Physics 340

Spring (3) 2012

Nuclear Physics Lab I:

Geiger-Mller Counter and Nuclear Counting Statistics
PART I Geiger Tube: Optimal Operating Voltage and Resolving Time
Objective: To become acquainted with the operation and characteristics of the Geiger-Mller
(GM) counter. To determine the best operating voltage and the resolving time of a Geiger
counter. The resolving or dead time is used to correct for coincidence losses in the counter.
Experimental Apparatus: A typical Geiger-Mller counter consists of a cylindrical gas filled
tube, a high voltage supply, a counter and timer. A large potential difference is applied between
the tube body which acts as a cathode (negative potential) and a wire down the tube axis which
acts as an anode (positive potential). The sensitivity of the instrument is such that any particle
capable of ionizing a single gas molecule in the GM tube (thus producing an electron-ion pair)
will initiate a discharge in the tube.
What happens next depends on the voltage across the gas-filled tube. For the lowest applied
voltages, only the ions created by direct interaction with the incoming radiation are collected. In
this mode, the detector is called an ion chamber. For higher voltages, the ions created are
accelerated by the potential difference gaining sufficient energy to create more ion pairs. This
results in a localized avalanche of ions reaching the wire. This is the proportional region. The
pulse height (or voltage of the signal) is proportional to the number of initial ion pairs created by
the incoming radiation. This in turn is proportional to the energy of the incoming radiation. For
even higher voltages, the new ions can create additional photons which move out of the local
region and further down the tube; essentially the discharge propagates an avalanche of ionization
throughout the entire tube, which results in a voltage pulse--typically a volt in amplitude. Since
the discharge is an avalanche and not a pulse proportional to the energy deposited, the output
pulse amplitude is independent of the energy of the initiating particle and, therefore, gives no
information as to the nature of the particle. This is the Geiger-Mller region. In spite of the fact
that the GM counter is not a proportional device, it is an extremely versatile instrument in that it
may be used for counting alpha particles, beta particles, and gamma rays. Such a large output
signal obviates the need for more than a single stage of amplification in the associated electronic
counter.
Geiger-Mueller tubes exhibit dead time effects due to the recombination time of the internal gas
ions after the occurrence of an ionizing event. The actual dead time depends on several factors
including the active volume and shape of the detector and can range from a few microseconds for
miniature tubes, to over 1000 microseconds for large volume devices. When making absolute
measurements it is important to compensate for dead time losses at higher counting rates.
Please keep all sources in the lead brick house. Take out only the one you need, and return
it as soon as you are done taking a measurement.
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Optimal Operating Voltage: Procedure

[This section requires the GM tube from the Tel-X-Ometer X-Ray apparatus. If another group is
currently using this detector you will need to negotiate with them for its use. You only need it
for 30 minutes or less and you can do this part of the experiment at any time (so go on to the next
part if the X-ray GM tube is not currently available).]
Using the Geiger tube from the Tel-X-Ometer, with the voltage set at about 400 V, find the most
active source among those in the red box in the lead brick enclosure. Simply set the Geiger
counter on the table and balance a source right up against the end of it. You will need to
determine which side of the source is the most active. Once youve identified the most active
source, use that to measure counting rate versus voltage. Take readings across the full range of
voltages available. The counting rates will vary significantly, so watch the number of counts for
at least 30 seconds and record what seems to be the average. In particular, you will want to take
careful reading around the "turn-on" voltage. Estimate an uncertainty for each reading.
Graph counting rate vs. voltage. On your graph, identify the regions from those described in the
Introduction. Are all regions present? If not, why do you think they might not be represented?
Given your data, identify the optimum operating voltage range for this GM detector.
Dead Time: Theory and Procedure
As noted above, once a discharge has been initiated in the GM tube a new pulse will not be
detected until the previous discharge has extinguished itself. Thus there is a dead time
associated with each counting event. If we measure a counting rate r in a time interval t, the
total detector dead time will be Tdead = (rt). Thus the true counting rate R and the measured
counting rate r are related by
R(t Tdead) = r t so if we know we can correct our measured count rates as follows
R=

r
.
1 r

(1)

We can determine by measuring the individual and combined counting rates from two high
flux samples. If we call these rate r1, r2, and rc we have the following three equations:

r1 = R1(1 r1)
(2a)
r2 = R2(1 r2)
(2b)
rc = (R1+R2)(1 rc)
(2c)
with the three unknowns R1, R2, and . Solve this set of equations for and show that the dead
time is approximately given by:
r +r r
1 2 c .
(3)
2r1r2
Here we will make such measurements using our two 5C 137Cs sources (located in the clear
plastic box) and DataStudio to determine the dead time for the PASCO Geiger counter. (Note

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Spring (3) 2012

that the operating voltage for this detector cannot be adjusted). Set up the DataStudio for a 30s
counting interval. Devise a way to place the 137Cs sources so that when both are in place they
touch one another, are positioned midway between the ends of the tube, and so that each source
can be removed then replaced in exactly the same position.
With only one cesium radioactive source in place, take a five-minute count (10 measurements).
The count rate should be in the range 10,000-20,000 counts per 30s. Record the count as r1.
Place the second source beside the first (being careful not to disturb the first) and take a fiveminute count of the combined sources. Record this count as rc. Now remove the first source and
take a third five-minute count. Record this as r2. Repeat with the source positions reversed
because these sources are not of equal strength. (Note: If the count rate exceeds 65,000
DataStudio will "reset" its counter).
Calculate the dead time of the PASCO GM detector for both arrangements using Eq. (3).
Now that we know for the PASCO GM tube we can use Eq. (1) to correct any counting rates
measured with this detector. Apply such a correction (if necessary) for data taken in the next
section.
PART II Statistics of Nuclear Counting*
*[Portions of the Theoretical Background are taken from Experimental -Ray Spectroscopy and
Investigations of Environmental Radioactivity Experiment 9 by Randolph S. Peterson, Spectrum
Techniques, Inc.]

Objective: To study the statistical fluctuations which occur in the disintegration rate of an
essentially constant radioactive source (one whose half-life is very long compared to the time
duration of the experiment).
Theoretical Background: We can never know the true value of something through measurement.
If we make a large number of measurements under (nearly) identical conditions, then we believe
this samples average to be near the true value. Sometimes the underlying statistics of the
randomness in the measurements allows us to express how far our sample average is likely to be
from the real value. Such is the situation with radioactive decay, with its probability for decay, ,
that is the same for identical atoms.
Radioactive materials disintegrate in a completely random manner. There exists for any radioactive
substance a certain probability that any particular nucleus will emit radiation within a given time
interval. This probability is the same for all nuclei of the same type and is characteristic of that type
of nucleus. There is no way to predict the time at which an individual nucleus will decay.
However, when a large number of disintegrations take place, there is a definite average decay rate
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which is characteristic of the particular nuclear type. Measurements of the decay rate taken over
small time intervals will yield values which fluctuate randomly about the average value and
consequently which follow the laws of statistics. Hence in dealing with data from measurements of
radioactivity, the results of the laws of statistics must be applied.
Given that t is the probability of decay for a single nucleus in time interval t (and thus 1t is the
probability for non-decay), the probability P(n,t) of n nuclei decaying in time t from a sample of N
identical atoms is given exactly by the binomial distribution

P(n,t) =

N!
( t) n (1 t) N n .
n!(N n)!

(4)

The mean and variance of this distribution are = Np and 2 = Np(1p), respectively, where p = t.

such that = tN remains small, this binomial distribution can be

If t is small and N is large
approximated by the Poisson distribution
n
P(n,t) = e
(5)
n!
where = Nt is the average number of decays in time interval t.

If t is small and N is largesuch that = tN is not small (perhaps greater than 100), the binomial
distribution can be approximated by the normal (Gaussian) distribution function,

P(n,t) =

(n )2

1
2 2

(6)

where 2 is the square of the standard deviation, and gives a measure of the width of the
distribution.

Experimentally we measure a sources activity or count rate. We expect a large number of

independent measurements to be described by the above probability functions where we

approximate with our sample average A and the standard deviation with the square root of A .
Thus, given a large number of measurements M of a source's activity, A, the frequency
(A) = MP(A)A with which we measure A (per interval A) is expected to follow Poisson statistics
if A is small:

A
A A
PPoisson (A) =
e
(7)
A!
and Gaussian statistics if A is large:

(A A )2

.
2 A
the number of times our measurement falls in the range A A+A.
Note that (A) is

PGaussian (A) =

2A

(8)

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FIGURE 1. Gaussian fit to counting frequency (using a 10 cps bin width) for 60Co.
A plot of experimental counting data, binned using A = 10cps, and the fit (A) = M A PGaussian(A)
are shown in Fig. 1. The data in Fig. 1 are compiled from M=1,024 consecutive measurements of
the number of detected gammas per second emitted by a 60Co source. The frequency of the
measured counting rates is well represented by the Gaussian distribution curve of Eq (8) with A
= 7,540. Note that only the sample average and the total number of samples are necessary to
calculate the distribution curve. In principle, Eq. (4) could also be used to model the data of Fig. 1,
however, application of Eq. (4) is extremely cumbersome when dealing with large numbers.

In an actual experiment, there is always some background radiation present. This background is
mostly due to cosmic radiation reaching the earth, but is also composed of radiation from very
small amounts of radioactive material present in the walls, floor, and tables of the laboratory. If
the intensity of radiation from the radioactive material being used is very large compared to the
background, then the background may be ignored. If, however, a weak radiation source is being
used, it is important to subtract the background in order to determine the decay rate of the
radioactive material itself. In this experiment, correction for the background will not be
necessary. However, the background radiation will be used as a very low intensity source of
radiation, hence the Poisson distribution will best approximate the data.
In this experiment on statistics of nuclear counting, the rate at which radiation reaches a detector
from a long lived radioactive source is determined by measuring the number of events occurring
in the detector during a specified time interval (we will use 10s). Many measurements are made
and the average is calculated from the values obtained. Even though each value represents the
measurement of the same quantity, the values will be different. The cause for the differences is
the statistical fluctuation in the amount of radiation reaching the detector. A careful study is then

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made of the fluctuations, and the precision of the measurement is determined. A similar
procedure is followed for background radiation, and the results of the two studies are compared.
Procedure: Collect count rate data for the 5C 137Cs and the 1C 22Na sources using the
PASCO Geiger tube and Data Studio. Acquire a series of at least 200 measurements (more is
better) of the number of counts using a time interval of ten seconds. Place each of the sources
back in the lead brick housing when you are done with them. With no sources out, take a series
of at least 200 measurements (more is better) of the number of room background counts using
the same time interval. In the same manner, take a "shielded background" count rate by using
lead bricks to shield the top of the detector (but do not set the bricks on the detector!).
Data Analysis: For each of the four data sets, use the DataStudio statistics functions to
determine the sample average A and standard deviation . In each case compare the actual
standard deviation with the approximation A . Do you find agreement? Do you expect to?
Copy the Data Studio
data to Excel or KaleidaGraph and construct a frequency distribution curve
for each data set. You will need
to bin your data to create these plots. You have to do this
manually in Excel. Thus, it is recommended that you use KG where data can be automatically
binned using the "bin data" function.
For each data set, determine the fraction of data points that are within the range A . Make
similar determinations for the fraction of measurements within the ranges A 2 and A 3 .
Numerically integrate the Gaussian probability function (Eq. (6); let = 0) to determine what
fraction of normally distributed data is expected to fall within each of theabove ranges. Do your
data sets appear to be normally distributed?

Compare each experimental frequency graph with a plot of the theoretical Gaussian (for all data
sets) and Poisson (for background data only) distributions by plotting these distributions on the
graph along with your data (as done in Fig. 1). You can construct these functions in KG using
the "Formula Entry" window. The Gaussian distribution should be symmetric about A while the
Poisson distribution should be skewed slightly toward the lower counts. How well is your data
described by these distribution functions?

Questions:
1. Do any of the counts in this part (i.e., Part II) of the lab need to be corrected for coincidence
(i.e., dead-time) losses? Why or why not?

2. Are the half-lives of 137Cs and 22Na "long" compared to your counting times? Could you have
carried out the same type of analysis using 116In as the source?