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Permeable pavement and stormwater management

systems: a review
a

H. M. Imran , Shatirah Akib & Mohamed Rehan Karim

Department of Civil Engineering , Faculty of Engineering, University of Malaya , Kuala

Lumpur , Malaysia
Accepted author version posted online: 06 Mar 2013.Published online: 29 Apr 2013.

To cite this article: H. M. Imran , Shatirah Akib & Mohamed Rehan Karim (2013): Permeable pavement and stormwater
management systems: a review, Environmental Technology, DOI:10.1080/09593330.2013.782573
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Environmental Technology, 2013

http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09593330.2013.782573

Permeable pavement and stormwater management systems: a review

H.M. Imran , Shatirah Akib and Mohamed Rehan Karim
Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

Downloaded by [H. M. Imran] at 09:54 30 April 2013

(Received 1 November 2012; nal version received 3 March 2013 )

Uncontrolled stormwater runo not only creates drainage problems and ash oods but also presents a considerable threat to
water quality and the environment. These problems can, to a large extent, be reduced by a type of stormwater management
approach employing permeable pavement systems (PPS) in urban, industrial and commercial areas, where frequent problems
are caused by intense undrained stormwater. PPS could be an ecient solution for sustainable drainage systems, and control
water security as well as renewable energy in certain cases. Considerable research has been conducted on the function of
PPS and their improvement to ensure sustainable drainage systems and water quality. This paper presents a review of the use
of permeable pavement for dierent purposes. The paper focuses on drainage systems and stormwater runo quality from
roads, driveways, rooftops and parking lots. PPS are very eective for stormwater management and water reuse. Moreover,
geotextiles provide additional facilities to reduce the pollutants from inltrate runo into the ground, creating a suitable
environment for the biodegradation process. Furthermore, recently, ground source heat pumps and PPS have been found to
be an excellent combination for sustainable renewable energy. In addition, this study has identied several gaps in the present
state of knowledge on PPS and indicates some research needs for future consideration.
Keywords: permeable pavement; porous pavement; geotextiles; ground source heat pumps (GSHP); sustainable drainage

1. Introduction
Climate change and global warming are crucial problems
worldwide and, as a consequence, sustainable practices for
both energy and water are prominent issues at present. The
general function of a permeable pavement is to collect, treat
and lter surface runo to enhance groundwater recharge.
Traditionally, permeable pavement systems (PPS) have
been used for light-duty pavement due to their insucient
structural loading and geotechnical design considerations.
[1,2] PPS are a simple and eective way to facilitate a structurally stable pavement for the use of pedestrian and vehicular trac, as well as simultaneously address stormwater
runo inltration, storage and dispersal. [3] PPS can provide
sustainable stormwater management by facilitating groundwater recharge, reducing surface runo, reusing stormwater
and preventing the pollution of stormwater for a wide
range of commercial, residential and industrial areas. Management considerations for stormwater from urban areas,
parking lots, footpaths, open marketplaces and highway
shoulders are important and integrated components in the
design of these pavement systems. A permeable and porous
pavement is capable of capturing water on the pavement surface and then allowing it to inltrate into the subgrade layer
and groundwater, which is one of the best stormwater management systems. Conventional road pavement is generally
impervious; consequently, it accumulates a large amount

Corresponding

author. Email: ihosen83@gmail.com

2013 Taylor & Francis

of runo water during a storm, which contains pollutants

from transportation and related activities. [4,5] A permeable
pavement provides a better solution to reduce the signicant pavement runo volume and pollutants associated with
runo water. [69]
Urban stormwater runo and sustainable drainage systems (SUDS), such as permeable pavement, have been a
major consideration in stormwater management practice.
The sustainable drainage management of runo is a green
approach involving the collection, storage, treatment and
reuse of stormwater runo. Permeable pavement is a good
stormwater runo management solution for a wide variety
of urban, commercial and industrial areas, and is designed
for light-duty and frequent use; however, the systems do
allow for a wider range of uses. [10] Although the combined
application of permeable pavement and ground source heat
pumps (GSHP) is commercially available, to date, there
is limited research. [11] Geothermal energy systems have
been increasing in recent decades around the world, to
reduce harmful gas emissions and provide a renewable
energy source. The sub-base of permeable pavement can
be used as a geothermal resource by applying appropriate
technology and geothermal heat pumps, which enable the
extraction or injection of heat to the subsoil at relatively low
temperatures through heat exchange systems, usually lled
with water.

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Figure 1.

H.M. Imran et al.

Some common types of permeable pavement systems.

2. Permeable pavement systems

PPS are a very eective management practice for a wide
range of pollution control in stormwater (Figure 1). They
facilitate inltration for large areas with a structurally safe
pavement for use by pedestrians, or shopping areas, park
areas and driveways as well as areas with moderate trafc use. [2] A common principal of permeable pavement
in the case of stormwater management is the collection,
treatment and inltration of stormwater to support groundwater restoration. PPS are a good solution, particularly in
sustainable drainage systems, for recycling of stormwater
and control of contamination from harmful substances, such
as hydrocarbons and heavy metals. [12,13] The aggregate
size of the sub-base and base should be precise so that the
permeable pavement can quickly drain runo and store the
water to avoid ash oods.
Hydraulic performance was assessed for a permeable
highway shoulder pavement to capture stormwater runo
onto the surface pavement. [14] HYDRUS software was
used to simulate the performance based on unsaturated ow
theory. The hydraulic properties of subgrade soil and pavement materials were used as input for the simulation, and the
critical thickness of layers of aggregates was xed according to the simulation results to avoid overow on the surface
pavement. Sensitivity analysis indicated that 1.5 m depth
of aggregate was sucient to capture the runo without
pooling on the pavement surface.
2.1. Concrete blocks
Precast grid or block-shaped concrete with open voids was
used for permeable pavement to allow inltration. Installation can be by hand or by a mechanical process. Generally,
the voids of the block are lled with crushed gravel or
stone, or topsoil and turf. Several common concrete blocks
Turfstone , UNI Eco-Stone and Unilock were used
to investigate the runo volume. [12,1517] The results

indicated that the runo volume was signicantly lower

than for asphalt driveways.

2.2. Plastic grids

Plastic grids used for PPS have gained popularity in recent
years. These grids provide more void space for lling materials than concrete blocks. Concrete block pavers are mostly
impervious, whereas the plastic grids are mostly pervious.
The voids of the grids are lled in the same way as concrete blocks. Grasspave and Gravelpave plastic grids
were used by Brattebo and Booth, [12] in which topsoil and
turf were used for Grasspave grid, and crushed gravel was
used in the Gravelpave grid. The monitoring data showed
that apparently no surface runo was obtained at that site.
Grassy Paver plastic grid showed 93% less stormwater
runo compared with the asphalt lots. [8]

2.3. Pervious/porous pavement

Pervious concrete is made by omitting the ne aggregate from the concrete mixture. Parking lots installed with
pervious concrete have been used successfully in many
places. [1820] Although there have been some problems
with the installation of the material, the pavement was
successful in allowing inltration of stormwater runo.
Evaluation and comparisons were made on water storage
capabilities of dierent types of pervious pavement in 45
places in Spain. [21] Pervious materials had a signicant
eect on the behaviour of pervious pavement. In addition,
the surface materials of pervious pavement made a greater
contribution to water management than a geotextile layer.
Analysis of variance techniques were used to explain the
relationship of storm runo management capacity of different pervious pavements with weather conditions. The
correlations of water management capacity were signicant (86%) between the porous asphalt and porous concrete

Environmental Technology

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pavement, whereas the plastic grid pavers indicated poor

correlation with other pavements.
Generally, porous pavements consist of a porous surface
for the top layer, and drainage materials are placed beneath
to lter the surface runo. Porous pavement applications are
limited in some cases to ne-grained soils, due to its performance. The performance of porous pavement on clay soils
was investigated by Dreelin et al., [8] who compared the
performance between an asphalt parking lot and a porous
pavement parking lot of grass pavers. The results showed
that the runo of porous pavement was 93% less than the
asphalt lot. Turbidity was signicantly less and conductivity
was signicantly higher for the porous pavement lot compared with the asphalt pavement lot. Moreover, metal and
nutrient concentrations were signicantly reduced by both
types of pavement.
3. Sustainable drainage systems
In conventional drainage systems, storm runo water
reaches nearby watercourses, sewers and drainage systems. SUDS provide facilities that reduce the peak ow
runo, increase groundwater recharge, inltration, and subsequently storage and recycling of the stormwater. The best
SUDS management practice is seen in the USA; however,
SUDS developed in the UK have become a very ecient
tool for urban runo management since 1990. [4,22,23] PPS
are considered a better solution than SUDS, [4] and provide
facilities to operate the ground source heating and cooling
systems in urban, commercial and industrial applications.
Moreover, PPS should be constructed with an impermeable
layer to protect the migration of contaminants into groundwater systems. In addition, PPS can be used as a tool for
best SUDS management practice to solve problems of ash
oods and water scarcity.
4. Design and construction
4.1. Aggregate layers and durability
Dierent types of aggregate can be used for PPS. Recycled
melted slags have also been used for permeable pavements.
[24] The topmost layer generally uses various types of
block paver except, for porous pavements. Permeable pavements generally consist of a layer of pavers at the top, and
then the base and sub-base layer. The durability of permeable pavement is less than that of impermeable pavement.
The life span is reduced by inltration of runo water,
and subsequent stripping and loss of sucient void space.
The biggest problem associated with porous pavement is
clogging, which can happen within three or four years
of installation. Clogging is mainly caused by sediment in
runo water, and collapsing pores resulting from vibrations
caused by trac. [2] The dierent types of paver blocks
were less prone to clogging compared with porous pavements, and were easy to maintain and clean for enhancing
inltration.

Figure 2. Typical cross-section of permeable pavement systems

integrated with geotextiles and ground source heat pump coil.

4.2. Geotextiles
Generally, a geotextile layer is set up between the bedding
layer and the base layer to help the biodegradation process and increase pollutant-attenuation capabilities, caused
by organic pollution within the PPS. [25] This layer also
promotes microbial activity for the better treatment of inltrate water. Geotextile membranes also prevent the passage
of ne particles from the bedding layer to a lower layer, as
shown in Figure 2. The bedding layer generally consists of
ne sand, which is very eective in reducing the pollutants
from runo. As a result, air pockets are created within the
bed layer, which makes the surface structurally unstable. [3]
Total suspended solids (TSS) removal through PPS
(UNI Eco-Stone and porous asphalt) in laboratory experiments indicated that the sieving action predominantly
occurs at the geotextile layer, [26] which is contradictory to
some study ndings [27,28] where the stated ltration primarily starts at the surface level of the pavement. This can
occur in the laboratory due to the inuent characteristics
and the lack of crust formation resulting from the wetting
and drying cycles, as well as the impact of vehicular trac
in the real environment of PPS. The combination of geotextiles and permeable pavement has signicant eciency
in treating urban stormwater for reuse. In one study, a geotextile was used at dierent layers in permeable pavements
to assess their pollutant-attenuation performance. [29] The
output of that study indicated that the combination of permeable pavement and geotextiles was more eective in
reducing contaminants from stormwater than conventional
permeable pavement without a geosynthetic layer.
4.3. Heating and cooling systems/earth energy systems
Earth energy and PPS have been used in combination in
pilot-scale operations in various places around the world.
Earth energy systems are also dened as geothermal heat
pumps, GSHP, or geo-exchange systems. Earth energy systems are situated below the surface of the ground and use
the renewable energy stored in the ground. The systems use
ground energy to generate heat energy. [30] The system is an
environmentally friendly technology which facilitates signicant heating and cooling throughout the year, resulting
in energy savings. [31] The systems use comparatively less
energy than traditional heating and cooling systems, and
can signicantly reduce the emission of global carbon and

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Figure 3.

H.M. Imran et al.

Ground source heat pump coil installation.

save fossil fuels. [31,32] At a certain depth of ground the

earth has a relatively constant temperature, which is higher
than air in winter and lower than air in summer. GSHP are
used to transfer ground heat to buildings during the winter
and, conversely, transfer heat out of buildings during the
summer season. The heating and cooling coils, as shown
in Figure 3, can be placed underground at a certain depth
(Figure 2) and the coils absorb heat from ground, which can
be used to warm the building during the winter. [33]
GSHP have been used in China, Japan, North America
and European countries. [3436] The coils of the pumps
can be used horizontally or vertically, and are looped into
the ground. The length and width of the loop depends on the
ground conductivity, soil type, geology and available land
area where the loop is installed. The main thermal carrier
through the coils is a mixture of water and de-icing agent.
The coecient of performance (COP) in a heating cycle and
the energy eciency ratio (EER) in a cooling cycle were
evaluated by Singhal et al. [37] to investigate GSHP performance. The mean values of COP and EER were between
24.5 and 35, respectively. The combination of GSHP and
PPS showed optimum performance for both heating and
cooling cycles, and this was also a very attractive technology for renewable energy and stormwater reuse. [33] GSHP
are widely used for sustainable renewable energy, and these
areas of research interest are increasing. [36]

4.4. Neural network modelling

Articial intelligence techniques such as neural networks
are often used for modelling highly variable and non-linear
physical phenomena in the water and environmental sectors. These modelling tools can be used to assess urban
runo water issues. Water resource variables have been
predicted [38,39] and forecast by the feed-forward neural
networks method. [4042] Neural network techniques have
also been used to predict water quality based on algal species

abundance. [43] Neural networks are composed of simple neuron-like operating elements (neurons) and weighted
connections between these elements. Network function
is determined largely by the connections between neurons. A biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) and dissolved
oxygen model was developed by Chaves and Kojiri [44]
using fuzzy neural networks. Neural network models for
a membrane microltration plant [45] and thermodynamic
eciency of GSHP consider the coecient of performance
[46] for permeable pavement. Urban stormwater quality
was investigated using a back-propagation articial neural
networks model at an unmonitored catchment. The model
analysed a number of water quality constituents, and the
results indicated that the articial neural network model
was more time consuming to construct, and less transparent. Consequently, the model was not a viable technique to
predict urban stormwater quality at an unmonitored catchment. [47] Another study was carried out by Tota-Maharaj
and Scholz [48] for the use of back-propagation neural
networks and testing of the Levenberg-Marquardt, QuasiNewton, and Bayesian Regularization algorithms. In this
case, the neural networks were statistically evaluated for
their eectiveness in prediction based on BOD, ammonianitrogen, nitrate-nitrogen, and ortho-phosphate-phosphorus
with the help of numerical computation of the mean absolute error, root-mean-square error, mean absolute relative
error and the coecient of correlation, where the prediction was compared with the corresponding measured data.
Three models were used to precisely assess the simulation
performance of the runo water quality parameters according to dierent types of permeable pavement investigated.
The models performances were satisfactory in predicting all key parameters, with few statistical errors and high
correlation coecients.
5. Water quality and reuse
PPS have a good track record for improving stormwater quality by signicantly removing potential pollutants
from the stormwater when it inltrates the systems. The
eects of faecal matter in runo and its remediation process within PPS were assessed. [49] The results showed
that the potentially pathogenic organisms were eciently
removed. Stormwater recycling potential and its treatment
eciency through the permeable pavement were greatly
dependent on the pollutant load. [3] The permeable pavement acted as a ltration device in which the removal
rates were 87% for chemical oxygen demand and 50
90% for BOD; however, NO3 -N, NH3 N and NH2 -N had
almost been completely removed by the pavement systems.
[29] Indigenous microbial biomass was more ecient than
a commercial microbial mixture for the oil-biodegrading
process through the permeable pavement by providing sucient nutrients. Scanning electron microscopy showed that a
complex community structure, which had high biodiversity,
was built within the permeable pavement. [50] Pathogenic

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Environmental Technology
organisms were able to survive at variable temperatures
in PPS. High microbial activities were found on geotextiles and surrounding lower parts of the sub-base, although
low oxygen concentration was found in the space around
the geotextiles. BOD and ammonia-nitrogen-removal eciency were found to be around 99% and 95%, respectively.
[49] Total coliforms, faecal coliforms, faecal streptococci,
heterotrophs, fungi, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Leptospira were often analysed for the pollution potential of
stormwater. It was not possible to predict the peak point of
contamination.
PPS are also able to treat stormwater runo contaminated with heavy metals and hydrocarbons, if a geomembrane is present. Asphaltic permeable pavement can significantly reduce the levels of copper, zinc and lead as well
as motor oil in stormwater. Copper and zinc inltration
of stormwater had a dramatic eect on water quality by
increasing the toxicity through the asphaltic pavement surface. Grasspave and UNI Eco-Stone paver were able to
continuously reduce the copper concentration in stormwater. [12] Hydrocarbons and heavy metals can pollute the
soil and groundwater due to an insucient biodegradation
process during the inltration of stormwater runo through
the permeable pavement. [1113]
Concrete block pavers had signicant eciency in
improving inltrate runo water quality and reducing the
concentration of Cu, Zn, TSS, NO3 -N, NH3 -N, TKN, TP
and Pb. [12,15] Pervious concrete pavers with grass swale
had the capability of reducing TSS, NO3 -N, NH3 -N, and
TN by 91%, 66%, 85%, and 42%, respectively, and by more
than 75% for Cu, Fe, Pb, Mn, Zn, [18] in which the TP loads
only reduced 3%. [17,51,52] The pH of euent shows that
the buer capacities of the concrete are very high, so that
there is no danger of mobilization. Generally, the pH of
stormwater was acidic to neutral. The permeable pavement
could buer the stormwater due to the presence of calcium carbonate and magnesium carbonate in the pavement
materials. [11]
Stormwater runo quality and quantity were assessed
for three permeable pavements made using asphalt, paver
and crushed stone. [15] The runo volume and contaminants load were signicantly lower for the pavers than
the asphalt pavement. The inltration rate was always
higher for pavers and crushed stone, although the rate
decreased over time. Water quality parameters including
TSS, nitrate-nitrogen, ammonia-nitrogen, phosphate, copper, zinc and lead were considered. TSS concentrations
were <100 mg/L, 425.2 mg/L and 23.3111 mg/L for
the asphalt, paver and crush stone pavement, respectively,
where the concentrations were signicant depending on
the seasonal variation, while the nitrate-nitrogen concentration was nearly 0.65 mg/l for all types of pavement. The
phosphate concentration was around 0.24 mg/L, which was
lower than that found in the study by Bannerman et al.
[53] in asphalt runo. Copper concentrations were above
the USEPA [54] freshwater aquatic toxicity thresholds of

13 (acute) and 9 mg/L (chronic) for asphalt and crushed

stone pavements, respectively, while lead and zinc concentrations for all the driveways were lower than the acute
aquatic toxicity threshold of 65 and 120 mg/L, respectively.
[54] In addition, TSS, ammonium-nitrogen and copper concentrations were higher in crushed stone than in paver
runo.
Sediment particle size and loading has a signicant
eect on the ltration system of stormwater in PPS. Sediment retention performance was assessed for dierent lter
media (crushed greywacke, 10% sand with greywacke, layered greywacke and sandgreywacke mix). The experiment
was carried out in the laboratory using column and boxshaped moulds. Sediment of 0.006 mm was applied at a
concentration of 4604200 mg/L, with water ow rates
of 100900 mL/min. [37] The column test results indicated that the sediment retention eciency was signicantly
high, between 96 and 91%. Furthermore, the retention rate
decreased between 55 and 89% when the size of the suspended particles was <38 m. At the same time, the box test
results showed a similar result, with the average retention
being 93% and decreasing to 8488% when the sediment
particle size was <38 m. The results indicated that the top
20 mm thickness of lter media was the most important for
sediment retention, whereas sediment loading had a lower
indirect eect. The shape of the mould had no eect on the
process.
An investigation was carried out by Boving et al. [55]
to assess the impact of organic and inorganic pollutants
on water quality for a permeable asphalt parking lot. Water
samples were collected from low and high-trac areas. The
study showed that a geotextile layer provides a restriction
for vertical percolation. Heavy trac areas were greatly
aected by clogging compared with low-trac areas. The
multi-species tracer test indicated that permeable asphalt
pavements were able to reduce 90% of heavy metals, and
27% of nutrients, although there were no bacteria or BOD.

6. Proposed permeable pavement structure

The proposed PPS consist of ve components: permeable
paver unit, bedding course, lter course, base course and an
optional geotextile layer, all of which can be constructed on
a permeable natural sub-base layer, as shown in Figure 4.
The permeable paver unit thickness ranges from 6080 mm
at the top-most layers. The bedding course typically consists
of a 200250 mm coarse sand layer. The lter course ranges
between 50100 mm, consisting of crushed aggregate that
provides ltering capabilities and also acts as a platform for
the pavement. A 350400 mm base course is constructed
with comparatively large size aggregates to provide strong
support for the paving as well as enough space for a storage
facility. An additional geotextile layer can be provided at
the bottom of the permeable pavement section for the better treatment of stormwater. The new layer, which is the

H.M. Imran et al.

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Figure 4.

Proposed typical permeable pavement structure.

focus of this pavement section, is the lter course, and special aggregates are recommended for use to signicantly
improve water quality by facilitating the biodegradation
process. These aggregates can be collected from locally
available cheap materials or waste materials. For example, in Malaysia, a locally available cheap material oil
palm shell can be used as a supplementary aggregate for
the lter course as well as the base course. Alternatively,
waste tier chips can be used as an eective supplementary
ltering media for the better treatment of stormwater. Both
materials provide a suitable environment for the biological
process and have good capability to improve water quality.
The waste materials used as aggregates lead to a possible
solution for the environmental problem, as well as reducing
the negative environmental impact.
7.

Further research needs

The uses of permeable pavement are manifold. It can be

used as light-duty pavement in pedestrian, parking, urban,
industrial and commercial areas, as well as a source of
renewable energy. Many studies have been conducted on
the improvement of PPS designs as well as on enhancement of stormwater quality. Recently, GSHP have been
incorporated with PPS to make use of renewable ground
source energy. Some studies have used dierent types of
aggregate for the sustainability of pavement systems and
to improve stormwater quality. Further studies are needed
to demonstrate the best techniques for the benecial use of
PPS. In this context, the following research gaps have been
identied for further research on PPS.
Further study could be carried out to understand the
importance of the species composition, dispersal and
colonization rate for the biodegradation process.
The removal eciency of nutrients through PPS
could be investigated .
Research could be carried out to evaluate the most
suitable environment for the biodegrading process for
dierent combinations of microorganisms.
For public health risk assessment, molecular microbiological techniques of Escherichia coli (an important
indicator for faecal pollution in aquatic environments) can be undertaken for further research.
Temperature has a signicant impact on the growth
pattern of micro-organisms. The correlation should
be established between the temperature variation,

biodegradation process and micro-organism growth

cycles through the PPS.
Dierent media mixtures can be installed and the
acceleration of the bio-retention process can be
investigated.
The performance of lter media into sumps incorporated at the bottom of the PPS can be investigated.
Although some studies have been carried out on the
process of attenuation of phosphorus from stormwater through PPS, extensive research should be conducted to explain the leaching and removal mechanism of phosphorus.
8. Conclusions
The following important conclusions can be drawn from the
review of the function of PPS:
PPS play a vital role in reducing contaminants from
inltrating stormwater runo and provide great facilities for storage and the reuse of stormwater as well
as in preserving the hydrologic function of a site.
Moreover, PPS can be applied to reduce the increased
pressure on groundwater extraction.
SUDS, such as permeable pavement technology, is
a green approach to collecting, storing, treating and
reusing stormwater from residential, industrial and
commercial areas.
Asphaltic pervious pavement is very ecient at
removing organic carbon and metal from stormwater,
but less eective in reducing nitrogen and ammonia.
Geotextile membranes demonstrated mechanical ltration and microbial action to reduce pollutants,
and were especially eective in retaining phosphates,
nitrates and ammonia from inltrate stormwater.
PPS act as a sustainable drainage system, and can
assist in countering ash ooding and water scarcity
problems.
GSHP are very eective, environmentally friendly
and provide signicant sustainable energy savings
for cooling and heating system operations, and can
be installed with the PPS. The simultaneous use of
GSHP and PPS is a new research area in recent years.
Heating and cooling systems operation or GSHP did
not show any adverse eect on water quality and
microbial activities through the PPS.
Acknowledgements
Financial support by the University of Malaya (UM), Kula
Lumpur, Malaysia under the UMRG research grant number RG
170/12 SUS is gratefully acknowledged.

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