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Public Health Genomics Unit and Institute for Molecular Medicine FIMM, National Institute for Health and Welfare, Helsinki, Finland
Department of Psychiatry, University of Helsinki and Helsinki University Central Hospital, Helsinki, Finland
c
Department of Public Health, Hjelt Institute, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
d
Department of Mental Health and Substance Abuse Services, National Institute for Health and Welfare, Helsinki, Finland
e
Finnish Institute of Occupational Health, Helsinki, Finland
f
Helsinki Sleep Clinic, Vitalmed Research Centre, Helsinki, Finland
g
Institute for Molecular Medicine FIMM, Helsinki, Finland
h
Social Insurance Institution of Finland, Research Department, Helsinki, Finland
i
Institute of Public Health and Clinical Nutrition, University of Eastern Finland, Kuopio, Finland
b
art ic l e i nf o
a b s t r a c t
Article history:
Received 26 November 2013
Received in revised form
30 September 2014
Accepted 1 October 2014
Available online 14 October 2014
Background: Disturbed sleep is associated with mood disorders. Both depression and insomnia may
increase the risk of disability retirement. The longitudinal links among insomnia, depression and work
incapacity are poorly known.
Methods: We examined association of self-reported sleep quality with incident symptoms of depression
and disability retirement due to depressive disorders in a longitudinal population-based sample of twins
(n 12,063 individuals). These adults were categorized by their sleep quality in 1975 and 1981, excluding
individuals with depressed mood in 1975/1981. The outcomes were the Beck Depression Inventory
(BDItot) and its subscale Negative Attitudes Towards Self (BDINATS) in 1990 as dichotomized measures, and
the incidence of disability retirement due to depressive disorder during 19912004.
Results: Onset of poor sleep between 1975 and 1981 predicted incident depression (BDItot OR 4.5, 95%
CI: 2.77.4, BDINATS OR 2.0, 95% CI: 1.42.7), while persistent poor sleep showed somewhat weaker
effects (BDItot; OR 2.5, 95% CI: 1.06.0, BDINATS OR 1.9, 95% CI: 1.13.3). Among those with few recent
stressful life events, onset of poor sleep predicted strongly depression (BDINATS OR 9.5, 95% CI: 3.7
24.2). Likewise onset of poor sleep by 1981 increased the risk of disability retirement due to depression
(OR 2.9, 95% CI: 1.84.9) with a similar risk among those with persistent poor sleep (OR 2.7, 95% CI:
1.35.7).
Limitations: Lack of baseline diagnostic interviews; sleep quality based on self-report.
Conclusions: Poor sleep is of importance in etiology of depression and disability retirement due to
depression. This emphasizes the importance of early detection and treatment of sleep disturbances.
& 2014 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND
license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/).
Keywords:
Sleep disorders
Cohort studies
Sleep
Depression
Disability
1. Introduction
Good sleep is important for emotional well-being (Zohar et al.,
2005), while acute sleep deprivation of as little as 12 h per night
leads to problems in alertness, cognition, pain threshold, and
mood (Lautenbacher et al., 2006; Van Dongen et al., 2003;
Vandekerckhove and Cluydts, 2010). Symptoms of insomnia
difculties in initiating or maintaining sleep, or non-restorative
n
Correspondence to: Department of Psychiatry, University of Helsinki, PL22, 00014
University of Helsinki, Finland. Tel.: 358 947163734; fax: 358 947163735.
E-mail address: tiina.paunio@helsinki. (T. Paunio).
1
These authors contributed equally to this work.
sleep accompanied by decreased daytime functioningare frequent in the general population, with prevalence of 1060%
depending on the use of denitions and data-collection methodologies (Ohayon, 2002). Individuals reporting disturbed sleep
are more likely to report emotional distress and recurrent health
problems (Morin and Gramling, 1989; Katz and McHorney, 1998;
Edinger et al., 2000). Insomnia and poor sleep are also risk factors
for major depression, and a recent meta-analysis comprising 21
individual studies dened that initially non-depressed people with
insomnia have a twofold risk to develop depression compared to
people with no sleep difculties (Baglioni et al., 2011). In depression, the electrophysiological architecture of sleep and the functional activity of different brain regions are disturbed (Riemann
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2014.10.002
0165-0327/& 2014 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/).
382
Predictor/Outcome
Outcome(1) : Self-reported
symptoms of depression (BDI-21)
Outcome(2): Depressive
disorder by the insurance
physician (ICD-9 or ICD-10)
Fig. 1. Study ow. All same-sex twin pairs were approached in 1975 based on information from the Central Population Registry in 1974 (n 24,675 individuals born in
19301957). Out of them, 20,134 individuals participated in the questionnaire in 1974, and 19,356 individuals (from 23,361 eligible twins) in 1981. These questionnaires
include data on subjective sleep quality, used as predictor in the current study. In the third data collection in 1990, twins born in 19301957 and responded in 1975 or 1981
were approached (n 16,179), out of which 12,502 responded (77%). All individuals who participated in the questionnaire completed also the BDI-21 questionnaire for selfreported symptoms of depression [Outcome (1)]. Register-based data on disability pension in 19912004 was collected for all those who had replayed to the 1975, 1981 and
1990 surveys (n 12,063), after exclusion of those who were in 1975 or 1981 retired due to chronic disease or work disability, were unemployed, or had used hypnotics or
tranquilizers (n 2004), making the target population for the Outcome (2) (depressive disorder diagnosed by the insurance physician) to cover 10,959 twin individuals.
383
2.2. Measures
2.2.1. Outcomes
2.2.1.1. Depressive symptoms
2.2.1.1.1. Beck Depression Inventory (BDItot). The 21-item Beck
Depression Inventory (BDI) (Beck and Beamesderfer, 1974) was
applied to measure depressive symptoms in 1990 (Varjonen et al.,
1997). For the logistic regression models the participants were
dichotomized as the non-affected with a BDI score o17, and the
affected with a score Z17. In estimation of the risk of selfreported depression in 1990 for disability retirement due to
Table 1
Proportions (%) of three BDI categories in 1990 by sleep quality in 19751981.
Sleep quality
BDI in 1990
Change 1975-1981c
Those without life
dissatisfaction in 1975
and in 1981a (n7476)
n
All
GoodGood
PoorGood
GoodPoor
PoorPoor
Mend
GoodGood
PoorGood
GoodPoor
PoorPoor
Womend
GoodGood
PoorGood
GoodPoor
PoorPoor
a
7476
7058
119
219
80
3327
3129
61
101
36
4149
3929
58
118
44
r9
1016 416 n
r9
1016 416
2053
2.07 1705 72.14 19.00
8.86
3.36
87 57.47 25.29 17.24
10.50 185 53.51 28.11 18.38
7.50
76 42.11 31.58 26.32
936
92.68 5.94
1.37 773 78.53 14.88
6.60
86.89 8.20
4.92
30 66.67 20.00 13.33
65.35 22.77 11.88
86 62.79 24.42 12.79
66.67 25.00
8.33
47 46.81 31.91 21.28
1117
86.59 10.79
2.62 932 66.85 22.42 10.73
81.03 17.24
1.72
57 52.63 28.07 19.30
70.34 20.34
9.32
99 45.45 31.31 23.23
63.64 29.55
6.82
29 34.48 31.03 34.48
89.29 8.64
84.03 12.61
68.04 21.46
65.00 27.50
2.2.2. Predictors
2.2.2.1. Quality of sleep. We measured quality of sleep in 1975 and
1981 as self-reported information by asking Do you usually sleep
well? with ve response alternatives that were well, rather
well, rather poorly, poorly, and don't know. The two time
points let us create two groups of persistent good or poor sleep
and two groups in which sleep quality changes, one for the worse
and one for the better. To achieve this, we categorized the subjects
into four groups as follows: GoodGood (sleeping well or rather
well in 1975 and in 1981, n 7058); PoorGood (sleeping rather
poorly or poorly in 1975 but well or rather well in 1981, n 119);
GoodPoor (sleeping well or rather well in 1975 but rather poorly
or poorly in 1981, n 219); PoorPoor (sleeping rather poorly or
384
3. Results
3.2. Poor sleep increases risk for core symptoms of depressed mood
In order to exclude an artifact caused by persistent symptoms
of poor sleep and their correlation on some of the BDI items, we
concentrated on the BDINATS domain in our subsequent analyses
with a threshold of score 43 as indicator for depressed mood.
Poor sleep predicted elevated BDINATS score in a consistent
manner (GoodPoor OR 2.0, 95% CI 1.4, 2.7; PoorPoor OR 1.9,
95% CI 1.1, 3.3 from logistic regression adjusted for multiple
confounders) (Table 3). The effect was similar in both genders
being signicant among those with onset of poor sleep (Good
Poor; men: OR 2.3, 95% CI 1.4, 3.8; women: OR 1.8, 95% CI 1.1,
Table 2
Logistic regressions on sleep quality in 1975 and 1981 as predictor of at least
moderate depression onset (BDItot 416) in 1990 among individual twinsa.
Sleep quality
19751981d
GoodGood
PoorGood
GoodPoor
PoorPoor
Adjusted for
sex and age
OR
OR
95% CI
95% CI
OR
95% CI
7058 1.00
1.00
1.00
119 1.69ns 0.62,4.64 1.42ns 0.50,4.01 1.71ns 0.62,4.71
219 5.50
3.46,
4.75nnn 2.96,7.63 4.45nnn 2.67,7.43
8.73
1.16,6.77 2.49n
1.03,5.98
80 3.61
1.53,
2.81n
8.48
385
nn
P o0.01.
a
Among those without life dissatisfaction in 1975 and in 1981 (scoreo 12)
(n 7476).
b
Smoking, alcohol use, physical activity.
c
Po 0.10: sex, age, smoking, somatic health, social network, emotional support, father relationship, life events.
d
GoodGood sleeping well or rather well in 75 and 81; PoorGood sleeping
rather poorly or poorly in 75 but well or rather well in 81; GoodPoor sleeping
well or rather well in 75 but rather poorly or poorly in 81; PoorPoor sleeping
rather poorly or poorly in 75 and 81.
n
Po 0.05.
nnn
Po 0.001.
ns
PZ 0.05.
3.4. Poor sleep and risk for disability retirement due to depression
Finally, we investigated the incidence of disability pensions
between 1991 and 2004 due to diagnosed depressive disorders as
related to sleep quality in 19751981. Poor sleep in 1981, irrespective of sleep quality in 1975, signicantly increased the risk for
disability retirement due to depressive disorders (GoodPoor
HR 2.9; 95% CI 1.8, 4.9; PoorPoor HR 2.7; 95% CI 1.3, 5.7 from
survival analysis adjusting for confounders) (Table 5; Fig. 2).
Table 3
Logistic regressions on sleep quality in 1975 and 1981 as predictor of BDINATS-depression in 1990a.
Sleep quality
19751981d
GoodGood
PoorGood
GoodPoor
PoorPoor
7058
119
219
80
OR
95% CI
OR
95% CI
OR
95% CI
1.00
1.34ns
2.45nnn
2.62nnn
0.82,2.19
1.79, 3.34
1.58, 4.32
1.00
1.23ns
2.26nnn
2.22nn
0.74, 2.04
1.66, 3.10
1.33, 3.71
1.00
1.28ns
1.97nnn
1.92n
0.77, 2.14
1.42, 2.74
1.12, 3.29
e
Twin pairs discordant for sleep quality and incident NATS-depressionone twin has GoodGood while his/her co-twin has GoodPoor or PoorPoor sleep and one twin is
depressed while co-twin is not depressed (38 pairs). Test for zygosity sleep interaction: P 0.0923.
f
GoodPoor or PoorPoor sleep combined: OR 1.71 (0.88, 3.31; P 0.109). Test for zygosity sleep interaction: P 0.1076.
a
BDINATS score 43 among those without life dissatisfaction in 1975 and in 1981 (score4 12) (n 7476).
Smoking, alcohol use, physical activity.
Po 0.10: sex, age, smoking, alcohol use, somatic health, social network, emotional support, father relationship, life events (1981 and 1990)
Test for sleep somatic health interaction: P 0.6720.
Test for sleep life events (1990) interaction: P 0.0695 (see Table 4).
b
c
d
GoodGood sleeping well or rather well in 75 and 81; PoorGood sleeping rather poorly or poorly in 75 but well or rather well in 81; GoodPoor sleeping well or
rather well in 75 but rather poorly or poorly in 81; PoorPoor sleeping rather poorly or poorly in 75 and 81.
n
Po 0.05.
nn
Po 0.01.
nnn
Po 0.001.
ns
PZ 0.05.
386
Table 4
Logistic regressions on sleep quality as predictor of BDINATS-depression onset
Predictor
Sleep quality
23 (n 1513)
45 (n 3931)
Change 19751981c
OR
95% CI
OR
95% CI
OR
95% CI
OR
95% CI
GoodGood
PoorGood
GoodPoor
PoorPoor
1.00
0.64ns
9.48nnn
3.83ns
0.08, 5.13
3.71, 24.2
0.53, 27.5
1.00
1.19ns
0.29ns
2.75ns
0.22, 6.59
0.04, 2.21
0.59, 12.8
1.00
1.04ns
1.64n
3.07nn
0.49, 2.17
1.05, 2.54
1.53, 6.16
1.00
1.18ns
2.35nn
2.79nn
0.49, 2.82
1.38, 3.98
1.31, 5.98
NATS score 4 3 among those without life dissatisfaction in 1975 and in 1981 (score412) (n 7476).
Adjusted for sex, age, smoking, alcohol use, somatic health, father relationship, life events in 1981, social network and emotional support.
GoodGood sleeping well or rather well in 75 and 81; PoorGood sleeping rather poorly or poorly in 75 but well or rather well in 81; GoodPoor sleeping well or
rather well in 75 but rather poorly or poorly in 81; PoorPoor sleeping rather poorly or poorly in 75 and 81.
n
Po 0.05.
nn
Po 0.01.
nnn
Po 0.001.
ns
PZ 0.05.
b
c
Table 5
Survival analysis on sleep quality in 19751981 as predictor of disability pension due to depression in 19902004 (n 8131).
Sleep quality N
19751981 a
GoodGood
PoorGood
GoodPoor
PoorPoor
7539
171
304
117
Adjusted for sex, life events and somatic Adjusted for sex, life events, somatic health and
health
alcohol use
HR
HR
95% CI
HR
95% CI
HR
95% CI
1.00
0.94ns
3.26nnn
3.23nn
0.30, 3.00
1.97, 5.38
1.57, 6.65
1.00
0.90ns
2.96nnn
2.75nn
0.28, 2.83
1.80,4.88
1.32, 5.77
1.00
0.88ns
2.94nnn
2.73nn
0.28, 2.78
1.79, 4.93
1.31, 5.72
95% CI
1.00
0.96ns 0.31,3.04
3.46nnn 2.08,5.73
3.59nnn 1.75, 7.37
Po 0.05.
a
GoodGood sleeping well or rather well in 75 and 81; PoorGood sleeping rather poorly or poorly in 75 but well or rather well in 81; GoodPoor sleeping well or
rather well in 75 but rather poorly or poorly in 81; PoorPoor sleeping rather poorly or poorly in 75 and 81.
nn
Po 0.01.
nnn
Po 0.001.
ns
PZ 0.05.
4. Discussion
In the present study, we found that long-term poor sleep
increases risk for depression and disability retirement due to
387
prior poor sleep quality. Poor sleep in 1981 increased the risk of
disability retirement due to depression during 19912004 almost
3-fold, even when we controlled for the effect of stressful life
events, poor somatic health, smoking and alcohol use. To our
knowledge this is also the rst study in which the longitudinal link
among insomnia, depression and disability pension due to depressive disorder has been demonstrated.
4.4. Strengths and limitations
One of the major strengths of the study was the size and nature
of the sample, which was collected by an un-biased method, is
representative for population, and has been followed systematically during decades. The large size enabled us to follow a
rened analytic strategy and control for a number of potential
confounders. Out of them, that for the childhood relationships
with mother and father was measured only post-hoc in 1981
which may have affected the reliability of that data. However,
since we excluded those with depressed mood at baseline, the
time point for measurement of the childhood relationships as well,
we are likely to have avoided the negative recall bias due to
current state of depressive mood. Lack of cross-sectional diagnostic interview is also a clear limitation of our study, but we were
able to compensate for it by including data from the disability
pension register, a solid end point with both diagnostic as well as
functional validity. One more limitation is that the measurement of sleep quality was based on self-report. However, subjective experiences with poor sleep quality have been found
to be associated with electrophysiological architecture of sleep
(Armitage et al., 1997).
5. Conclusions
Poor sleep is an independent and robust risk factor for the
various symptomatic domains of depression and for disability
retirement due to depressive disorder. We make a substantial
contribution to the literature showing longitudinal links among
poor sleep quality, incident depression and disability pension due
to depressive disorders. The ndings emphasize the impact of
sleep on regulation of mood and the probable causative role of
poor sleep quality in etiological mechanisms of mood disorder.
They also evidence for the importance of early detection and
treatment of poor sleep in order to prevent depression.
Conict of interest
Dr. Korhonen and Dr. Kaprio have acted as consultants on tobacco dependence
for Pzer, Inc, in 2011-2014. Dr. Partinen has acted as a member of the Medical
Advisory Board for UCB Pharma, consultant for Bioproject and obtained honoraria
for speaking in medical meeting by UCB Pharma, BSK, Leiras-Nycomed and a grant
to medical congress by Cephalon.
Acknowledgments
None.
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