Chapter 19 Lecture

In this lecture youll learn

To explain the second law
of thermodynamics and the
li it ti
limitations
it puts
t on our
ability to extract useful work
from thermal energy
sources
To understand the
thermodynamics of heat
engines, refrigerators, and
heat pumps
To describe the concepts of
energy quality and entropy

The S
Th
Second
dL
Law off
Thermodynamics

Slide 19-2

Slide 19-1

The Second Law of Thermodynamics

Heat Engine

The second law of thermodynamics is fundamentally a

statement that systems naturally tend toward more
disorganized states
states.
There are many forms of the second law, all of which are
equivalent.
One form of the second law concerns the direction of heat
flow: Heat can flow spontaneously from a hot object to a
cold object; it will not flow spontaneously from a cold object
to a hot object.

The objective
j
is to turn heat from hot
reservoir into work while minimizing
waste heat exhausted to the cold
reservoir
Working substance undergoes cyclic
processes
U = 0, so the work done by the engine
equals the net heat absorbed by the
engine
Thermal efficiency is defined as
e

Weng
Qh

Qh Qc
Qh

Qc
Qh

e = 1 (100% efficiency) only if Qc = 0

or no energy expelled to cold reservoir

Slide 19-3

Example: Steam Engine

Slide 19-4

Example: Stirling Engine

Slide 19-5

Slide 19-6

Example: Internal Combustion Engine

Clicker Question
Rank
R
k iin order,
d ffrom llargestt tto smallest,
ll t th
the work
k Wout performed
f
d
by these four heat engines.

1.
2.
3
3.
4.
5.

Otto Cycle

Wb > Wa > Wc > Wd

Wb > Wa > Wb > Wc
Wb > Wa > Wb = Wc
Wd > Wa = Wb > Wc
Wd > Wa > Wb > Wc

Slide 19-7

Clicker Question

Clicker Question

A certain engine extracts 1000 J of heat from a hot temperature

reservoir and discharges 800 J of heat to a cold temperature
reservoir. What is the efficiency of this engine?
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.

Slide 19-8

80%
75%
40%
25%
20%

What is the thermal efficiency of this heat engine?

1. 0
1
0.10
10
2. 0.25
3. 0.50
4 4
4.
5. Cant tell without knowing QC.

Slide 19-9

Refrigerators, Air Conditioners, and Heat

p
Pumps

Slide 19-10

Typical Refrigerator

Heat engines run in reverse

The objective of a refrigerator is to remove
h t from
heat
f
cold
ld reservoir
i while
hil minimizing
i i i i
work input
Coefficient of p
performance ((COP)) is
defined as: COP = |Qc|/W = |Qc|/(|Qh|-|Qc|)
Air conditioner is essentially identical to a
refrigerator; the cold reservoir is the interior of
the house and the hot reservoir is outdoors
Heat pump is the same as an air conditioner, except with the
reservoirs reversed. Heat is removed from the cold reservoir
outside, and exhausted into the house, heating it up. Note that
the work by the pump actually contributes to the desired result.
COP of a heat pump is COP = |Qh|/W = |Qh|/(|Qh|-|Qc|)
Slide 19-11

Slide 19-12

Clicker Question

Clicker Question

What, if anything, is wrong with this refrigerator?

Its a really hot day and your air conditioner is broken. Your
roommate says,
says Lets
Let s open the refrigerator door and cool
this place off. Will this work?

1. Yes.
2. It might, but it will depend on how hot the room is.
3. No.
1.
2.
3.
4.

It violates the first law of thermodynamics.

It violates the second law of thermodynamics.
It violates the third law of thermodynamics.
Nothing is wrong.
Slide 19-13

The Second Law of Thermodynamics

The Carnot Engine

Kelvin-Planck statement: No heat engine

g
operating
p
g in a cycle
y
can absorb energy from a reservoir and use it entirely for the
performance of an equal amount of work (there are no perfect
heat engines)
Clausius statement: It is impossible to build a perfect
refrigerator, whose sole effect is to transfer heat from
a cool object to a hot one
A violation of either statement leads to a violation of the other,
thus the two statements are completely equivalent
Th

Th
60 J

60 J

60 J

40 J
40 J

40 J
Tc

Th

Th

Th
100 J

Tc

Tc

A conceptually
p
y important
p
heat-engine
g
design
g is the Carnot
engine, whose cycle consists of two adiabatic and two
isothermal steps.
Carnot showed that the efficiency of the engine depends only
on the temperatures of the reservoirs: eC = 1 - |Qc|/|Qh| = 1
Tc/Th, where the temperatures must be in Kelvins (or Rankines)
Efficiency is 0 if Th = Tc
Efficiency is 100% only if Tc
= 0 K, which is not possible
The efficiency increases as
Tc is lowered and as Th is
raised
COP of a Carnot refrigerator
is: COP = Tc/(Th-Tc)

Th

40 J

100 J

40 J

60 J
40 J
Tc

Slide 19-14

60 J
60 J
Tc

http://science.sbcc.edu/~physics/flash/heatengines/Carnot%20cycle.swf
Slide 19-15

Carnots Theorem

Slide 19-16

Clicker Question

Carnots
Carnot s Theorem: The efficiency of any heat engine operating
between two specific temperatures can never exceed the
efficiency of a Carnot engine operating between the same two
temperatures
It can be shown that Carnots theorem is a necessary
consequence
q
of the Second Law of Thermodynamics:
y
violation
of Carnots theorem would lead to a perfect refrigerator

A heat engine operating between a pair of hot and

cold reservoirs with respective temperatures of 500 K
and 200 K will have what maximum efficiency?
1.
2.
3.
4.

60%
50%
40%
30%

=
Slide 19-17

Slide 19-18

Clicker Question

Clicker Question

Could this heat engine be built?

Suppose a Carnot refrigerator has a COP of 2.0, what would

be its efficiency when operated as an engine?
A.
B
B.
C.
D
D.
E.

1/5
1/3
1/2
2/3
3/5

1. Y
1
Yes.
2. No.
3. Its impossible
p
to tell without knowing
g what
kind of cycle it uses.
Slide 19-19

Energy Quality

Slide 19-20

Entropy

The second law of thermodynamics shows that we cant

can t convert
thermal energy to mechanical work with 100% efficiency.
The efficiency depends on the highest and lowest available
temperatures

For a reversible heat engine

engine, |Qc|/|Qh| =
Tc/Th, or Qc/Tc + Qh/Th = 0
For any reversible cyclic process,

Energy is not all created equal!

Since thermal energy cant
can t be converted to
mechanical work or electricity with 100%
efficiency, mechanical work and electricity
are higher-quality forms of energy
energy.
You can convert them to any other form
with 100% efficiency.
High temperature thermal energy is higher
quality than lower temperature energy,
since it can run a more efficient heat engine
and thus produce more mechanical work.

A new thermodynamic variable called

entropy S (J/K),
entropy,
(J/K) is then defined as:
dS dQ T

dQ T 0

The change in entropy between any two

2 dQ
states is:
(reversible process)
S
1 T
for an irreversible process, we can
always find a reversible process
connecting
g the same initial and final
states to calculate S.
Slide 19-21

Entropy and the Second Law

Slide 19-22

Clicker Question

In terms of entropy
entropy, the Second Law of Thermodynamics can
now be expressed in the most general form:
The entropy of a closed system cannot decrease.
At best, entropy can remain constant.
But irreversible processes and dissipative forces like
friction invariably lead to entropy increase.
When the system enlarges to include the entire universe, the
second law states:
The entropy of the universe cannot decrease.

An ideal gas is taken from an initial temperature Ti to a

higher final temperature Tf along two different reversible
paths: Path A is at constant pressure; Path B is at constant
volume. The relation between the entropy changes of the
gas for these paths is
1.

SA > SB

2
2.

SA = SB

3.

SA < SB

Any situation that appears to involve an increase in order

and thus a decrease in entropy is always accompanied by
a corresponding
di and
d greater
t iincrease iin entropy.
t
Slide 19-23

Slide 19-24

Example: Adiabatic Free Expansion

Entropy, Order and Energy Quality

There is no heat flow and the gas does no work, therefore the
internal energy of the gas does not change and the temperature
stays
y constant.
The process is irreversible. Thus the entropy must be
increased.
We can use a reversible isothermal
process connecting the same initial and
final states to calculate the change
g in
entropy:
V
Q
S
nR ln 2 nR ln 2
T
V1
The energy that becomes unavailable
to do work is:
E unavailable TS

Entropy is a quantitative measure of energy quality

quality.
Entropy also describes the degree of order or disorder in a
system.

The lower the entropy, the more ordered the system and the
higher the quality of its energy.
The higher the entropy, the more disordered the system and
lower the quality of its energy.
An increase in entropy results in the system
systems
s losing some or
all of its ability to do work.

Slide 19-25

Statistical Interpretation of Entropy

Slide 19-26

Summary

The microscopic quantity related to entropy is the relative probability of

different ways of sorting the molecules in the system
The most probable state is the one with greatest entropy, or greatest
disorder

Th
The second
d llaw off th
thermodynamics
d
i iis ffundamentally
d
t ll a
statement about the tendency of systems to evolve toward
more disordered states.
It is not possible to build a perfect heat engine or a perfect
refrigerator.
In its most general statement, the second law says that the
entropy of a closed system cannot decrease.
Entropy is a measure of disorder: the higher the entropy,
th more di
the
disorder.
d
High entropy is associated with low-quality energy, and
vice versa.

Slide 19-27

Slide 19-28