7

Siphon Spillways

7.1

INTRODUCTlON

The discharge over an overflow spillway is a function of the head measured

over its crest. Enclosing the crest and making the resulting conduit flow full
can substantially increase this effective head. The head on the spillway is then
the difference in elevation between the reservoir surface and the spillway
outlet. However, the flow near the crest of the spillway would then be under a
negative pressure, In other words, the conduit becomes a siphon. AII necessary
precautions must be taken to ensure that the vacuum is maintained and that it does
not become so excessive as to cause cavitation. The maximum negative pressure at
the spill-way crest IS theoretically 10m of water at sea level, Allowing for the
vapor pressure of water, loss due to turbulence. Etc., the maximum net
effective head
is rarely more than about 7.5 m. This corresponds to a velocity of \12 x 9.81 x 7.5
...12ml. Which means that the initial velocity is any siphon cannot exceed about
12 m/s at the inlet, Thee essence of the hydraulic design of siphon spillways,
therefore, lies in ensuring maximum discharge capacity without harmful negative
pressures.
7.2 TYPES OF SlPHON
Siphons can be classified in several ways (Govind Rao 1956).

According to the configuration

A. Hood or Saddle siphon (as shown in Figure 1)
B. Volute siphon (3S shown in Figure 2)
11. According 10 the operating head
A. Low bead siphon. Operating at net head (difference between the
upstream and downstream water levels) less than atmospheric
pressure, i.e., about 10 0lI.
l.

a,

B.

High bead siphon exceeding the above value

129

III. According

to

arrangement of priming

A.
B.

Water seal type

Tilted outlet

A.

Unregulated

C. Baby siphon
D. Tudel or stepped type, etc.
IV. According to regulation
B. Air-regulated

7.3

HYORAULIC ACTION

Siphons have been used as spillways for reservoirs and canals since the middle of

18th century. Their advantages over simple weirs, gated weirs and gated ori
fices are: automatic control of head water level within close limits, concentration

of flow within restricted space, operation without mechanical parts, independence

from outside power supply. and low maintenance costs.

Chapter 7

132

Some disadvantages are: the discharge is inhibited or reduced if

obstructed by debris or ice and the sudden increase of discharge on priming
might cause fluctuations in head water level and flash floods downstream.
In a hood or saddle siphon (Fig. 1) the crest is set at the FRL (Full
Reservoir Level), It has a bell-mouth entry and exit, and a water seal to
prevent air from entering from the downstream. When the water rises above
FRL., i.e., above the crest. the discharge passed down through the lower
limb carries away air in the throat. This action is similar to the weir overflow.
With increase to the head and discharge, m o r e and more air is dragged out
resulting in fall in pressure. The difference between the atmospheric pressure 0n
the outside and reduced pressure in the siphon creates more flow and a higher
pressure drop until the entire throat starts flowing full, when it is said to have
primed. To stop the siphonic action, there is an air inlet pipe with its mouth at
FRL or a higher elevation. As soon as the water in the reservoir goes below
the desired elevation, air rushes through this pipe into me siphon and breaks
the vacuum, stopping the flow. The air inlet pipe is called a deprimer.
Various devices are used to induce early priming of the siphon. The

two most commonly used are me step or deflector (Fig, 3) and the baby siphon
(Fig. 4).

Figure 4 Sipbon witb

baby

slphon,

In a volute siphon, (Ganesh Iyer 1950) shown in Figure 2, the lip of

the funnel is kept al FRL and a number of volutes (like the blades of

pumps or turbines) are placed on the funnel to induce a spiral motion of

water passing along them. When the water rises above FRL. it spills, over the
circumference of the lip of the funnel and flows along the volutes with a spiral
motion, forming a vortex in the vertical pipe. This induces a strong suction pool
creating a powerful vacuum. which sets the siphon in action. To Stop the
siphonic action, air is let in through small pipes taking off from the crown of the
dome with their inlet opened al FRL.

7.4

HYDRAULIC DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

The following characteristics are relevant in the hydraulic design of siphon spillways:

Discharging capacity
Priming depth
Regulating flow
134

Chepter7

Stabilizing function
Effect of waves the reservoir
Cavitation
Vibration
7.5

DISCHARGING CAPACITY

The flow in the throat section of a saddle siphon can be idealized as a free vortex, so
that
Subscript 1 refers to quantities at the crest and subscript 2 refers t o the crown of the
siphon.
V = V, ~

Referring

to

(2)

R
Figure 1. Discharge through an elemental area dA formed by a strip

dR and throat width b is

Q. = V, R, dA = V, ~bdR

(2a)

and hence

{R_]R.

R
dR
.. R
.. R
Since, the maximum value of V, is 12 m/s.

Q_ = 12R,

{lO ~]

(4)

and the average,velocity will be

V.= Q
A

12R,b[ln.&]

(R: - R,)b

Ro

12RI
(R.-R,)

[In.&.]
R,

(5)

This velocity should be the same at all sections a1ong the siphon barrel
unless there is expansion or contraction or the section. However, when the
siphon is running full, the velocity is given by the total head H (from
reservoir level up to the tail water level or crown of the outlet section. as the
case may be),
V ..

p.V2iH

(6)

Copynghted m

Slphon Spillways

135

Mu= siphon-coefficient accounting for various losses such as inlet, friction, bend,
Etc.

If the siphon barrel is of constant cross section without constriction or

expansion,

(7)

- --r.7'==:====:====:="7

J(I+k,+k,+k.+ ...)

Where k, etc. are toss coefficients for inlet, friction, bend and
outlet.

It may be necessary to limit

the head in some manner to prevent V from exceeding

the value specified in Equation 5. This ca n be done either by increasing the outlet
loss by constricting the outlet section or by decreasing the t o tal head by raising
the elevation of the outlet.
When the outlet section is constricted, the exit velocity V is given by

Where V. is obtained from Equation The required outlet area A can then be
calculated from V-. The above procedure can also be represented by a single
relationship

JI" = -Q = .A:..:V....a. = ""'I'!'''''!'!''_

_

VD

Yo

... ...

2gH
-. -(k,+J:, + ....+.
...)
V.

(9)

The discharge in the volute siphon can also be calculated in the same way
by assuming that the flow entering the funnel al the lip (Fig. 5) takes a
circular path (Govind Rao 1956).

V,R

,.
.

Chapter
137 7

Slphon
1371 SpUlways
37

lf the area at t h e outlet section is A. and H is the operating bead available,

CD. may be assumed t

as high as 0.85.

be 0.70. However, model observations have shown this to be

Ackers (1975) have summarized the discharge characteristics in a

nondimensional form as shown in Figure 6, applicable for all air-regulated siphons.
Initially, the discharge rises slowly as relative to upstream head. When priming
occurs, the curve flattens, representing a wide range of discharge for a small
difference in head.
This is th e range within which the siphon will operate f1owiog full of air
water mixture, until the upstream level falls below the depriming head. To avoid
hunting

it is desirable

for the curve in the o perating range to gently rise with

increase in the discharge. If the upstream level rises beyond this operating range,
the siphon will run to black water (a term used to define flow without air), when the
discharge will increase in proportion to only VH. Generally, the siphon should be
designed such that the black water condition is not reached.
Beto. (l989) have reported experiments with air regulation through two
pipes, which dip into the surface of the headwater. One of these dip pipes
admits air to the crown of the siphon passage and the other admits air at the
crest. This form of air admission produces good dispersion of air into the
f1ow. This results in a head-discharge characteristic that is considerably flat,
showing large change in discharge for very little change in headwater level as
shown in Figure 7.

Illustrative Examples
1. A reservoir requires a spillway to surplus a maximum discharge of 450 cumec
with its FRL 20 to above the tail water elevation.

a. If an overflow spillway with a WES crest profile is used with

crest elevation 5 m below the FRL, what should be the length
of such a spi1lway?
lf a siphon spillway is used, with a constant cross section 5
m in depth and formed by radii of 5 m and 10 m, what should
be the width of such a siphon?
c. If the total head loss through the siphon (excluding velocity head
at outlet) is 10 m, how far above or below the tail water level
should the siphon discharge in order to avoid cavitation?

b.

a.

For overflow spillway. the coefficient of discharge may be taken as

2.20.
(lla)

b. With R = 5 m and R2 = lOm, average velocity allowed through

the siphon is given by Equation 5.

v. = Q =
A

[In R.]=
12R,b
12R, [10 R,R,]
R,)b
R,
(R, - R,)

(I?, -

and hence the required crest width is

(1Ib)

Slphon
1381 SpUlways
38

teri

Chapter
138 7

Slpnon
Splllw.y.
1391

Chapter139
7

39

Thus, using a siphon spillway affects a reduction of width by about

40%.

c. Applying energy equation from the reservoir surface to the siphon

outlet end, the operating head H will be
L =>
=
832' 10= I 353m.
(1le)
V2 + H
H=
H ........
-'-+

2g

19.62

The siphon o u t l e t should be placed (20- 13.53) = 6.47 m above t he tail water
elevation.
2. A siphon spillway of constant rectangular cross section 4 m wide X 2.5 m
high has configuration as shown in Figure 8. The total length of the siphon is 80 m.
Various loss coefficients are:
inlet 0.12
outlet 1.0
gama

(bend loss coefficient)

Friction factor 0.018

0.75

Determine (a) the maximum discharge. (b) Whether cavitation would occur for that
discharge, and if so, the safe discharge for avoiding cavitation, and (e) The required
constriction o f lth outlet section 10 restrict that discharge.

(l.

The gross operating head = El 111.25 - El 81.25 = 30 m.

Max discharge equals 10 X 15.87=

cumec
b.

158.7

The average velocity should not exceed t h a t given by Equation 5.

V. =

12R.

Since the velocity in (a) of 15.87 m/s is considerably larger than

9.19 m/s, there would be danger or cavitation. The discharge
should, there fore, not exceed 9.19 x 10 = 91.9 cumec.
c.

Required outlet area to restrict the discharge to 91.9 c u m e c is given

By
Equation9.
If the width of the outlet section is retained the same, then the depth of the
section should be reduced from 2.5 m 10 (4.28/4) - 1.07 m.
7.6

PRIMING OEPTH

The priming action of a siphon depends on the power of its air evacuation,
On the inlet side, this is easily done by keeping the lip of the hood below
the reservoir level. To prevent the entry of air from downstream and ensure
smooth priming, it is necessary to provide a water seal in the downstream leg
as shown in Figure l. In a saddle siphon, other factors that facilitate low
priming are a narrow throat, a large radius at the crest, and a critical depth
of submergence at the outlet exit, Enrique (1975) express the entrainment
of air by a falling nappe within the siphon barrel in terms of depth of free
fall H., water velocity V, jet geometry (b), (p), (1), and water discharge Qw.

1
V
\..1'!X!!J.)a"'(l-~)

9.."'.2

Q.

(12)

where.

Q. - Air discharge
Q. - Water discharge
t ~ Thickness of the rectangular jet
b ; Width of the rectangular jet
H, = Depth of fall of the rectangular jet
p e Perimeter of the jet exposed to atmosphere
V ... = Minimum velocity to entrain air

Equation 12 indicates the relative influence of various parameters o n the rate

of air entrainment within the siphon barrel and thus, on the rapidity of the
priming.
Bollrich (1994) states that priming depth is approximately 0.16 to 0.20
limes the vertical dimension of the waterway al the crest, i.e .. Hp "-O.16-{).20
d.
ln a volute siphon, priming depth decreases with the increase in the number

and height of volutes, 8 decrease in the angle of their lake-off from the lip, a
decrease in the rise of the dome and in the slope of the funnel, and an increase
in the height of the funnel.
However, it is observed that most of the factors that favor a low priming
depth adversely affect the coefficient of discharge.

7.7

FLOW REGULATION

One of the prime disadvantages of the siphon spillway is the sudden release of
discharge on priming and the sudden stoppage of this discharge on depriming
leaving any effort of flow regulation.
Air regulated siphons (similar 10 those proposed by Prellyjohns el al.) offer a
relatively flatter discharge curve to ensure a wide range of discharge for small
rise in upstream water level. However, discharge and water level in the downstream increase rapidly.
ln the case of spillways with battery of siphons, at least partial
regulation of flow in the downstream is possible (i.e., adding or stopping
discharge in steps) by manually closing or opening of air inlet valves of some
siphons.

However, this must be done with due regard to inflow in the reservoir. Another method is
to install siphons at different crest levels such that their priming/depriming occurs in
stages, with increasing/decreasing upstream water levels, as described by Bollrieh (1994)
in the case of the Burgkhnmmcr dam, Germany, having three pairs; of siphons with
their crest levels differing by 10 cm. Each siphon with inlet dimension of 3m wide
X 1.8 m deep, has been designed to pass a safe discharge of 42 cumec, with a
priming depth in the range of 30-47 cm. Depriming is expected at a water level 5
cm above the relevant entrance lip (al the same level as the crest). Figure 9 shows the
operating cycle of the siphon spillway.
Partial control of discharge through a siphon may also be possible by manipulating a
valve-controlled air vent installed on the crown of the siphon. The necessary cross
section of the air vent must be ('Bollrich.I994).
wbere

::E(. = sum of hydraulic loss coefficients in the air vent

Po = pressure at me summit of the siphon
P...,

Airbrent pressure

This is, however, seldom resorted to in actual practice because of

apprehension about serious operational problems.
7.8 STABILITY OF FUNCTIONING
An examination of Figure 6 and Figure 7 will show that once the siphon primes.
the increase in the discharge is substantial as compared to the increase in !he
upstream water level, A stage may be reached when the outflow through
the siphon exceeds the inflow, at which time the upstream water level may
start depleting leading to depriming. This results in reduction of discharge and
increase in the upstream water level and priming again. This is called hunting or
instability of siphonic action and is undesirable. Ackc el al (1975), however,
noted that the indications of model test on the control of upstream level by an airregulated siphon could be misleading because in the full-scale situation the
head pool area and the capacity are proportionately much greater,
The phenomenon of hunting of the siphon has been extensively studied on
hydraulic models by Benfratello (1955), Boreli (1955). and Crump el al. (1961).
The hunting of the siphon is influenced by the elevation of the lip of the siphon
entry hood from the crest Hh. with reference to the priming depth Hp For H. :S
Hp violent hunting was evident. It has been recommended by Crump el al.(1961)
that

(14)

7.9 EFFECTOF WAVES

Perkins el al. (1975) have described model tests in which the performance of a
siphon was effected by waves with amplitude up 10 1.83 m and period
varying from 3.5 10 7 seconds. Although, siphon did not deprime, the mean
water levels were up to 0.46 m higher than they had been previously and the
air was seen entering the siphon in bursts. In addition, the action of waves
was cyclic. The arrangement suggested by them includes provision of 3. stilling
box to suppress

the effect of waves as shown in Figure 10.

7.10 CAVITATION
Siphons opemling al high bcad muy cnviuue. This was evideol from the
experi ments on !he model of a saddle siphon as well as 00 a fuU-!Cale. 14
cumec siphon. haviog 1.5 m higb barrel al !he throar and operating under a
bead of 7.3 m. The

pressures on !he erest weee about - 7.5 m of water. However, by puning n

flured oullel uf 1:5 in the modcl. Ibe negativo pressure inercascd 10 -8.2 III
and the discharge showed 8.11 increase or 31 percent. In the full-scale, lhe
dischnrgc in creased by only 3% because of cavitauon and separauon, lt was
confirmed lhal Ibe limiring oegarive pressure in a well-designed sipboo
corresponds lO about
8.2 m of water.
Protorype investigations in regard 10 functiooing of the Hirebhasgar
volute siphons, such as ooe in India. brougbt OUI the limitations of vollile
siphons operar ing al heads in exeess of 20 m. Cavitarion damages were ooticed
00 the vertical barrel just below the throat and on the bends.

Predlctlon of Cavltatlon
An approximate veleeity in excess of about 12 mis is a condilion for Ihe
onsei of cavitatlon. Bollrich (1994) has SIISscsled a more precise method based
00 the vcrtex-core thcory. According to lhis lheory. the tenson PI< inside rhe
core 01' a single vonex rocaling with a velocity VI equal to the fiow velocy
can be ex pressed as

p.

V,'
-=-/"",--'

(15)

2g

where

b... = vacuum pressure bcad, i.e., thc difference between the annospheric
pressure (correspanding to lhe elevation of lhe structure with respect 10
0151). and !he vapour pressure P.
(p)"

_[.!'er.._ p.]y

(ISa)

The critical values of the pressure and Ihe velocity are al the inner side
(crest) of lhe siphon. Referring 10 Figure I and the general expression for
discharge through sipbon,
Q:bR,I{I+ ~~2g(Hp-"'-h.",)

(16)

Where hl e head 105Sdue 10 entrance, bend. (rietion etc. from thc entrance
up
10 Ibe cresr, Because of!he proper bell-mouth entranee and tbe relatively
shorter
Icnglh involved, ibis loss of head is suggested lo be
only
V,'

", = 0.08..:L...
"0.08
282gb

Q'

1 I

(17)

Copynghted m

Slphon
Splllway.
146

1461
Chapter7
4614

H. is laken equal to zero as o worst case.

11Ius. Equauon 15 can be writlen as

a=bR,ln(I+'!")

R,

28(-0.08

Q: 1-"-)
2gb

(17a)

(18)

wbere

a=bR,ln(l+ ;.)

(ISa)

From whicb h... can be evaluated in terms of

Q.

Also. v, = Q/a and hence

v. '

. ;L

(19)

=_

Q'

2g 2ga
1110$P'y = -"_

- V1l2g can be expressed as a function of Ql.

(20)

P. = {JQ'
r

Assigning various values 10 P/r gives correspooding values of discbarge Q.

GeDeraJly.
P,y = - 10m corresponds to the beginning of local cavitation,
1be entine procedure is explaned next with neference 10 !he sipbon spillway
of Illustrative Example 2.
lIIustraUve Example8
3. Determine lhe discharge through the siphon spillway of Example 2 ceerespond
ng 10 !he condinon of begnning of local cavitaton.
/1,

v.'

Q'

= 0.08-'= 0.08 2gb

28

= 0.08

a'

'd'
(20a)

0.0000408Q'

2...9.81...100

~~ =2g(-O.0000408Q'-It .)attd
~

a:bR,ln(l+

(7.66)2 .t2x9.811-0.0000408 (2 - h...,)

= 1151.931- 0.000048 Q2 - 11."",]::0

::o I,_ = - 0.000909 Q2

~)=7.66

(2Ob)

e = -0.047 e - 11.51.93 h~

\(,
=
v. =-Q ~ .:.t...
a

28

Q'

0.000868 Q'

19.62.t7.66

Po
\('
...!.=-It"" --'
=-O.OOO909Q' -O.OOO868Q' =-O.00178Q'

(2Oc)

28

P .f r

Q = ./--:: '- ' ~

-0.00178

(2Od)
(20e)

For the limring valu of P,jy = - 10m. Q = 74.9Scllmec from Equaton

(20e).
Thus, llle maxlmum discharge should be resrricted 10nbout 7S cumec,
Wilh this, !.he veloeity V, at the eres! would be Q/a '" 7Sn.66 '" 9.8 mis
nnd tbe average velocity V. = 75/10 .. 7.5 mis.

7.11

VIBRATlON

There may be a porerual danger of vibration when a siphon operares with a

large quantiry of air that ls gulped intermittenlly and !hen carried through the

struc:ture in discrete lorge pockets. Ackers el al. (1975) siate thal lhe intermiuem
odmis.,ion of air and lurbulent Ilow lllrougb tbc siphon mean tIlu!'Ihe structure
oC !he hood must be capable of willlstanding Iluctuating suction pressures,
There could be a dynamic interaction between the suucture and the twophase flow of air and water, However, any instance o severe vibrations 00 !be
saddle siphons has no! come 10 the Ight, 00 !be other hand, volute sipbons bave
been subjeeted 10severe vibrations (CBIP 1979). The tests cooducted 00 volute
sipbons of Hirebhasgar dam revealed vibrations with !be geeeral level from
0.059 g to 0.15 g, 1I was also found lhal when the oullel of a siphon was
tapered, though tbc discharge apparenlly droppcd, the siphon ran smoothly.
Notatlona
A = Arca of flow section

Po., '" Are u of ouuer

seeoe A", .. Area of the

air vent
a .. Are. of annular space in volute
siphon b = Widlh of sipbon throat seetion
Cd =- Coefficient of discharge
d ~ Dcpth or height of lhroal section
f - Friction factor

H : TOIal operaiing head

H~ : Total head 1055 throegh !he siphon

H.

Priming deplh

H, = Depth of free fnll of tbe jet

h, - Head IOS5 in the siphon fmm entrnnce up to
crest b"", - VQCUUtll pressure head

k '" Loss coefficients for inleL friction, beod, outler etc.

L '" Widlh of the siphon
P; = Criiical value of pressure al CJ'eS1
Po = Pressure al crown
p : Perimerer of rectangular jet exposed 10 atmosphere

p_

pressure
Atmospheric pressure
Ambienr

P.... a
p. = vapour pressure of water
Q '" Discharge tbrough siphon
<h '" Nr discharge
Q.,.. '" Maxi01um discbarge througb
siphon q = Discharge intensity
R '" Radius of curvature

R, : Rndius of CUN.LUre at crest of siphon

R, '" Radius of curvature ni crown of siphon
I '" Thickness of the rectangular jel
V '" VeJocity of flow

V. = Average velocity in tbe siphon

V; = Critieal valu of velocty al crown
V.,,;. = Mnimum vclocity 10 entroin air (appx J. J mis)
Vo '" VcJocily al tbe outlet of!he siphon
a .. A fuctor

~ - A faclor
J.I. '" Sipbon coefflcient
t '" Hydraulic loss cocfficients in the air vent

2, Marcb 1989.