Table of Contents

INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION:........................................................................................................ 3

1. HISTORY AND EXTENT OF THE CIVILISATION:......................................................................................... 3
2. SOME KEY CITIES : ........................................................................................................................... 3
3. FEATURES OF HARAPPAN .................................................................................................................. 4
4. THE GREAT BATH ............................................................................................................................ 5
5. GRANARIES ..................................................................................................................................... 5
6. ECONOMIC LIFE ............................................................................................................................... 5
7. TRADE ........................................................................................................................................... 6
8. SOCIAL LIFE .................................................................................................................................... 6
9. RELIGION ....................................................................................................................................... 6
10.
ARTS :........................................................................................................................................ 7
11.
DECLINE OF THE CIVILISATION ........................................................................................................ 7
12.
INDUS VALLEY CITIES AND CONTRIBUTIONS ...................................................................................... 8
Harappa: ............................................................................................................................................ 8
Mohenjo-Daro : .................................................................................................................................. 8
Chanhudaro ....................................................................................................................................... 8
Kalibangan ......................................................................................................................................... 8
Lothal 9
Dholavira ............................................................................................................................................ 9
Surkatoda ........................................................................................................................................... 9
Banawali ............................................................................................................................................ 9
Kot Diji ................................................................................................................................................ 9
THE VEDIC CIVILISATION............................................................................................................. 10
1. INTRODUCTION :............................................................................................................................ 10
2. RIGVEDIC GEOGRAPHY: .................................................................................................................. 10
3.
Rig Vedic States: .................................................................................................................... 11
4. POLITY AND ADMINISTRATION ......................................................................................................... 11
5. RIG VEDIC SOCIETY ........................................................................................................................ 12
6. ECONOMIC LIFE ............................................................................................................................. 13
7. RELIGION ..................................................................................................................................... 14
8. LATER VEDIC POLITICAL CHANGES.................................................................................................. 14
9. LATER VEDIC SOCIO-ECONOMIC CHANGES ...................................................................................... 15
10.
LATER VEDIC - GODS RITUALS AND PHILOSOPHY ............................................................................. 16
11.
LATER VEDIC DECLINE .............................................................................................................. 16
12.
MISCELLANEOUS ....................................................................................................................... 17
JAINISM ..................................................................................................................................... 18
1. ORIGINS ....................................................................................................................................... 18
2. JAINISM ....................................................................................................................................... 19
3. VARDHAMANA MAHAVIRA .............................................................................................................. 19
4. JAIN DOCTRINES ............................................................................................................................ 19
5. SPREAD OF JAINISM ....................................................................................................................... 20
6. JAINA LITERATURE ......................................................................................................................... 20
7. JAIN COUNCILS AND MISCELLANEOUS ............................................................................................... 20

BUDDHISM ................................................................................................................................ 21
1. ORIGINS ....................................................................................................................................... 21
2. DOCTRINES OF BUDDHA ................................................................................................................. 22
3. SPREAD OF BUDDHISM ................................................................................................................... 22
4. BUDDHIST COUNCILS...................................................................................................................... 23
5. BUDDHIST LITERATURE ................................................................................................................... 24
6. DECLINE OF BUDDHISM .................................................................................................................. 25

Indus Valley Civilization:

1. History and Extent of the Civilisation:
The Archaeologists in the Indus Valley initially discovered the Indus valley civilisation in
1921. It was so called due to this. Harappa was the first Location to have been dug, which is
hence the civilisation is also known as Harappan Civilisation. The Harappan civilisation is a
bronze age civilisation . Mortimer Wheeler dated it as 2500 1750 B C, where as carbon
dating dates the civilisation to 2300- 1750 BC. Sir John Marshall Dated the civilisation around
3200-2750 BC.
The earliest excavations were done in the indus valley at Harappa and the Mohenjo-Daro. By
1947 there were only about 40 sites, with further excavations there exists about 140 sites
across the Indian Subcontinent with 925 Sites in India and about 425 sites in Pakistan. The
known extent of the Harappan Civilisation are :
1.
2.
3.
4.

Suktagendor in Baluchistan
Alamgirpur in Meerut District
Daimabad in Maharashtra
Akhnoor District in Jammu

- West
- East
- South
- North

The geographical area is about 20 times that of Egyptian Civilisation or about 12 times that
of Egyptian and Mesopotamian civilisation combined. The total coverage area is about
1299600 Sq Kms. No other culture zone is as wide and as large as the Indus Valley
Civilisation. The distribution pattern is on the banks of Hakra Ghaggar channel/ sindhPunjab Region/ Indus Saraswati Region.
Only about 40 Settlements are on the Indus River and its tributaries. More than 1100 (80%)
are between Indus and Saraswati rivers. Another 250 settlements are found beyond
Saraswati river. Hence the civilisation is also known as Indus Saraswati Civilisation.

2. Some Key Cities :

The Indus Valley Civilisation had some large, medium and small cities. There were different
cities belonging to different phases of the civilisation. Archaeological evidence proves the
existence of phases of the Harappan Civilisation.
1. Pre Harappan :
- Located in Eastern Baluchistan
- Nomadic People living in a settled Agricultural Life
- Excavations at Mehergarh ( 150 kms Off Mohenjodaro)
2. Early Harappan :
- Large villages in the Plains
- Gradual growth of Towns
- Transition from Rural to Urban
- Evidences ( Kot Diji and Amri)
3. Mature Harappan :
- Great Cities Emerged
- Elaborate Town Planing
- Urban Features
4. Late Harappan :
- Decline of the Civilization
- Lothal Massive Brick wall to protect from flooding

Port City Lothal

Harappa in Punjab and Mohenjo-Daro in Sindh are situated at a distance of 488 kms (
Both in Pakistan) .
Chanhudaro 130 kms south of Mohenjo Daro
Lothal Gujarath at Gulf of Cambay
Kalibangan Rajasthan
Banwali Hissar District
Rangapur Kathaiawad, Gujarat

3. Features of Harappan
Town Planning :
-

Distinguished system of Town Planning i.e Grid System, with the orientation of the
streets and buildings according to the Cardinal Directions ( North South / East
West)
The idea of Town Planning developed gradually and was not an abrupt development.
Fortification of the towns was a commonality
Harappan, Mohenjo-Daro and Lothal have their own citadels. The standard division
was the high western mound with citadel and the lower eastern town of the
commoners. Later however large public buildings, market areas , large and small
private houses have been found everywhere
Each city has mounds. In Surkatoda, large gateway has also been found at several
entry points to the city .
At Dholavira, a large inscription, possibly of a signboard with letters inscribed with
white gypsum paste layered onto a set of wooden planks has been noticed
Large scale use of burn bricks in almost all kinds of buildings is seen. The is however
a variation in the raw materials used. The settlements on the alluvial plains were
mostly made of mud bricks and kiln-fired bricks, wood and reed. The settlements in
the rocky foothills and on the islands of kutch and Saurashtra had stone relacing
bricks.

The average size of a brick was 7 * 15 * 30 , Large bricks were of Size 10 * 20* 40 .
Both in the ratio of 1:2:4. There are three categories of construction seen
a. Private houses
b. Large houses surrounded by small units
c. Large Public buildings
The doors and windows were made of wood and mats. The flooring was generally hard
packed earth that was often plastered. Considerable variation in the dwellings is evident.
A wall or a room in the front door blocked the view to the house. Many houses were
two storeyed. Almost every house had bathroom and there is evidence of bathroom on
the first floor. The door windows were made with wood and a brick socket set in the
threshold served as a door pivot.
Well laid out streets and drains are the remarkable feature of the Harappan Civilisation.
Small drains made of burnt bricks were well connected with bathing platforms of the

houses, joining medium sized drains on the side lanes of the streets. The drains ran into
larger sewers in the main street which was covered with bricks / Stone block. Corbelled
arch drains have also been found, proving the existence of regular maintenance practice
and possibly a Municipal Administration.

4. The Great Bath

Perhaps the most remarkable feature of the citadel at mohenjo Daro is the Great bath .
Its features are :
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.

12m*7m*3m dimensions
Approach by a flight of steps
Floor made of burnt bricks
Water drawn from an adjacent source
Outlet of water provided
Surrounding the bath is a set of Ritual Rooms / Porticos
Generally agreed that this bath was linked to Ritual Bathing

5. Granaries
The granaries have been found at Mohenjodaro and Harappa, both used to store grains.
The granary at Mohenjo Daro is the largest building with dimensions of 50m * 27m N-S.
In Harappa however there are Six Granaries. It has six platforms which forms the basis
for two rows of six granaries each. Each granary was of the dimension 15.23m*6.09m
and lays within a few meters from the river. The combined floor space is 838 mts. (
Approximately same as that of Mohenjodaro.
To the south of Granaries at Harappa, consists of rows of circular platforms. These were
evidently meant for threshing grain, primarily wheat and Barley. Impressions of a large
wooden mortar are found placed in the centre. Harappa also shows evidence of two
roomed barracks, which probably accommodated labourers. Kalibangan also showed
evidence of southern brick platforms, which may have been used, as granaries. In
kalibangan many houses had their own wells. Streets and Drains have been found at
Banwali also.

6. Economic Life
-

All activities of economy were existent around Agriculture, Industry, crafts and
Trade.
Wheat and Barley were the main agricultural produce
In the beginning, trade was primarily internal i.e. between one zone to another.
Later, External trade developed.
Indus region was fertile previously, Annually inundated
Indus people sowed seeds in the flood plains in November when the flood waters
receded and reaped harvests in April.
No hoe / Ploughshare have been discovered
Animals were also kept on a large scale. Oxen, Buffalo, Goats, Sheeps and pigs were
domesticated.
Cats and Dogs footprints have been noticed
Evidence of horse is only superficial, with a doubtful terracotta figurine found in
Mohenjo-Daro. The civilisation is not a horse centred civilisation.
Elephants were well known to Harappans.

7. Trade
-

Trade formed an important part of the life.

There is evidence of regulated weights and measures with uniformed script
The weights and measures were cubical and spherical in shape and made of chert,
Jasper and Agate .
Numerical series first doubled from 1, 2, 4, 8 to 64, then going to 160 ; and from
these on in decimal multiples of sixteen, 320, 640,1600, 6400, 8000 and 128000.
The tradition of 16 continued up until the 1950s where sixteen chatank made a
ser and 16 annas made one rupee.
Harappa trade was in stone , metal, Shell etc.,. Since the cities did not posses raw
material trade was an essential aspect. instead of metal money the trade was in
barter system.
Navigation along the Arabian coast was well practiced. Wheels, solid wheels and
carts were made by the Harappan
International trad was carried wit the land of Tigris and Euphrates.
Harappans copied the used of cosmetics from the Mesopotamian civilisation.
Lapiz Lazuli was an extensively traded commodity from Afghanistan. Mesopotamian
excavations reveal trade with meluha, an ancient name given to the Indus Region.

8. Social Life
-

Both men and women wore two pieces of clothing. One upper and on lower. Both
wore beads.
Use of cosmetics was normal, Several houses also made articles of pottery, stone,
shells, ivory and metal most of these found at Mohenjodaro
Children Toys included clay carts, marbles, dices etc.
There is no clear idea about the political organisation of the Harappans. However,
there exists cultural homogeneity.
The Harappan society seems to have been divided into three sections .
a. The Elite class
b. The Middle Class
c. The Weaker Class
Some craftsman and labourers resided outside the fort. At Kalibangan the priests
resided in the Citadel and performed rituals at the fire altars .
Whether the whole Indus civilisation was a single empire or was part of different
kingdoms is undetermined. A sharp contrast to the Egypt and Mesopatamia is that
no temples were found at Harappa.

9. Religion
-

Religion generally has two aspects; conceptual or philosophical, practical or

ritualistic.
Evidence is available only for the practical aspect of the Harappan Civilisation. The
Indus religion consisted of :
a. Worship of mother goddess
b. worship of a Male Deity
c. Worship of natural elements, animals and semi human
d. Worship of trees or their in dwelling spirits
e. Worship of stone Linga/ Yoni

f. Chremathism as illustrated in the worship of sacred incense burners

g. Faith in amulets and charms Demon phobia
A lot of terracotta figurines have been found. In one of the earliest findings, a plant
is shown growing out of the womb of a woman. Probably the mother goddess .
The male deity , probably proto Shiva is depicted on a seal, seated on a typical
throne in a yogic posture. The Deity has each of his sides Elephant and Tiger on the
Right ; Rhinoceros and Buffalo on the left. Two deer are standing at the feet of the
throne. The depiction shows pasupati. A pair of horns crown pasupatis head with
central bump which appears like a trishul or a trident of the saivas.
A remarkable seal found at the Mohenjo-Daro represents a deity standing between
two branches of a pipal tree.
The seals also have evidence of animal worship being practiced.
Unicorn is the most common depiction on the seals, followed by water Buffalo; Gaur
/ Bison; Humped Bull; Rhinoceros; Short Horned hump less Bull; The Tiger; Indian
Elephant.
Kalibangan, Lothal and BanwalitHE have fire altars . Swastika has been depicted on
the seal. Large terracotta figurines depict individuals in yogic postures.

10. Arts :
-

Large variety of objects such as seals, stone statues and Terracotta figurines etc
Most outstanding is the Yogi from Mohenjo-Daro and two small figurines from
Harappa
The bronze workmanship from Daimabad is the most extraordinary. The Red
Sandstone torso at Harappa is made of detachable limbs and head and the grey
sandstone torso shows a dancing figure.
A Women dancer made of Bronze is example of finest workmanship. Its right hand
rests on the hip, while the left hand is covered with bangles
A large variety of pottery, both plain and decorated has been found. Harappan
wares were shaped on a potters wheel. The potters wheel being made of wood
have not survived .
The kilns in which the pots were baked have been unearthed. The heating was
skilfully controlled as the most of the designs were carefully fired. Once the vessel
was shaped on the wheels, the Ochre was painted over it. Then the designs were
painted on this red surface with a brush in black.
The black colour derived from magneferous haematite.
The designs included series of intersecting circles, trees placed in me topes, motifs,
chessboard patterns, triangles, solar devices etc,. No human figure was depicted on
the pottery from Mohenjo-Daro but a few pottery pieces discovered from Harappa
portray a man and a child.
At lothal folk painting was also discovered painted on the jars probably depicting the
folk tale of Thirsty cow and also of cunning fox.

11. Decline of the Civilisation

-

Harappan civilisation did not disappear suddenly. There have been archaeological
evidences of gradual decline of the civilisation. The major cities of Harappa and
Mohenjo-Daro seem to have disappeared by the 9th Century BC.
Two major causes have been attributed for the decline of the civilisationEnvironmental Degradation and Aryan Invasion.

According the John Marshall, the civilisation declined to Environmental degradation.

The change in course of the river Saraswati and Indus, recurring flooding of Indus
region along with the practices of deforestation for Agriculture may have resulted in
barren land and silting of rivers.
Evidences have been found in Baluchistan region where the settlements were put
under fire by invaders , most probably Aryans. There are found 6 groups of human
skeletons in the Mohenjo-Daro giving an indication of being subject to Foreign
Invasion. This however is not susceptible and has no proof.

The Harappan Civilisation disappeared around 1300 BC and the vaccum was filled in by
numerous civilisation. However , a number of cultural traits developed during this period
can still be seen in the daily cultural and material life.

12. Indus Valley Cities and Contributions

Harappa:
o Two lines of Granaries
o Bronze Mirror
o Rock Statue of Dancing Girl
o Seals made of Steatite ( Coins ) (Humped Bull )
o H shaped Tombs

Mohenjo-Daro :
o 1922 , R.D. Banerjee
o Big Single Granary
o Great Bath
o Bronze Statue of Dancing Girl
o Many pillared Meeting hall
o Doll with decoration. Dog Chasing cat and Dog chasing deer impressions
o Cotton cloth

Chanhudaro
o 1931-33
o Ink bottle
o Women beauty kit
o Peacock doll also found
o Not fortified

Kalibangan
o Rajasthan, banks of Ghaggar River
o Both proto Harappan and Harappan cultural phase
o Evidence of ploughed field and mud brick fortification
o Fire altars along with lothal
o Camel remains
o Pot burials with ashes
o Houses had well
o Beads and bead making industry flourished
o First place to start Agriculture
o Door towards roads
8

Lothal
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o

Gujarat, Bhogavo River

Artificial dock yard, Terracotta model of the ship
Fire Cult and Fire Altars
Evidence of chess
Elephant tusks were found
Ship building Industry.
Evidence of earliest cultivation of rice
Doubtful figurine of terracotta horse

Dholavira
o Rann of kutch, Gujarat
o Only city with middle town
o Huge writings of the entrance of the town
o Largest settlement of Harappan
o Evidence of reservoir with polished pillars

Surkatoda
o Kutch, Gujarat
o Remains of Horse found
o Both lower town and citadel were fortified

Banawali
o Hissar District, Haryana
o Saw both the cultural phases of Harappa
o Human and Animal Figurines were found, clay bangles Statue of Mother goddess
excavated, along with Terracotta Plough
o Large quantity of Barley Sesamum and mustard found. Agricultural equipment also
found.

Kot Diji
o
o
o
o
o

Opposite Mohenjo-Daro
Pre Harappan phase
Wheel painted pottery excavated. Defensive wall with well aligned streets
Knew Metallurgy
Probably destroyed by Fire

The Vedic Civilisation

1. Introduction :
The most important source to know about the Vedic Civilisation is the Vedas . the term Vedas means
Knowledge. In Sanskrit, Vidya means Knowledge and it is derived form the work veda. The founders of
the vedic culture were Aryans . It is difficult to say that the Aryans belonged to one single race, but
their culture was more or less the same. Aryans were probably the first immigrants to come in around
2000-1500 BC . The earliest life of Aryans seems to be pastoral with agriculture being their secondary
occupation. Our knowledge about the Aryans in India is based on Rid Veda, the earliest of the vedic
literature. There are all together 4 vedas in - Rig Veda, Samveda, Yajur Veda and Atharva veda. All
together along with Brahmanas, Aranyakas and Upanishads, the Vedas form the total Vedic Literature.
Rig Veda, is a collection of Hymns; Samveda is a collection of songs mostly taken from Rig-Veda,
Yajurveda is a collection of sacrificial formula; atharvaveda is a collection of spells and charms. The
Vedas formed the earliest segment of vedic literature and amongst veda, Rigveda is the oldest.
Brahmanas, are the prose texts that contain details about the meaning of the vedic hymns, their
applications, stories of their origins etc,. They primarily contain details about rituals and philosophers.
Aranyakas and Upanishads are partly included in the Brahmanas or attached there to and partly exists
as separate works. They embody philosophical meditations of the hermits and ascetics on soul, god ,
world etc.
Although the vedas are attributed to rishis, pious hindus have always attributed vedas to Divine Origin.
Veda are called apaunsheyi ( not created by man).

2. RigVedic Geography:
Most of the Rig Vedic civilisation is centred on Saraswati river, which is now lost to the desert of
Rajasthan. Rig-Veda mentions about seven rivers, which proved that the civilisation was spread in
Afghanistan and Punjab as well. The Nadisukta hymn of Rig-Veda mentions about 21 rivers, which
include Ganga in the east and Kubha (Kubha) in the west. Rig-Veda also mentions about Himalayas and
Mujavant mountains. It also mentions oceans ( Samudra) in connection with the rivers sindhu and
Saraswati. The cradle of Rig Vedic civilisation is called Sapta Saidhav Region. Sapta Sindhu, meaning 7
rivers is the term, which gave birth to the word Hindu. Sapta Sindhu was referred to as Hapta-Hindu by
the Persians etc,. The terms is found in Avesta of Zoroastrians. Nadisukta mentions 10 rivers in all :
- sindhu : Indus
- Vitsae : Jhelum
- Askini : Chenab
- Purushini : Ravi
- Vipas : Beas
- Sutudri : Sutlej
- Gumal : Gomati
- Krumu : Khurram
- Drishdvati : Ghaggar
The rigvedic geography convers the present day , Western Uttar Pradesh, Haryana, Punjab, Rajasthan ,
Gujarat, Whole of Pakistan and South Afghanistan.

10

3. Rig Vedic States:

The territory of the vedic people was divided in to a number of republics and monarchical states . The
vedic culture was essentially a rural culture unlike the urban culture of the Harappan Society. In the
Rig-Veda, it was because of the migratory nature of the tribes and in the later vedic times the regions
controlled were names after the tribes who controlled them. The Bharatas were the most important
tribes, after whom the region came to be known as Bharata.
Dasarajna Yuddha, is the famous battle of the ten kings mentioned in various hymns of Rig Veda. The
Battle gives the names of the ten kings who participated in a war against Sudas who was the bharata
king of Tristus family. The ten kingdoms had 5 Aryan tribes and 5 non Aryan tribes. In the bloody and
decisive battle on the banks of river Parushini, The Bharatas emerged victorious. The Bharatas gave
their name to the whole country as Bharatavarsha. The Bharatas were settled in the region between
Saraswati and Yamuna. The struggle for supremacy among the different kings and republics was part
of the evolutionary process of formation of larger political entities in the future .

4. Polity and Administration

The political structure of the Rid Vedic India consisten of :
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.

The Family (Kula)

The Village (Grama)
The Clan (Vis)
The People (Jana)
The Country (Rasthra)

The Kula is the smallest unit and all people living under one roof ( Griha ) were included in it . The next
largest formation was the vis , the head of the vis (clan) was called Vispati. Larger than vis is the Jana.
The Jana is essentially the tribe. The chief of the tribe is Rajan. Rajan is the protector of the Jana and
the cattle. Rajan fought wars on behalf of the Jana. The wars were fought mainly for the sake of taking
possession of cows and cattle wealth, but not for taking over the possession of territories. This implies
that the concept of land territories was absent in the early Rig Vedic Era. Rajan was the leader of the
people belonging to a particular tribe and not the ruler of any territory. This is why he was known as
Janasya Gopa or Gopati Janaysa.
The term grama appears 13 times in the Rig Veda, does not refer to a village but a military tribal unit.
A war or a battle was thus called Sangrama. The Vrajapati was in charge of the commonly held tribal
pasture land and was the leader of the family. Vrajapati himself used to lead the battle and thus
became synonymous with the word Gramini, who himself was originally head of the tribal unit called
Grama.
The kingdoms were generally small states (rashtra) ruled by kings (Rajana), but the word samrat does
indicate existence of certain larger kingdoms. The king administered justice with the assistance of a
Purohita and other officials. The Rajan couldnt have an elaborate administrative machinery due to the
very nature of the RigVedic economy. An economy in which surplus was very small, the Rajan received
only Bali, i.e, offering to the prince or to god from the conquering people. However these tributes were
neither consistent nor regular. These was no regular standing army, the military functions were
invested in the Vedic Assemblies. Vrajapati, Gramini and the Kulapa functioned as military leaders. The
Rajan also held spies called Spasa to keep an eye on the conduct of the people. Ugra and Jivagriba

11

were probably two officials meant to dealing with criminals. Madhyamasi is the mediator of the
disputes.
Vidhata was an assembly for secular , military and religious purposes. The term Vidhata appears 122
times in Rigveda. Vidhata is frequently associated with women, where women participated actively in
deliberations with men. Its one of the earliest folk assemblies of Aryans performing all kinds of
functions economic, military, religious and social.
Sabha denotes assembly or an assembly hall ( Later Vedic) . Women who attended these assemblies
were known as Sabhavati. It was basically a kin-based assembly, however the attendance of women
was stopped in later vedic period. Rig-Veda also mentions sabha as an assembly of dicing and gambling
along with a place for music, dancing, witchcraft and magic. The sabha performed, administrative and
judicial functions and also exercised judicial authority. Samiti , was a folk assembly in which people of
the tribe gathered for transacting tribal business. It discussed philosophical issues and was concerned
with religious ceremonies and prayers. Rajan was elected and re-elected by the Samiti.
Among the important royal officials were the Purohita ( chief Priest), Senani (Army chief) and gramini(
Head of the village). The Gana was assembly or a troop. The leader of the gana is the Ganapati. The
parishad seems to be a tribal assembly, partly matriarchal and partly patriarchal. In the later vedic
period , the parishad seems to have become n academy and partly a royal court dominated by the
priests.

5. Rig Vedic Society

Family was the basis of the social structure of the Rig Vedic Society. The family was a joint unit and
patriarch society and the birth of a son was desired repeatedly. The institution of marriage was well
established. Status of women was equalant to that of men in the RigVedic times and they even
received Upanayana Samskara. Polyandry and polygamy, both were practiced. The terms for father,
mother, brother, sister, son and daughter existed but nephews, grandsons and cousins were known by
a common term Naptri.
The rig Vedic society consisted of four varnas namely Brahmana, Kshtriya, Vysya and Shudra. The
classification seems to have been on the basis of occupation. In the early period the classification of
the society was based on colour. Initially the society seems to have had only the Aryans , who were fair
in colour and they had conquered the indigenous people who were dark in complexion. Once
conquered, the indigenous people were used as slaves or Dasa. Dasyu, have been identifies as the
enemies of Aryan tribes. The word Dasyu seems to have been derived from Iranian word Dahyu which
means a tribe.
The vedic tribal society was divided in to 3 groups The warriors, the Priests and the common public.
The fourth division, Shudras appeared in the later rigvedic society. Although initially the division was
based on occupation, it later became sharp based upon birth. The teachers and priests were called
Brahmanas, rulers and administrators were called Kshatriyas, The farmers, merchants and bankers
made vysyas and artisans and labourers were the shudras. It is to be noted that members of the same
family took different professions and belonged to different varnas. Thus it is clear that there was
freedom and mobility for adoption of a profession and the idea of hereditary trades and occupations
was not envisaged in the society.
Despite being a patriarchal society , the status of women was much better in Rig Vedic times than in
later. Women could attend assemblies and offer sacrifices along with their husbands Gosha,
12

Lopamudra, and Apala are famous women composers of hymns. Child marriages were not in vogues
and women were generally married at the age of 16 and above. There are evidences of widow
remarriage; especially widow could marry the younger brother of her deceased husband. The son
inherited Fathers property; daughter could inherit it only in case of she being the only child. Right to
Property was known in moveable things like cattle, horse, gold and ornaments and so also in
immovable property like land and house.
In the early Rig-Vedic period, entire educational instruction was given orally. The home of the teacher
was the school he taught the particular sacred text. Great importance was given to enunciation and
pronunciation. The art of writing doesnt seem to have developed much . There were women teachers
as well. The renowned Gayatri Mantra is in fact a prayer to the goddess Savitri for the simulation of the
intellect. Maitreyi and Gargi were gifted scholars of this period. In the early vedic period, rishis founded
their own schools to teach their pupils specific vedic mantras. In the later vedic period with the
development of the varnashramas, education began with an investiture ceremony ( Upanayana) .
Some girls were also allowed Upanayana. Shudras however were forbidden from education. The last
sermon of the teacher is called Snatakopadesha ( sort of convocation).
Milk and its products formed an important part of the diet. Kshira-pakamodanam ( Milk and grains
dish) is mentioned evidently. Bread (Chappati) of wheat and barley was eaten often mixed with ghee.
The main cereal produced by the rigvedic people was Yava or Barley. Wheat and rice were not very
much known to the people. Wheat is mentioned only in the later Vedic texts. In the later vedic times ,
there is mention of Rice (Vrih), Bean-pulse(Maha), Sesamum(tila), millet(Syamaka), kidney
bean(mudga), mustard(Sarphasa) etc. ., Soma and Sura are the two intoxicating liquors. Sura may be a
kind of beer and Soma was acceptable to gods. Fish, birds, wild animals like boar, antelopes and
buffalo(Gaur) were eaten and at times during ceremonies even sacrificial animals were eaten like
Sheep, goat and buffalo. Cow was deemed to be Aghnya Not to be killed. Death penalty or expulsion
from the kingdom were prescribed for those who harmed cows.
Both men and women normally wore two pieces of clothing. The upper garment was called Uttariya
and the lower garment was known as Antariya. The dress code didnt differ for either gender.
Epilepsy was common even in children. Superstition and magical charms were employed to cure
diseases. Surgical art expertise was evident.

6. Economic Life
The Rigvedic community was primarily pastoral community. The economic life of the people centered
around Cattle rearing, agriculture, trade and commerce. They domesticated pashu (Cattle, horse etc)
as against Mriga ( Wild Animals) . Cattle was synonymous with wealth and a wealthy person was called
Gomat. Important terms of battle were termed from cattle like Gau, Gavisti, Gosu, Gavyat, Gavyu.
Godhuli, was a measure of time. The king was also known as Gopati or Gopa. The daughter was
known as Dhuhitri, as she used to milk the cow. Gojata i.e cowborn is one of the four categories of
gods. Buffalo, when first encountered by the vedic people in India was called as Gauri or Gavala (Cow
haired). Cattle formed an important part of donations, it may have even been part of the bali, given to
the king as a tribute. Cattle in general and cow in particular were the main medium of exchange among
the Rig vedic people.
Agriculture formed a great part of economic life in Rig Vedic civilisation. The oxen drew the plough at
times in teams of six, eight or even twelve. Based on evidences it is clear that these people also
practiced irrigation. Droughts and floods by rains is mentioned to have happened quite often. The
13

grains were collectively known as yava and Dhanya. There is mention of cultivation of ten different
grains in the later vedic period. Along with agriculture, carpentry, weaving, pottery , metal working ,
leather working etc were practised. In the Rig Vedic period only copper was used and was as such
known as Ayas. In the later period when iron came to prominence, copper and iron were known as
Lohit Ayas and Syam Ayas. The traders were known as Vanik. Traders and trade flourished during this
period. Barter system seems to have been prominent. The people knew money lending. Sea is
mentioned in the context of trade and ocean wealth, like pearls and shells.

7. Religion
The Aryans were essentially theists. Spiritual contemplation of life and the world was common. Vedic
Aryans believed in the idea of one in many. Forces of nature were worshipped although individually,
Aryans considered nature as a wholly single entity. The Vedic gods can be classified in to three
categories, namely terrestrial (prithvisthana), aerial or intermediate (Antarishasthana) and celestial
(Dyusthana). The hymns of Rig Veda were mainly sung to appease these gods. God was considered as
the ruler, ordainer of period of life, protector of men and giver of happiness. Agni is the only god
regarded to be present across the three categories. The gods are described as born and yet they are
considered immortal. Prayers and offerings to these gods were made for material gains, enlightenment
and knowledge. Pious Hindus almost daily, for instance recite Gayatri Mantra, even today.
Unlike the contemporary civilisations, there were no places of worship like temples in Rig Vedic period.
There seems to have been no strict priestly class and the practice of renunciation of the world to
meditate on religion and chant hymns.
The multiplicy of gods is also openly questioned and ultimate unity of universe asserted as the creation
of one god. A hymn devoted to visvakarman, tells that the waters contained the primordial germ the
floating world egg from which visvakarman was first born in to the Universe This is currently
reconfirmed by scientific evidence.

8. Later Vedic Political Changes

The sabhas and Samitis continued however women were not allowed in the Sabha. Brahmins and
Noblemen started to dominate almost every aspect of the Socio, economic and political life of the
people. King became prominent with territorial authority becoming far more important. Kingship
started to be given the status of divine origin. The titles, B Adhiraja, Rajadhiraja, Samrat and ekrat
arouse to prominence. The king was supposed to be only a trustee and the kingdom as a trust.
Atharvaveda described the term ekrat to be a paramount sovereign. Special ceremonies for the king,
like Rajasuya, Vajapeya and Aswamedhayaga were established. Monarchy however was still no an
absolute monarchy. There were certain democratic principles like:
a. The peoples right in choosing the king
b. The conditions imposed on kings rights and duties
c. The kings dependence on the council of ministers
The centre of civilisation in the later vedic period shifted from Saraswati to Ganga. This progress was
accompanied by by the gradual development, expansion and consolidation of vis. Minor Janas of
RigVedic times like Purus became more powerful and began to play a dominant role. The Political life
became more vivid and the struggle for supremacy among the states also increased. This expansion of
people towards the east is mentioned in Satpatha Brahmana.
The Sabha started to function as a parliament for disposal of public business by debate and discussion.
The chief of the Sabha was called Sabhapati, the keepers as Sabhapala, and the members as Sabheya,
14

Sabhasad and Sabhasina. Vajsaneyi Samhita, mentions that the erring members of the Sabha were
Rebuked and there were rules of Sabha to be followed by everyone. Sabha also functioned as a court
of Justice. The Samiti on the other hand began to function as a more informal larger body. It is the
Samiti, which either chooses the king or removes the king for any misdeeds or tyranny.
Along with the political changes, new officers had also emerged as part of administrative changes. The
new officials were :
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.

Suta Charioteer
Sangahitri Treasurer
Bhagadugha Tax Collector
Gramini head of the village
Sthapathi Chief Judge
Takshan Carpenter
Khsatri Chamberlain

The Administrative machinery was highly organised and became an effective instrument for ruling over
larger kingdoms. There is evidence of legal institutions with the king administering justice with
effective punishments. Theft, robbery, incest, abduction are some of the common crimes. Killing of
Cows, Slaying of Brahmana, Intoxication, treachery were punishable by death. Petty offences were
however left to the village judges. The rules of inheritance of property remained the same as the Rig
Vedic period.

9. Later Vedic Socio-Economic Changes

The Varna system in the later Vedic period became further complicated and rigid. Unlike the Rig Vedic
period, Varnas became birth-based rather than profession-based. The proliference of the professions
gave rise to the Jatis. Emergence of the Jatis was very unusual but perhaps not impossible. Aitreya
Brahmana mentioned the rigidity in jatis. The position of the fourth Varna, Shudra became miserable
due to deprivation of rights. All the varnas were assigned duties. The Vysyas were now the common
people who were responsible for producing agricultural commodities. Nagara was used for the first
time, indicating the beginnings of the cities.
Different types of marriages came to existence :
a. Brahma Vivah Girl and boy of same Varna
b. Daiva Vivah father donates daughter to Brahmana as dakshina
c. Arsa Vivah A token bride price of a cow and a bull is given
d. Prajapati Vivah Marriage without dowry
e. Gandharva Vivah A type of love marriage or swayamvarah
f. Asura Vivah Marriage by purchase
g. Paisach Vivah Seduction of a girl while sleeping / mentally unstable due to a drink
h. Rakshasha Vivah Marriage by Abduction
The marriage of a higher Varna man with a girl from lower Varna was called Anuloma Vivah. This was
allowed by the sacred texts. Marriage of a man from a lower Varna with a girl from a higher Varna was
called Pratiloma Vivah. This was not allowed by the sacred texts.
The four purusharthas were ensured as the goal, end and aim of human existence. These are as follows
:
Dharma : Religious, social and moral righteousness
15

Artha : Material or financial means of Living

Kama : Sensual pleasures
Moksha: Renunciation as well as detachment
The four stages of life were also well established in the later vedic period. The lifespan of 100 years was
organised into four ashrams with each corresponding to 25 years of lifetime. The 4 ashrams were:
-

Brahmacharya : First 25 years of life (Student life)

Grihasta : 25 to 50 years period , involving family life, discharging worldly duties
Vanaprashta : 50 to 75 years period with partial retirement and living life in forests
Sanyasa : 75 to 100 years of age with complete retirement from the world.

The economic life and its aspects are mentioned in Atharvaveda, which included many prayers for the
success of farmers, shepherds, merchants etc., There are prayers for plaoughing, sowing , rains ,
increasing cattle, wealth and exorcism. The plough was known as Sira and the furrow as Sita. Cow
dung started to be used as manure. Different kinds of grains were grown; barley was sown in winter
and ripened in summer; rice was sown in rains and reaped in autumn. Satpatha Brahmana mentions
about different operations of agriculture. Cattle wealth was considered to be of great significance.
Money lending was in vogue. Niska and Satamana was the unit of currency. Bali, which was earlier a
mere voluntary gift to the chief, had now become a regular tax. Guilds of craftsmen also came into
existence with the head of the guild called Shreshti. Along with the Syam ayas and Lohit Ayas, Gold,
lead and tin were also prominent. Copper was used for making vessels. Silver (Rajat) and gold were
used to make ornaments and dishes etc.

10. Later Vedic - Gods Rituals and Philosophy

Rituals and formulae accompanied the cult of sacrifice, central to this culture. The two most
outstanding gods of the Rig Vedic era Indra and Agni, lost their prominence, instead Prajapati The
Creator, came to occupy supreme position. Signs of Idolatry appear during the later Vedic period.
Some of the social orders began to have their own gods. Pushan , who was supposed to look after
cattle came to be regarded as the god of the Shudras. People however continued to worship god for
the same material reasons as before; Sacrifices became far more important than the prayers. Sacrifices
involved killing of animals on a large scale and, especially the destruction of the cattle wealth. The
guest was known as Goghana or the one who was fed on cattle. Sacrifices were accompanied with
formulae and the Sacrifice was known as Yajnamana and the performed as the Yajna. Much of the
success of the Yajna depended on the magical words uttered during the formulae and the formulae
and the sacrifices were invented, adopted and elaborated by the priests called Brahmanas. The
Brahmanas claimed monopoly on the priesthood and expertise. In addition to cow gifts like gold, cloth
and horses were also given to the priest as Dakhsina. The Karma Theory deeds of one life affecting
the next took shape.

11. Later Vedic Decline

The end of the Vedic period began with a very strong reaction to the priestly domination. There were
also the beginnings of territorial kingdoms. The predominantly pastoral society had turned into an
agricultural society. The tribal kingdoms ( Shodasa Maha Janapadas ) came into existence. They were;
Anga, Kasi,Kosala, Magadha, Chedi, Vatsa, Kuru, Asmaka, Vajji, Malla, Panchala, Avanti, Surasena,
Matsya, Gandhara, Kambhoja. Vajji and Malla were republican. Magadha empire developed a lot and
16

later occupied many of the other territories. Iron ore was abundant in the Magadha Region. Magadha
was far away from any prospective foreign Invasions, was surrounded by thick forests.
Because of religious unrest, many religions emerged, of which Jainism and Buddhism were the most
prominent. Both the religions advocated that moksha can be achieved without ritual practice.

12. Miscellaneous
Along with Vedas there are 4 Upavedas :
-

Ayurveda
Dhanurveda
Gandharva Veda
Shilpaveda

There are 6 Upangas :

-

Shiksha Pronunciation
Nirukta
Kalpa
Origin of Words
Jyotisha
Vyakarna
Chandas
Grammar

There are two main Ithihasas :

Ramayana 7 Kandas
Mahabharatha 18 Parvas ( Nannaya 2 ; Tikkana 15; Yellapragada )
Upanishads are the Dialogues between masters and the students. There are 108 Upanishads.
Bruhadnayaka is the oldest Upanishad. Satyam Meva Jeyate is taken from Mandukopanishad.
Kalpasutras are the codes of the human conduct. There the 4 Kalpasutras :
- Shrauthsuthras Pooja, Karma kanda
- Dharmasuthras Societal responsibilities and ethics in the society
- Gruhasuthrtas Members of Family responsibilities
- Sulvasuthras Architectures and Vaastu
There are 6 Vedic schools of philosophies known as Shaddharshanas :
- Nyaya Gauthama
- Sankya - Kapila
- Yoja -Pathanjali
- Vaisheshika Kanada
- Purvamimanasa - Jaimini
- Uttaramimanasa - Baddaraiyana
Dwadasaratnin Ministers (12)
- Purohita (Preist)
- Senani
- Prince
- Queen
- Bhagaduga Tax Collector
- Sandhivigraha Looks after war and peace
- Bhandagarika Treasurer
17

- Akshapatalaka Record keeper

- Lekhaka Write
- Duta Spy
- Shathapathi Head of 100 Villages
- Sathapathi Head of the Remote Village
**The Battle of the 10 kings, mentioned in the Rig Veda Book 7. It was a battle on the banks of the
River Parushini ( Ravi ) between Bharatha and Purus (Supported by 8 others ). The battle was won by
Sudhama.

Jainism
1. Origins
The Varna system had become more prominent and rigid during the later Vedic period. Of the four
varnas, Brahmanas enjoyed most of the privileges. Shudras especially were meant for serving the three
other higher Varnas. They were treated as untouchables. The Varna divided society seems to have
generated tensions among the people of the society. Even Kshatriyas who were the ruling class reacted
strongly against the domination of the Priestly class- Brahmanas. Both Vardhamana Mahavira who
founded Jainism and Gautama Buddha, who founded Buddhism, belonged to the Kshatriya Class. The
18

Republican institutions had become strong in India by 6th Century B C. Growth of trade led to the
improvement of economic conditions of the Vaisyas. As a result even they wanted to enhance their
social position, but the Varna system didnt allow this. Therefore even they began to extend support to
Jainism and Buddhism.
The complex rituals and Sacrifices advocated in the later Vedic period were not acceptable to the
common people, considering the fact that they were generally quite expensive. Superstitious beliefs,
the Mantras and the Philosophical nature of the Upanishads were seldom understood by the people.
Therefore what was needed in the larger interest of the people was the short, simple and intelligible
way of salvation for people. Buddhism and Jainism fulfilled this need.

2. Jainism
There are 24 Thirthankaras in Jainism i.e Guides or Path Showers. Rig-Veda specifically mentions the
names of to Thirthankaras Rishabnath and Aristhanemia. Rishabnath is also called as Adinatha. RigVeda mentions Rishabnath as an incarnation of Narayana in Bhagwat Purana. Bull is the symbol of
Rishabnath. Bharatha and Bahubali are the two sons of Rishabnath according to the Vedic Texts. The
22 Thirthankara, Aristhanemia is also known as Neminatha. His symbol is Conch (Shankham). The 23 rd
Thirthankara is Parsavanatha. Parsavanatha was the son of Ranivimala and Aswasena, the ikshvaku
king of Kasi. Parsavanatha is historically considered the true founder of Jainism. Snake is the Symbol of
Parsavanatha. He is said to have flourished 250 Years before the 24th Thirthankara Vardhamana
Mahavira This about 8th Century BC.

3. Vardhamana Mahavira
Vardhamana Mahavira is the 24th Thirthankara of the Jain Tradition. He was born in 540 BC in
Kundagrama, a village near Vaishali to Siddhartha and Trishala, the sister of Lichchhavi chief Chetaka
whose daughter was wedded to Bimbisara. Mahavira was born in the Jnatrika Clan of Kshatriya Sect.
He was married to Yashoda and had a Daughter named Priyadarshini. Mahavira renounced the world
at the age of thirty and kept on wandering for 12 Years. He attained kaivalya at the age of 42, thus
becoming the Jina ( Knowledged ) at Jumbika Grama. Mahaviras followers came to be known as Jainsthe followers of Jina Makkali Gosala, who belonged to the Ajivika Sect was the guru of Mahavira.
Mahavira passed away at the age of 72 in 468 BC at a place called Pavapuri near Rajgriha.

4. Jain Doctrines
Mahavira advocated threefold path ; They were also known as the three principles of Jainism
Triratnas ;
-

Right Faith
Right Knowledge
Right Conduct

Right faith is the belief in h teaching and the wisdom of Mahavira. Right knowledge is the acceptance of
the theory that there is No God and that the world has been existing without a creator and that all
objects possess a soul. Right conduct refers to observance of the five great vows ;
-

Ahimsa , Non-Injury
Satya , Not to Lie
Asteya, Not to Steal
Aparigraha , Not to possess property
Brahmacharya , Celibacy
19

The first four were given by Parsavanatha the 23rd Thirthankara. Mahavira put forward the theory of
Anektavada i.e. many sidedness. Truth must be discovered by taking into account all the sides aspects.
Both the clergy and the common man had to follow the principle of Ahimsa. Mahavira rejected the
authority of Vedas and the Vedic rituals. The practice of Agriculture was considered sinful, since the
process includes killing and injury to earth, worms and animals. Mahavira considered that all animate
and Inanimate beings in the world possess a soul.
Eleven close disciples of Mahavira were known as Gandharas ( Heads of School ). Arya Suddharman
survived Mahavira and became the Thera( Pontiff ) of the Jaina Church. Jainism didnt condemn the
existence of Varna System completely. It prohibited the practice of war and agriculture as both
involved killing of animals. The world of Jains was not created by god, but exists based on certain
Universal principles or eternal law. The existence of universe is divided into two cycles ; Utsarpini
(Cycle of Progress) and Avasarpini (Declines). The Universe essentially functions through the
interactions of the living souls (Jina). Jaina philosophy shows closew affinity to the Samkhya School. It is
called Syadavada., theory of may be .
-

Syadvada May be
Nayavada Doctrine of Viewpoints
Sapthabhaginaya logic of 7 forms. Reality too complex to be explained

5. Spread of Jainism
Mahavira organised Sanghas for the spread of Jainism and his teachings. Both men and women were
admitted into the Sanghas. Jainism spread rapidly in western India and Karnataka. Kharavela of Kalinga,
Chandragupta Maurya and royal dynasties of south India like Chalukyas, Kadambas patronized Jainism.
Nirjara- to wash away old sins by doing good.
Samvara to stop committing of new sins by restraining mind and body.
Jaina monasteries were called as Basadis. Some of the royal patrons of Jainism were ; Ashokas
grandson Samprati, King Amoghavarsha who wrote Ratnamalika, King Kharavela who initiated the
Jaina rock cut caves, The chalukya kings of 11-13TH century AD who built the dilwara temple in Mount
Abu.

6. Jaina Literature
The earliest Jaina literature was in Prakrit instead of Sanskrit. The earliest literatures were 14 purvas.
These were lost and hence Angas (12 in No) were written in the 1st Jain Council Pataliputra. The
important Angas are - Acharanta Sutra; Mula Sutra; Cheta Sutra. Jainism contributed to the grown of
Kannada. The first images of the Thirthankaras were found at Mathura (Kankali Tila). The tallest Jaina
statue is of Gomateshwara/Bahubali, buildt by the Ganga king Chamunda Rai in 973 AD at Sravana
Belagola. Marble Jain Temples were also found at Mount Abu, Palitana and Girnar in Gujarat. Jainsim
also contributed substantially to the art and Architecture of the medieval times.

7. Jain Councils and Miscellaneous

rd

I Council ; Pataliputra 3 Century AD

th

II Council ; Vallabhi 5 Century AD

Sthulabhadra

Davraiddhi Gani

Established a Jaina Cannon Siddhanta

form which the cannon Svethambara
derived
12 Angas and 12 Upangas finally
compiled here

20

By the end of the fourth century BC there was serious Famine in Ganges valley. Many monks led by
Bhadrabahu and Chandragupta Maurya came to Sravana Belagola in Karnataka. Those who stayed back
in the north were headed by Sthulabahu who changed the code of conduct for the monks This led to
the division of Jainism in to two sects Svetambars (White Clad) and Digambars (Sky Clad). There is no
fundamental difference between the two . Bhadrabahu wrote Kalpasutra.
Chandragupta Maurya embraced Jainism during his last days. He contributed to the spread of Jainism
especially in the southern region of Mysore. He died fasting in the Jaina tradition, Sallekhana Sannata
Vratha ie fast unto death a Sravana Belagola. Kharvel of Kalinga of Cheta Dynasty who made the
Hanthigumpa inscription was also a patron of Jainism.
Jinasena and Gunabhadra composed Adipurana during the time of the Rashtrakuta king
Amoghavarsha. Amoghavarsha wrote Jaina work Ratnamalika ( Apart from Kavirajamarga in kannada).
Kumarapala, the great chalukyan king of Gujarat in the 12th century BC was a patron of Svethambar
Buddhism. Hemachandra lived in his court. Hemachandra wrote Parishishta Parvam, which throws
light onto the Maurya life.
The Jaina temples were destroyed under the rule of Ajayapa in 1174-76 AD and Allauddin Khilji in
Gujarat during 1297-98 AD.
The Dilwara Temple in Rajasthan Arravalli Region were built by the Solanki Dynasty ruler Bheema I.
The Ratnagiri temple has the statues of all 24 Theerthankaras.
Every 12 years Mahamastabhishekam takes place at Sravana Belagola. In Andhra Kundakundacharya
propagated Jainism during the rule of Sathavahana. Kundakundacharya wrote :
-

Samayasara
Niyamasara
Ayanasara
Pravachanasara

BUDDHISM
1. Origins
Buddhism similar to Jainism was founded by a Kshatriya. Gauthama or Siddhartha was the founder of
Buddhism. He was born in 567 BC to Suddhodhana the leader of Sakhya republic and his Wife
Mayadevi in Lumbini gardens of the Kapilavastu State in Nepal on Vaishaka Poornima. Within 7 days of
the birth of Siddhartha, his mother Mayadevi died, and was thus brought up by his foster mother Maha
Prajapati Gautami. At the age of Sixteen Siddhartha was married to Yashodara. Siddhartha left home in
search of cause of misery wish his charioteer Channa and his horse Kanthaka at the age of 29 (Great
Renunciation). Buddha Saw four scenes one day
-

Sick Man
Old Man
Dead man
A Saint

21

Siddhartha attained Enlightenment at the age of 35 at Uruvela (Bodh Gaya) under the peepal tree /
Bodhi Tree on the banks of the river Niranjana ( Phalgu River). Buddha meditated for 49 Days. His gurus
were Alara Kamala , Rudraka Ramputta. On the day of Vaishaka Puranima, Siddharatha attained
Mahapanirvana at Kushinagar. Since then Siddhartha came to be known as Buddha or The
Enlightened One. Buddha gave his first sermons at Sarnath near Benares and for the next 45 years he
led the life of the preacher. Buddha died at the age of eighty at Kushinagar.
There are five important symbols of the life of Buddha:
-

Birth Lotus and Bull

Great Incarnation Horse
Nirvana Bodhi Tree
First Sermon Dharmachakra / 8 Spoked wheel
Mahaparinirvana Stupa

The 1st 3rd and the 5th events of Buddhas life took place on the Full moon day and fall on the same day
of the year Vaishaka Poornima.

2. Doctrines of Buddha
The four noble truths are
-

The World is full of sorrows

The causes of suffering is desires
If Desires are got rid off, the world sufferings can be removed
This can be done with the Eight fold path

The Eightfold path or the Ashtangamarga are ;

-

Right Speech
Right knowledge
Right Meditation
Right Thoughts
Right Deeds
Right way of living
Right faith
Right Conduct

Buddha taught that excess of both luxury and austerity should be avoided at all costs. He prescribed
the middle path. Buddha laid great emphasis on the Law of Karma. He neither rejects the existence of
god nor accepts it. Buddha denied the existence of soul and argued that the cause of mans present
condition is his deeds only. Buddhism particularly attracted the lower orders of the society since it
attacked Varna system. In comparison to Brahmanism, Buddhism was liberal and moderate. Buddhism
was identical in morality and purity of thought, word and deed. Buddha was a rationalist who tried to
explain things in the light of reason and not on the emphasis of bling faith.

3. Spread of Buddhism
Buddha had two kinds of Disciples- The monks (Bhikshus) and lay worshippers (Upasikas ). The monks
were organised into Sanghas for the sake of Spread of Buddhism. Both male and female could become
the members of the Sangha. Sariputta, Moggallana, Ananda, were some of the most famous monks.
Tipsu and Malik were the first disciples of Buddha. Owning to the rapid progress of Sanghas, Buddhism
22

spread more rapidly in North India . Buddhism made a special appeal to the Non Vedic areas where it
found a virgin soil for conversion. Magadha was placed outside the Aryavarta, the land of Aryas
covering present day Uttar Pradesh. The Personality of Buddha nd the method of teaching adopted by
him appealed most to the common man. He tried to fight evil with goodness and Hatred with love.
Buddha refused to get provoked by slander and abuse. The use of Pali language, the language of the
people also contributed to the spread of Buddhism. Buddha propagated three main elements of
Buddhism i.e. Triratnas.
-

Buddha
Dharma
Sangha

The Dhamma
-

The Four Great Truths

Dukkha The world is full of sorrow and misery.
The cause of all pain and misery is desire and attachment.
Pain and misery can be ended by killing or controlling desire.
Desire can be controlled by following the Eight Fold Path.
The Eight Fold Path
The central theme of Buddhas teachings is the eight-fold path (Astangamarga) prescribed by him which
consist of:
Wisdom Right Faith, Right Thought,
Moral Discipline Right Action, Right Livelihood, Right Speech,
M ental Discip lin e Righ t E ffort , Righ t Remembrance and Right Concentration.
Belief in Nirvana
When desire ceases, rebirth ceases and nirvana is attained i.e. freedom from the cycle of birth and
death by following the eight-fold path.
According to Buddha the soul is a myth.
Belief in Ahimsa
One should not cause injury to any living being, animal or man.
Law of Karma
Man reaps the fruits of his past deeds.
The Sangha
Consists of monks (Bhikshus and Shramanas) and nuns.
Bhikshus acted as torch bearer of the Dhamma.
Apart from Sangha, the worshippers were called Upasakas.

4. Buddhist Councils
Year
483 BC First Buddhist
Council

President
Mahakassapa

Place
Rajgrih

Significance
Patronage of King
Ajatashatru Held at
Sattapani Cave.
To preserve Buddhas
teachings (Sutta) and
rules for disciples
(Vinaya). Ananda , one of
the great disciples of
23

383 BC Second Buddhist Sabakami

Council

Vaishali

236 BC Third Buddhist

Council

Moggalipura Tissa

Pataliputra

72 AD Fourth Buddhist
Council

Vasumitra

Kashmir

1871 Fifth Buddhist

Council

Jagarabhivamsa
Narindabhidaja
Sumangalasami

Mandalay , Burma

1954 Sixth Buddhist

Council

Mahasi Sayadaw
Bhadanta
Vicittasarabhivamsa

Kaba Aye, Yangon

Buddha recited Suttas

and Upali, another
disciple recited Vinaya.
Abhidhamma Pitaka was
also included.
Patronage of King
Kalashoka. The Idea was
to settle the dispute on
Vinaya Pithaka. Buddhist
Sects appeared for the
first time Stheravadin
and Mahasanghikas
Patronage of King
Ashoka.
Abhidamma Pithaka
became the 3rd Pitaka.
Patronage of King
Kanishka.
Buddhism divided into
Mahayana and Hinayana
Buddhism.
Patronage of King
Mindon.
Idea was to recite all the
teachings of Buddha
Patronage of Burmese
Government.
Construction of Maha
Passana Guha ( Similar to
the Sattapani Caves)

5. Buddhist Literature
Buddhist literature in Pali language is commonly referred to as Tripitakas i.e. Threefold Basket.
Vinaya Pitaka are the rules of discipline in Buddhist monasteries.
Sutta Pitaka is the largest and contains collection of Buddhas sermons.
Abhinandan Pitaka is the explanation of the philosophical principles of the Buddhist
religion
Mahayana and Deepvamsa are other Buddhist texts. They provide information about the
then Sri Lanka.
Jatakas are the fables about the different births of Buddha.
The fundamentals of Buddhist teachings are contained in the Dhammacakka-Pavattana
Sutta (Sermon of the Turning of the Wheel of Law). Buddha rst taught this to his rst
disciples at Benaras. This contains the Four noble truths and the Noble eight-fold path, which
are accepted as basic categories by all Buddhist sects.
Among the chief Mahayana texts is the Lalitvistara, a owery narrative of the life of Buddha.
This test was utilized by Sir Edwin Arnold for The Light of Asia, a lengthy poem on the life
of Buddha, which enjoyed much popularity at the end of the last century.

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6. Decline of Buddhism
Every religion is inspired by the spirit of reform, but eventually succumbs to the rituals and ceremonies
it originally denounced. Buddhism too underwent a similar metamorphosis. To meet the challenges of
Buddhism, Brahmanism reformed their religion. Revival of Bhagavatism led to the fall of popularity of
Buddhism. The use of Pali language, the language of the people was given up from the 1st century AD.
The Buddhists began to adopt Sanskrti, the language of the elite. Over a period of time Buddhism itself
was reformed, eventually for the worst. Buddhist monks were cut off from the mainstream of peoples
life, they practiced idol worship and they began to receive offering from devotees. The lives of Buddhist
monks became easy and one of luxury.
Brahmana ruler Pushyamitra Sunga is also believed to have persecuted Buddhists. The Huna King
Mihirkula, who was the worshipper of Shiva, killed hundreds of Buddhists. The Shaivite king Shashanka
of Gauda cut off the Bodhi Tree at Bodh gaya. Even in South India, both Vaishnavites and Shaivites
opposed the doctrines of Jainism and Buddhism. All these factors seemed to have weakened Buddhism
to a great extent especially from the medieval times.

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