCiroit

T,

R,

Figurc

or

Tn

fr.

Tc

1nn- o 1n/v o \n'v

l-13

-;;;lLl

n: "

rlr

Rr =

..rI.

Physical system and thermal circuit for example

l-9'

T"-T' t3fl;9w: ,, , ,1,3s.-3 .{r-r'==,

4
=
=Tg|\s -E+&+&
-= t/2ao (l/200)+Rr+(l/4o0)
7--Tt-

for
whcrc 1,, is the hot surfacc rcmperature. substiturlng oumcfical valucs
i
yields
and
tcmPeratures
thc uniiihJrnral rcsistances
1300-800 1300-300

-0fo5 -I;55O

Solving for R. gives

fir-0.0025 mxrc/w

.A unit thcrmal

resisrance larger than 0.0025

inncr wall tcmperaturc above 800 K.

nf K/W

would raisc the

n-6 DilJrENSlOfis AllD ul{lTs

dinrnsionis a namc givcn to any mcasurablc quantity' For cxanplc' thc
spacc occupicd by an objcct is qualified by tbc dineasion callcd thc
volumc. The distancc bet*een two points is qualificd by thc dimension

26 hnorrs

or

HrrrTtrxsrrl

callcd thc lcngdr crnrnon dimensions t,.ced h r hcat:raDsfcr coursc arc

&!g masq forcg heat. and tcmperaturc.
Bcfore oumcrical calculatioiu caa bc madg cach dirnersion mrst bc
quantificd *ith a dcfincd, rcproducible nrl. units arc the arbitrary
namcr
that specify the magnitudc of cach di'cnsion- For cxamptg thc mctcr is
a
unit for the dimension of length. othcr unirs of rcngth havc also bccn used
to quantify the dimcnsion of lcngth. Some of thcic arc foot
-var4 milc,
millimcter, centimctcr, and kilomctcr.
_ sevcral differcnt unit systems arc prcscntly in usc throughout the worldIn iadusrry and rescarch and devclopm.nt,-th. SI systcm qslsrime Internarional d'unit6s) is fast becoming rhe mosr widely uscd slitem of units
The SI slrsrem has becn adopred by the Inrernarional Oigaaization tor
Staadardization and is recommenaea by a large numbcr of national
srardard oryanizations- For these rcasons wc n'ill-use sl uniu throuehour

lcng&,

\yh"

used

in

rhe SI s-vsrem are dcscribed

in epp.nai* L e

complcrc lisr of conversion factors bcrwcrn tlrc sl sysrem

cnginecring systcm of unirs that_is freguently rrscC ;a r,trc lairca
"ni-rh.
Srercc

appcars
appears

@
in Tablc
'rt-6. For convc11i6n6g. a cqrdensalion of this rablc
on
tlre inside cover of the rext.

The unirs assigned to thc SI sysrcm and other commonly uscd

arc sumnarizcd in Table l-3Tablc

t-3

.Brse Units rnd Derivcd Units tor Several

s-vsrcms

Snsq

Svsrsv
Dlt'tgxsrox
Lcngth
Time
Forcc

Ll"ss
Tcmpcraturc
Hcat

I.7

mm
ss
NN
kg
K.C
J

Excn=m-_c

kg
kcal

cm

ft

5ec

d-rrc

tbt

lb.

cal

Btu

'c

.F

DI}IENSIONAL ANALYSTS

Tlre iacoavcnicncc of changing from onc sa of unis to anotbcr c.n ofrcn

bc evoidcd by using dimensionless pa&tnctcrs rvhosc valucs are tbc same
ia e1I sct of unirr The proccss of dcterniaing approprialc dirncnskrnt$s
nuubcrs is called dittinsional aulysis. Tnir mcooa-not only conrbincs
scvcral variables into dimcnsionlcss groups which arc indcpcodcat
of rhc
systcrn of unirs, but it facilirates iotcrprcudon of cxpcrimenral
dara

Tbc most scrious l;niration of dimensionat anarysis is rbat ir givcs no

ti tacq to apply dimcn

information abour thc naturc of a phenomcnon.

DncxstorerArrrr:rs /7
sionar anarysis it is necessary to know
bcforchand what nariabrcs inruence
the phenomenon, and rhc sucse
oi

,*.

e.t *

o" *i;;;;ff..
proper serection of these variabresrt is thcrefore important to have at
reast
a preliminary theory or a-thorough
physiJ unaerstanding of a phenome_
non before a dimensionar
il * *n".rned- Howcver,
the
perrinenr variabres are known,
"n"tyrit
ii-.nsioJ Inuryri, can be appriedoncc
to mosr
problems by a routinc procedurc.whictr
is o,ritinea
bdow..

Prlmary Dlmenslons and Dlmenslonal

&rqalns
The first step is to serect a slarem
of primary dimensions- Thc choice of
the primary dimensions ir
i,Ii,'iJii,,,.nrionar formutas of a'
pertinent variabres nnust be "ruit.".y,
.*pro*ur. r" ,".r* thcrn In thc sI systcm
the primary dimensions of length
"r
l- ri;;:';p._turc
li aad mass .,t./
arc used.
The dimcnsionat formura of a. physical
quantity fotows from definitions
or physicar laws. For ins-tance, rhe
dimensional fogckJaf.d&.&4r5ef
a
saf +{drtv drfinirionJ'rh.;;;;;;;
efliidaaticrc is equal to
a disrancc divided bv rhe.lime ;,;;",
raycrsc ir- The dimen_
sional formula of velociry.ir
"{.;to
or
iiZTi
a distance or
1tl_r1(-clengrh divided by a time). 1!*.*
The unir'oi
could
be
cxpressed in
merers per second' feet per second.
"lfo"iry
or m'es
p.. irou., rir* o.y-al"i.'"
lengrh divided bv a time.
Jil;;;"iril"r*
and the symbols of
quantitiis occurring'n.
r..qr.ii1r.i"i.oi_,run.r., problems

iJ+:;ii

are gi'en

Bucklngham z Theorem

To determine the numbcr of indepcndent

dimensionlcss groups recpired
to obtain a reration describing prti"iJpi"""*enon,
thc Buckingham :r
(pi) thcoren mav be usea.r e-ccora;;i;
"
ih#i"
rhc rcquired number of
indcpendenr dimensionless go"p,

;;;; t"-L.,o.a by combining tbe

peninent to a probre' is equal to
thc totar
these phyfical quantities z (e.g.,
dcnsij.;;"ril hcat-trarsfcr number of
.physical

v-ariabres

coefficient)

'Thc dgcbraic thcory of dimcarioot aarl.vsir ritt aot be

For r rigorous aad

:T:1ffi:::rtucnr of the methcuaticat b""I;;i-i;otcnr ! rad 4 of Rcfcrcacc 7
( | dccorc drr rbc quatiry rrr tic dicuiod,cod.
nelc.! rl.6ir lbe
i}ffi.o."t*
bv
(Rcr' 6! nows rhrt tte r ocoren
,#f":t:l;#iffi
:n Tist
hor& er
j:,1f
3jT'-il+-"*ff;f.H
oac
or Eorc of rlc orhet corudols (te.
u u.
il-rr, a.p"oa_r[ nurabcr
ili*.-"iJ.T'"t; . ;; ;. rhc
f.H"T1"ft group3 i'' "qu"tiJ ". .ii "q,,1,i.-li
;;;;;;
dcrrcIopcd Lcra

r*ffi il1trffi*Lilffi

tl

/'

2S prnrorr.rsont&rrtlerrsrq
Trbrc

l-a

sone ptysicd auliddc.

r*r r*.n.a sy.bob

rod Diocasioos

rrlttEl$toNs rN

er^rrry

snoor

Lcng&
Timc

{K

I- z

t
rt

Mass
Forcc

Tcmpcrarur
Hcat

Vclocity
Acccteiatior
wpr&
hcssurc
Dcnsiry
lnrcraal cncrgr
Enthalpy
spccificlcr

F"tt'

9,
: ,
a't
w
P
n,
h
:

ML2/c2

L/e

L/0,2

ML2/e2

M/o:L
u t tt
L1/0'

euJ"L-"i**i.y
:r_ r/o
viscosiry
Kinematic

331:gioi1'"'r
afifusiviq/
-Tbsrmat

Thcrmalr6ist.:rc!
C-ocfficirtfroforpaasion e
,
Surfacc rcnsioa
shcar pcr unit area
",

H::,#:$0,*'*

L:/o:

i;iiT

Lr/e

u{44.'
e/r-

Tgr1trt1t

l/T
utt'

r,ir:;

minus thc number of orimary dimcmions

m requircd to express the
dimcnsional formutas of'thc albysi"n
wc call rhcse groups
O*",i,i.r.'If
ttv 7?2' "" the cquarion cxpressing-oc
raaooorrip-"rnong tbc variabrcs
has
a solution of tbc form

F{rry*rar-.)-Q

(l-34)

involviag fivc p\rsical quantitics and

rhrce prirrury dimen:tL_"^O*r.T
srons,
,r - n is equal to 2 aad
thc sotution .itUoia, rlrc form

Flrr,z)-6
,

( I -35)

or the form

\-t(s)

(l-36)
F-xpcrincntal date for such
caa
bc
p,rcscnad
comcdcatly by
1 .casc
ot:tPt l! Tarnsl ar- Tbcrcsurrint
J"J. r*."r,

*,*y-

bcrwccn

s,

and

z2.,ije

..piri;
;;;dljuc"a

rhc functional
rrirncnsional

6ep

that can bedcscn-bed t"

;;:::.:;*
if.n-ar=3), Eq- l-34 fr", ,r,"L._ "'"
-f:j".fh:.enon

groups (i.e-

F(curr,ir)=g
but caa also be written

(t-37)

as

zr-f('r,zr)
For such a casc, cxpcrimental .data
can be corrr
rr, for vario''s
olor- sometirncs it i,
""r-uland
n's in somc manncr
o plot

(l-3s)

po.lliill:tJf;nrfr"ffff:

tti, p*"..1..
-.---

a singlc curve, :rs shown in Cfr"pt

i;.

againsr the remaining:r on

Dstarmlnallon ol Dlmenslonless
Groups
A simplc method for derermining dimensioniess
groups will now be
trT,:",{ by applying it to
problem ia lluid flow_
" "ooJu'",1""-ii",-,r"rrfer problem and to a
Example

l-l*

Determine dimensioalcss paramerers

to

datc tte maxi-

:T::#;I*.,H*:'J:T:
i",:-;ir;.H:,k'"il1*,?:1ff
is Baintaincd at temperature

surfacc

I,

sulated-

Solution: We Ue8rn_ly wriring

raiscd to an unknown power

and then substitute

while the otheruurf"""

i, i*

as a product of the variables,

each

"..#"?l;t",Irro,n

r,ure r<,

,:vn,tl#l"rul#1.

For ? to bc dimensionless, the

exponenb of each prir'ary dima*on
must
add
to zero. Eq,rating ,h.-r.^-ir Uc
:l_1",q
expoaents of each
-up
pnmary diarcnsion
to zero, we obtaii tt ,"i of .'q*,ion,

a+b-c-O " lorT

c*e=0 for M
3c-3c=0 'for 0
f *d-2=Q flor L
.

Evidcntly, any sct of valucs

o-f a, b,c,
rhis 3s1 of cquations
will
"
four cquations. -make
rvc shourd
produce thc rame cquadon'
so thcrc

lut:tt

d and e that sirnultateously

satisfies
ii.,.*i""fi*. i.r" *" five unknowns
noi;;;',b" baranccs ror M aad,e
*"
,tt.*- indepcndcnt cquationr

".ry

30 nnrcu-sc lte rTr^NsEr.

rathcr &aa four. Wc can rbcfcforc choosc vrlucs for two of

ttc

exponcnrs

in cach of rhc dimensionlcss groupc. Tbc oaly reiriction on the choicc of

tbe cxponcnts is that cach of thc sclccred srporsnc bc indcpcndcnt of tbc
othcrs. Aa cxpotrcot is indcpcndcat if tbe dctcrminant formcd *ith thc
cocfficicats of tle rcmaining terns does not vanish (i.c. is not cqual to
zcro).
Sincc 7i is tbc variable we cventu.lly s'ant to cvaluate, sct its cxponenl,
a, equal ro l- .Sincc wc want q'i to be the indcpendent variablg we do not
*'an! to combine it with
and therefore set its cxponcnr c:O This givcs
tlrc cquations

+D-c:0
c +0:0

c+/-0:0

Solving the equarions simuhancously we get

first dimcnsionlcss group is

,- - t. c-O 4-Q and the

T^

",_T
thc prio of rbc marinun rcngc&irruc 4e:hc-sgdecc rcppcrarnrg
For r, wc let a be zero, so 1- ritl mtapptr again. and
no harrc
"-1,
rhc indepcodcar rariable appear ro rhc lirst powcr in rr. Simulancous
solution of thc cquations with thcsc choiccs liclds r- -1, b-*1, d-Z
thus

L2qT
,r=T

Tbis problem can be expresscd in terms of Eq. l-36 as

T^ .( r'c';\

rr:J\

k'T

Dmcnsionlcss analysis cannot rdeal lhe narurc of th,e funcrional relation

bctwccn a, and tr, but in Chapter 2 it will bc slrown tlat

r^

. . L2cT
Tt '' 2krl

Exanple

t-ll.

pressune drop

Find dimensionless paramcrcrs ro correlare dara for thc

Ap in a pipe of diamcrcr D and length ,l. whcn a fluid of

viscosity p and dcnsiry p is llowing

throu;!

ihe pipc ar

ln

avcrage vctociry

v.
Solution: Thse arc six variables in this problem, bur only rhrcc dimcnsions lcading to thrcc indcpcndcnt cquadons- Tbus, thrcc variablcs must bc

DrMENsroN& ANAI.ySts

ll
d

sclected in cach cvatuation.of a dimcnsionle,s r paf,amctcr. The variables

of rhc problcrn, their dimcnsions, and rheir cxponcns arc tabuleted bclow-

Dncxsrox - F-polrnn
a
trt

Vr,nu.au

L
Ap
p

lM /

D
tt

,,

'

d
c

w/01

Next wc rrrritc

o-

rtzl

/ L'I
trl
\M/ul
TM

r u1'[M1'r,vlM1'[L]t

[ r]"1

' L4J IFJt') Lu ]Lo )

For thc fint dimcnsionlcss group wc let

a:

l,

6:0,

and c -.() ancl obrain

the Tollowing cquatiocs :

T1lus

d: -l aid

L: l+d*e+f:Q
M: e:0
4z -**y':
L

''rt-7

For thc sccond dimcnsionless group we let.a=0,6-1, arr<l

yields, upon simultaneous solution of the pertinent equation:;,

d=0. This

U,,:
' pV'
Similarly, if we let

e:1, D=0.

and

a-0,

the third dimensionlcss group is

"r=h
To correlate cxperimental data onc could plot f;2 versus

z, for various

of 2,. Howevr, in cngineering practice it has been found convenicnt to 'usc thc quotient of 12 and ;r1, callcd thc Jriction lactor, J.
values

Morcover, it can be shown analyically that

I-nz/tt-#.=rtrrl

Figure l-14 shows erpcrirncntal rcsult$ plottcd as r/t, vcruur thc rccipro"al of ry Ar dbctrsec<t in Cbptcr 4, rt l/rrris le:s than about 23gp.
thc flow is laminar and

f - ra/ n1:64r.3

.Y,.

.r"\lj.,il*irir.rf

r. :r. |

:,t-i..

I:
.E

Turbulcnt

t
? -'r 't. l:6
lD
^-'rF

flo*

ir sm6rh pip.
I

5..1

5.6 5.E

6.0

figutc l-14 Relarion bctwccn lricrion facror,/, ead rrynolds n,'nbcr, Rcr, for
smooth and anificially rougtcncd pipcs [og1q(rra2) vcrsus log,o(l/rr)]. Fron J.
Nikuradse, 'GescraassigJreitcn der lurbulcatca Stroaung il glanen-Rolreo,VDI ForschungsheJt, volr 356 19321 -Stromungsgcsctz. iD rauhsa Roiycn"- ZD.I

Fondangs$t vol.

351, 1933.

But when l/4)2300, thc functional rclarionship berween J and r,

changcs becausc thc flow undergoes a ihanse from'larninar- lo ..turbulent- flow. Dimensional analysis cannol, of coursc, prcdict this physical
phcnomcnon. Morcover, il turbuicnt flon'not only ar. but also the surface
roughncss, affecrs thc valuc of_/. This is clcarly illustrared in Fig. l-14,

whcre expcrimcnkl results Ior rr/;, tersus a3-l are ptotted in the
laminar- and turbulent-flow regimcs. In turbulent flo*. rhc &ta show a
proDounccd depcndcncc on tlc rario of tbc avcrage hcight of surfacc
roughncss elcmen6, rt, to thc pipc diaracrer, D. For smooth pipcs, howcver, thc cmpirical rclation

* J - 0.046rru -O.ffi ,/ P"ro:

correlatcs thc experimenral data in thc.rurbulcnt-flow rcgime ovcr a widc
raagc of a, @cf. 8)n 2/ d,

REFEREI{(TS
l- J- B. Fouricr. Thi*ic aulytiquc & Ia Mar.Pariq t822; A FrccEaD. traDs..
Povcr Publicationg lac- Na'York, t955.
2-.W- lv{. Robcscaow aad I P. Hartnctr, ds. Itandbok ol Hcat TransIcr, Scc.3
(by P. J. Schncider), McGraw-Hill Book C.o. Ncw York N.y_ 1973.

R.ernnancrs 33
3.

4.

T. N. Veiziroprl 'Corrctation of Thcroal CCnact Conductaacc Expednorrl

Rcsults." Pro& Astron- Acro- 20, Academ_lc prcss, tnc- Ncw yorlq i967.

R W. Vancc and

W- M. Duke, cds_ Ar:ttied Ctyogenic Engineering,John Wiley

Sons, Ncrr York, 1962"
5. R. Barron, Cryogenic Sysrcns, McGraw-Hilt Book Co., Ncw yorlc, 1967.
6. E R. Van Drigst 'Oo Dirncasional Ana.lysis and thc prcscaration of Data in
Fluid Flow Problcor".f.tppl. Mech.. vol- 13, 19407. HL:agbaar, Dirercioaal Anabsis and Tleory of Modcts, Joha Wilcy &
Sons, Inc. Ncr Yodc, 1951.

&

8.

J.

Nikuradse, -Gcscanissigkeitca dcr turbulcnten Str6ntr.g ia lanea

-Str.6mungsg6crzc in r.uh"o
Rohrcq,- VDI Fonchungshy'r,
'iol 356, 1932;
Rohrcq" YDI ForschuqslvJt, vol. 361, 1933.

PROBLEMS

Thc problcrns in this chaptcr arc or-qanized

in thc manncr shown in thc tablc

PROBLEM

NUMaERS sEcTIoNs
l-1!

1-2

1-19 ro t-25

1-3

r-34

't-a

l-35 to 1-37

r-5

r-1 ro

1-3't

t-3aftn{t

SUBJECT

Conduclion heal
transtet
Convection hen
transfer

Fadiationiat
!ranstet
Combined nbcF;
Dirnensional
analysis

't-?

t-l

Derczninc lhc hcat-$ansfer ratc per unir

surfacc area rhrougit a brick wall
(A'-03 w/m'K; whcn onc surfac of
o..ur"r. i,
ar - l0'C. Thc rhickness of rhc ral is t0
"i'li.c "nd tbc oilrcr surfacc is
crn.

l-2

A furnace wall is cons_rruaed of silica brick,

/<_l-l W/rn.I( and thc
insidc surfact of rhe brick is 450.C
rhc walt is 30 cm and rhc
cxtcrior surface of thc brick is ar.e rcmpcrar"r.
-' Dcrcrminc the heir-rransfcr ratc rhrou,eh the brick per unit arca'of
rhc *"tt.

'n;

;;;l;;;i
"ilS;i.

1.3 The [car-flux raa rhrough_a planc wall

is 1000 W/rn1 Onc surfacc of
rhc wall is mainraincd er to"c
mJ,rtir.J-"*jr.u"ity of thc walr
is 2E
w'rar'K end ir is cn rhict- D";;.;;;.;;;
of ihc sccond surfacc of
--- --'i'rtrg'u
thc uaIL

''

rl;/*if*turc

disrn'butioo in a planc wall wirh a thcrmal

conductiviry of

f(r)- l0O+ l50r

r &. il rcqr measurcd
Derenainc 6c h""r f'n coad""*-*;d;;;;il
whcrc

or

ia .C end

m3lsll:r dircqbo?

l-5

from onc surfacc of rhc wall

bcrr,bry b rhc poridvc

The beabconduoioa rar through

a l-crn-thick picce of ptcxigras (k_O195
is 300 w' Tlc aica of 0'"
prcxigras
*rr.cc

w/m'K)

is

piJ;;ii'#.t'i"

or rhc

is

113'i*p,,#/

.,.
PnoslEvs 35
.

n:ain6ined. at

,u.r"""

l{

"nJ

tcn

;.;'ffiil::,1.'Xe,*:ffi:

FL-[.*'",u,.

or rhc othcr

Thc thcrmal

,T:.#i:*|l*,;i;:;m"!i::Jffi ::"ffi f l"'":S:;,1.:1,#,:

,rfii,*ii.tffiJreguenttl

used to describc rhe resistancc

to hear f.low of

a'*= *

L is rhc rhich
rr,i.tn.rr..-oi't"'i;il::
*.here

.
- thc .R factlr
tt thc.insularion. Calcutate
for lGcm
u.t.u,.-,i.;:'#i""T,li"*-T*":Ti*:"'l-i..'orra*f i,i::#.'
,- t4,

r.aff:--,

heat-transfer principres.

- -

.considcring
.,
).46s stccl a 8d matcrial
m making
cookinq urcnsit.r w*L r^lt.^ll' :"
to use
q
v
-a-'r"'!"\ rucr :rs cootwarc' lbrt is pr*chrscd

:::,*-qF;,;:,lff J'j#H"'1.,,:;:#F"iTi;.:ff#::y;1""
*scra{ ?t5riq
by tie
l-9 Several rods
pcripher.v. onc end

cm in diamercr and l0

of the rods l,

",

cm lonp are
ar" insulated
in<,,r.r-: around theu

iooai;ni':';"*

I'T,:ilffi TJ'*:l'
iruiffi,r,,'il;:i,*"::*D"';";l;hJ;'ffi
ib.rslas;.'usc'ti;,"j"",11'1fu9ff

ilf*19J.*b*i;.'GGl;'#;.#"b

l-t'

A rhin' flar hcater with a temperaturc

of 2@-c and area of 0.2
bcrween rwo tayers
ir,"l,j"iil-, *;,r,.?:
r.:u"r: rv/m'K.

l?l--"_sd:g
olsstpated

m2 is ro bc

Thc cnergr is
,, , -,."ror
1000 w' :",t
^.'ril";,';
dil;,3'f.t:/,il:*ifff,'ol
,r,",ij'a.ratc
I cxtcnbr surface is at
a temperarurc

by the hcater

rcquired ro cnsure

less than

l-ttrclarionshi
Tbc thcrmal conductiviry
^to thc

of a material

r *,r*fi11ilI];,"*,""

where,t is measured
yg_tl*- s.p"r"r"d'by rc
I_oi" or
tures
r.o"c and loo"c- n"

50.C

varics

", or;;;#;:
**.-.*,r"".r
*-'Ti

thc hear-transrcr rarc

il trffif,i:T*,"-

or a plane surra* r,ith thcrsrar

.li'l1rt:'ifl"1;flfiij}._lc.casc
conductivity
perature and vcrify
Eq. 1,6-

*"

r,rtil:,

3;ffi;:ih;Y

fi i,fi

::'iin,e.*.#*1$",;1*t,[h*..ry*trTixs,*:

e pranc

ralt thll

has e rhcnnat conductiv-

t8

'-fl

_.

-*

ii

36 hNcDlts or HsrrTtr,trn
rralt r,hco

.4-200'C Ir-500'C
*o-15Vn'K
L-ljcn
,- to-.K-r C- l0-rK-2
l-14 A ocrallic rcfrigcraror *'all is to bc covcrcd wirh e rigid foam insulation
rbat has e ibcnnal cmductivity of 0.03 W/n'K- The iatcrior of thc rcfrigerator is
'o O. -"iot'ined rt -20'C Tbe cooling capacity of tbc rcfrigcrarot is 2 kW and
Dctcrminc lbc minimum
tbc surfacc arca of tlc rcfrigcrator wall is 100
insulatioq thickncss iccdcd so that condcnsation will not occur oD thc cxtcrior
surfacc of tbc isulatiol, assuming that the dcw-poi:rt tempcratutc of rhc air
outsidc tbc rcfrigcrator is l5"C

#.

l-15 Arsuoc oncdimcnsiooa.l hcat transfcr througb tbc compositc wall showa
in thc figurc:

I
r.500'C

I.

100'C

c
F- La'-*Ls

(a)

' Lc;f-

Lo---)

Draw thc tbcrmal circuit for thc wall, labcliag all rcsistaaces and
known potcnrials with appropriarc qrmbols.

(b) Dctccnrinc trc heat-transfcr ratc through thc wall

(c) Dcarminc thc tcmpcraturc of tlrc lcft-baad facc of matcrial
h-75W/m'K Lt-20sn

D.

w/m-K Lr= 4-25

"
&c-58 W/m'K Lo-4Ocm
&a-20Wm'K 1^-lo-];6,2
&a-60

At-Ac
l-16 At $cadJ Etatc lbc tcmpcraturc profilc in a larninatcd sysrem is as shown.
Which natcrial has tbc highcr thcrmal conduoivity? Sbos sullicicnt nork and
rcasoning

rojustify your answcf,.

lrlercriel

1_.

Pnofig{s

37

l-l? consi&r rhc composirc valt shorpn in thc figurc. Thc lcft rurface of thc.
waii is submcrgcd in watcr that has en ambicnt tcmpcraturc of ?0.C and the
convcctivc-heaa-transfcr cocfficicnt on thar sugfacc is 60 w/n2.tc Dctcrnine thc
valuc for kr.

r-

I.

:0o w/m.K

J0 w/m.K

iO"C

4 = to w'n:'x

*,

f-'?0'C

r.
:-

J0

o"C

(m--; -15 cm-i :l5ern

t-t8 At
is shown

stcady statc rhe Emperature profilc in a tfuce-material compositc body

in the figure. Derermine thc correct conclusion:

(a) k.,>kr>k6.

(b) k. >&c >&r.

. (c) k" >k. >&..
(d)

.*c

(e)

/<6.

>*i >{tr.
)t6 )&.a.

r
.1.

rtrt

i
I

l-t

te

&6

l-19 on a calm day rhe convectivc-hcar-rransfcr cocfficicnt for ihc roof

building is 6 W/m:-K. Dcrcrminc thc convectivc-hcat-transfcr rate from thc
of thc building if the cxrcrior surfacc of thc roof is ar lSoc and rhc ambicnr air
-5'c' The surface arca of rhc roof is 400 m:. calculatc thc hcat-transfer ratc
increascs to 85 W/m:. K due lo a brccze.

of

roof

fu*t
if if,

l'20 Dcterminc tic convcclivc-heat-transfcr rarc from a l-cm-diamctcr bal

bcaring that hrs a tcmpcrature of 200'c submcrged in oil rlrat has an embicnt

tcmpcraturc of t00"C Assunc rhar

fr'-

l00O

W/m2.K.

.t-21 calcuhtc thc convcctive-hcat-rransfcr rate from a pratc at 200.c to eir

with an embicnt tcmpcrarurc of 30'c. Thc cbnvcctivc.hcar-rransfer cocfficicnt
bctwecn thc plate ind air is 30 {rn1K end rhc rurfacc area of thc.plrtc.b lo mr.

_ l-ZZ A lpflIW clccrric hcatcr with r surfacc area of 0.1 m2 is exposcd to e 20.C
fluid. calcularc thc suiface rcmpcnrurc of thc hcatcr for- the foltowing situatioris:
(a) Ttehcatcrb srroundcd by airwith
Vn2.f.
(b) TLc hearer is surroundcd by stitl warci4-30
wid
Wrlm2.l(
'.. (c) Thc hcatcr is surroundcd by agitalcd watcr 4-5OO
with I-SOOO Vm2.lC

'lg

3E hnrqnsorHeer?h^}rsrn
t-23 A t0GW ctccrric

]*-ttfiffi :H;T:t

.f_',*T.fi

"TnT*

j::i.J#l*

. l-Z Air rt 20.C O OIT orrcr &c lop surrlcc of r- IG.cm_6ick

aonzontal plata Tbc corvccrivc_hcar-,-".i*-ilrF"l
purc iron

J ;:,K[,H.,t:
;trffi j *.;: ffi 1 *. */r"{;;tilfi::
2-00
ro rhc surroundnss Draw
{m:
o."."rctrLiltrJ.,T*tT.
rnc
aad cajcula tc c

il;

l:2S

;; ;";il*toa

ODc

th

sreadv-sra rc

"rp.iirl'oiu"Ti

nrfacc of ! flal

*. #;;;,fr'#f.jm"?: lS;1 :

l1T'g ltrar bas r

nsuledon
tbcrm:

:*ienr

rcmpcraturc

*].*:T##Hi;1qp##r#;ffi affi :S.r#

r":: " +. ;ffiT:,tr'tr ffil#T*r*ifi""J:it:j
affr;'.T.il-*".,*
ffi#f
rn,T,ffi#a

-j#.ffin}1'*

ro air wirh aa a-abicnr

nr

m r],e risuc is coqprirad

or

r.r"ff:lto#r20'c

vhi.lc,r,.'tr-

rhsurb

so

dincrtm

"rrr"Jr;;:#

+O(jctrt+

,-. =-i

\l,m:.]i

r-, = r io'('
l: -<-'l\'n:.K

(e) Dnr.thc tbcrrnal circrit

for this problcru
(b) Celcutae.tt t.rr,ri
Grrl"il
(c) Dacrminc o.r,-r-*J.l_ir.
grc rer-tr&DStcr

*alt

_ ..,:) H*"
l-l-t,ol l^l
.l*o

ncss

ratc through thc uzall pc,

uDit depo of

rhc surfacc rcnpcrirr$c

of

rlc wall rhar is crposcd ro

rbe

rougl mcut rurf.cca

rrc Drcscd
rad

*rHffitrf,ffil
T"r,*fr"Hntr #"k

lffi

rhg

i#rr'.fl,**

--.-ltr

lh4'\

R---'

h,oauris

3i &:::"m#",-1:l--'::^"13'"

39

p'r unit surrace area.

(d)o",..*".'ii j"#flil",ii"Till':F,nntcioatccresisraace.
rr arca assuEling
rcsistance.
no interfacc
l-29 A small tiansisrc

;tx*ru::l#{,'{:llirf:ilJ::.::ffETii."ffH:#
rT: is 25"c
-T:,
""-;:;;::
r,om aruminu-,.'l;ffi:
;Lt'.otH **#kT.;,::ilHT:H::
;;:"*_".]flf
and

cocrhcienr

ls"ffi **

,':;';lt"j;;;1';:.*,n,u.r""..D"ffi
t

l-29 In problem l_28 r

**;irtttlr:**l*n*,ri:*t:a+.rut,s
.u-i*,.-ul*il,.ri".l

qrop across $c
-"-'J
resisrancc. L,lterface

us rt:ursISto!,ari.r.".].' suggest waJT Dcterminc drc tcmpcratur.

rcsrstancero

;;'gp:fliji;hip'aggltgi#i*x.ffi r*"t
C = -to"c
4c=:0 w/m:.(

I-' t0:s"c
Wm:.K
l.3l A btackbody rvith
a surfac. ,-- ^, , _,
^
lr.'

ji,T:l1e-.hcat-rransf

of.(a)17'c
,?l:ffi G) siz;C'",icrla,.1;'.il;,:j-ol:t.iq"5P:cordrurround;ng.
f ,:
;f,Hi"l?'"i"

Ati;;:a:i:

i;iait

*l. AtH

#..HHft

.*{fth"fr,i;l*iil1iili H'm
l;iFkqdr
l.i**#:r"*".t
r

,n.t,li"t

t, catcurarc,r,.

in'io a vacu"'n

ol;ffi,J.t

**t

an cmittancc * ni. oo.,,,,,oo

ffHo,l#l S:-"-:tl
"r 19.".'
rarl cncrry
if irs rcapcreture i fmO l{has.

zD

.fl

r'{

Prstcnrs or llElrTratsFrr,

l-31 A gnybody wi& arca ! mr ald coinancc of 0J b oain:ebcd rt ?00'C ia

e lerg. blact room rihocc rcmpcnturc t t00'C. Dacmiac tbc oa rarc of bcat
raasfcr bctwccs tbc gray body and room by ibc radiatitn rnode of hcat trandcr.

Cicuht

thc overalt

of U oa thc

lo A-

f-35
valuc

bcat-tralsfa cocflicient U

fc hoblco

l-l5..Base thc

hoHcn l-26.

Basc thc

l-37 Calculate-tbe overall heat-uansfer cocfficicnt U for hoblcm t-3O

of U on a qpical cross-scctional arca of I mi.

Basc thc

l-3,6 Calodatc thc ovcrall bcat-rransfcr cocflicicat U for

valuc of U on thc torat cross-scctional area of rhc crall.

valuc

;...

l-36 Thc physcal p:ramcrcrs rhat govcrn thc local rcnpcnturc io e fia arc
known to bc:

filA-I, I- fr.r -

convcttivc-hcat-rransfd coefficicnr for fluid surrouadiag fio

thcrrnal coaducrivity of fin srarcrial
charactcrisric dimension of fia
ambicnt tcmpcralurc of fluid surrounding fia
tcmpcrarure of basc of fin
location measurcd from basc of fia

Using thc Buckiogham pi thcorcm. show rbat rbc dimcosionless groups that can bc
used ro dcscribe thc rempcraturc disrrib'trioa in thc fin arc
dimensionlcss rcmpcrarurc:

'

dimcnsionlcss thcrmal

Tl-rt'

rcs;"*r..,

dimcnsionlcss locarion:

l-39 By subsritudag dimensions for cach ph-vsical qr.ranrity givcn in Tablc L-1,
show rhat cach group is dimcrrsionlcss.

l-40 In ransicnr conduction, it iq knonra 'hat thc par.Dcurs 6er gowra rhc
Iocal tcmpcraturc distribution in a solid arc:
p- dcasity of solid
9- spccific bcat of solid
L- cbaradcrbtic dimcnsion of rc[d
*- tbernal conducrivity of solid
t r rihc
r- locatioa

wirhin solid

Usc tbc Buctiogban pi Orcorco rc tbow- 6af ibc riac'rdrotit &opcfrlurc

distributioa caa bc otprcssed in tcros.ot r diwnlbnlcrc poddo!

:,{

Ps'Pnoar-rr':
. aad a dimcasioaless group callcd

*t t*;''

mmber'

E
t

When e hcatcd surfece is placed in a stGam of crrolit fluid, thc rurfmc will
losc hcat by forced convection- For this casc thc paramctc6 tleat gOvcm rhc
hcat-transfcr PFoccss are:
il - convcctinc-hcat-traasfcr socfficicnt
l- charactcristic dimcnsion of surfacc
P- dcmity of lluid
/- frcc.sream velocitY of fluid
I - thcrmal conductivitY of fluid

ljl

c,tr:

sPccific hcat o[ tluid

viscosity of lluid

l.lsc thc results of thc Buckingfuam pi theorcm to show that

groups that govcrn thc hcar-transfcr pro6s arc:

'

Nussclt numbcr:

&c threc dimcasionlcs

hrL

aRcynolds nuor6o, 4

)L

?nndUaud:tn

z-..-. ' ^ A