Chapter 1: Introduction

1.1 Steel
Steel has had a major influence on our lives, the cars we drive, the buildings we work in, the homes
in which we live and countless other facets in between. Steel is used in our electricity-power-line
towers, natural-gas pipelines, machine tools, military weapons-the list is endless. Steel has also
earned a place in our homes in protecting our families, making our lives convenient, its benefits are
undoubtedly clear.
Steel is by far the most important, multi-functional and most adaptable of materials. The
development of mankind would have been impossible but for steel. The backbone of developed
economies was laid on the strength and inherent uses of steel.
The various uses of steel which in turn is a measure of adaptability of steel can be judged from the
following characteristics of steel :
- Hot and cold formable
- Weldable
- Suitable machinability
- Hard, tough and wear resistant
- Corrosion resistant
- Heat resistant and resistance to deformation at high temperatures.
Steel compared to other materials of its type has low production costs. The energy required for
extracting iron from ore is about 25 % of what is needed for extracting aluminum. Steel is
environment friendly as it can be recycled. 5.6 % of element iron is present in earth's crust,
representing a secure raw material base . Steel production is 20 times higher as compared to
production of all non-ferrous metals put together.
The steel industry has developed new technologies and has strived hard to make the world's strongest
and most versatile material even better. There are altogether about 2000 grades of steel developed of
which 1500 grades are high grade steels. There is still immense potential for developing new grades
of steel with varying properties .The large number of grades gives steel the characteristic of a basic

production material Steel has enjoyed an important position in our lives and will continue to do so in
the years to come. However, the degree to which it maintains its dominant position will depend on if
steel can exploit its potential by developing new higher grades and adaptable grades . This can be
achieved by refining the structure and applying alloying techniques and thus furthering its utility
value. We will have to find out ways to use steel and be ready to face a stiff competition from
Aluminium in the future.

1.1.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of Steel:

1.1.1.a Advantages:
1. Greater hardenability
2. Less distortion and cracking
3. Greater ductility at high strength
4. Greater high temperature strength
5. Greater stress relief at given hardness
6. Better machine ability at high hardness
7. High elastic ratio and endurance strength.

1.1.1.b Disadvantages:
1. Tendency toward austenite retention
2. Cost
3. Special handling
4. Temper brittleness in certain grades.

1.1.2 Purpose of alloying:1. Strengthening of the ferrite

7. Improved toughness

2.

8. Better wear resistance

Improved corrosion resistance

3. Better hardenability

9. Improved cutting ability

4. Grain size control

10. Improved case hardening properties etc.

5. Greater strength

11. Improved high or low temperature stability.

6.

12. Improved ductility

Improved machinability

1.1.3 Classification of the steels according to purpose

ELEMENT = % = NAME = CHARACTERISTICS = USES
-Mn= 12-15 = magnetic steel = very hard & corrosions free = railway track road roller
-Chromium= 11.5 = stainless steel = hard & rust free = valve, ball bearing, blade utensils
-chromium+vanadium= 1+0.15 =crom vanadium steel = high weighing capacity &
unbreakable = ball bearings gear bon chessis of motors
-tungsten= 10-20 = tungsten steel = very hard & strong = high speed machines instruments
blade spring magnets
-nickel= 3.5 = nickel steel = hard electric low probability of rusting = aeroplane , motor
electric wire clock

1.1.4 Raw materials & Fluxes :1. Hot metal Chemical composition : 4.3% C, 0.7% Si, <0.3% Mn, 0.2% P, 0.05 0.07% S.
2. Scrap Chemical composition : 0.2% C, 0.2% Si, 0.5% Mn, 0.5% P, 0.025% S, 99.0% Fe t ,
0.45% FeO.
3. IronOre Chemical composition : 0.08% P, 0.02% S, 94.8% Fe2O3, 1.3% SiO2,1.6% Al2O3,
2% LOI (max.), 0.2% Others. Grain size 10 50.
4. DRI (Direct Reduced Iron) Chemical composition : 0.2% C, 0.6% P, 0.02% S, 90.1% Fe t
or 81.1% Fe net + 11.6% FeO.
5. Calcined lime Chemical composition : 87.0% CaO, 3.3% MgO, 3 5% SiO2, <1.5%
Al2O3, 2.5 5% LOI, 1.95% Others. Grain size 10 50.
6. Calcined dolomite Chemical composition : 53% CaO, 35% MgO, 3.5% SiO2, 1.1% Al2O3,
4% LOI, 4.9% Others. Grain size 10 50.

1.1.5 The grades of steel produced by primary steel making can be given as:
1. Drawing Quality (D.Q.):-This type of steel contains 0.08% of carbon, 0.03% of silicon, 0.017%
of sulphur and the alloying elements less than 0.13%.

2. Commercial Quality (C.Q.):-The percentage of carbon, silicon &sulphur present in commercial

steel is same as in Drawing Steel but the alloying element can be present up to 0.21%.

3. Alloy Steel:-The carbon and sulphur percentage is same as above but the silicon is increased to
0.13% and the alloying elements increased to 1.75%.

Chapter 2: Observation Work

Fig. 1 Overview of steel making processes

BOKARO STEEL PLANT MAJOR DEPARTMENTS

Fig: 2 Bokaro steel plant major departments

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2.1 Sintering Plant:

Fig 3 Sintering Plant

Agglomerated mass of iron ore, flux

Increases efficiency, reducibility,

reduces coke rate

Fed into sinter furnace on moving pallets

Crushed cooled

+5mm crushed sinter sent to BF & rest reused

It is the function of the sintering plant to process fine grain raw material into coarse grained
iron ore sinter for charging the blast furnace.

To begin with, meticulously prepared mixtures are created consisting of fine ore,
concentrates, extras and undersizes arising from screening lumpy burden components at the
blast furnace. Ferriferous fine grain discharges from the production chain of the entire steel
works are also put into the mixtures. By igniting suitable fuel, iron ore sinter is produced by
down draft process. Normally, coke breeze from screening lump coke at the blast furnace is
used as fuel.

2.2 Coke ovens and Bi Product Plant:

a) Coke: It is a hard porous substance that is principally pure carbon. Coke is a processed
form of coal, made in oven by driving off volatile elements. In blast furnaces, coke helps generate the
3000o F temperatures and reducing gases needs to smelt iron ore. About 1,000 pounds of coke are
needed to process a ton of pig iron, an amount which represents more than 50% of an integrated steel
mill's total energy use.
Processed coke, however, burns steadily inside and out, and is not crushed by the weight of the iron
ore in the blast furnace. Coal is heated without oxygen for 18 hours to drive off gases and impurities.
b) Types: There are three principal kinds of coke, classified according to the methods by
which they are manufactured :Low, medium and high-temperature coke, Coke used for metallurgical
purposes must be carbonized in the higher ranges of temperature (between 900o and 1095o) if the
product is to have satisfactory physical properties. Even with good coking coal, the product obtained
by low-temperature carbonization between 450o and 760o is unacceptable for good blast furnace
operation.
c) Coke Making - Coal Carbonisation: Coking coals are the coals which when heated in the
absence of air, first melt, go in the plastic state, swell and resolidify to produce a solid coherent mass
called coke. When coking coal is heated in absence of air, a series of physical and chemical changes
take place with the evolution of gases and vapours, and the solid residue left behind is called coke.
Conventional cokemaking is done in a coke oven battery of ovens sandwiched between heating walls.
They are carbonised at a temperature around 1000o-1100o C upto a certain degree of devolatization
to produce metallurgical coke of desired mechanical and thermo-chemical properties.
Coke Oven is mainly consist of 4 sections
1. Coal Handling Plant(CHP)- In this section coal from different sources
(India- prime coking coal from Jharia, Dugda and Moonidih and medium
coking coal form Kargali, Kathara and Mahuda & Imported coal from
Australia, Newzealand,China,Russia.) are stored. There are 81 coal storage
chambers where coal is stored and then from here coal is send to the Hammer
crusher (9 in number and have capacity to crush 350 tonne/hour). Here coal is
crushed for better burning. After crushing they are forwarded to ovens.

2. Batteries: A set of ovens that process coal into coke. Coke ovens are
constructed in batteries of 69 ovens(20-22 tonne capacity each) that are 5
meter tall, 15 meter long, and less than two feet wide. Coke batteries, because
of the exhaust fumes emitted when coke is pushed from the ovens, often are
the dirtiest area of a steel mill complex. Oven is heatedwith the mixture of CO
gas and BF gas(9:1 ratio).During carbonization, coking coals undergo
transformation into plastic state at around 350o-400o C swell and then
resolidify at around 500o-550o C to give semi-coke and then coke. In coke
ovens, after coal is charged inside the oven, plastic layers are formed adjacent
to the heating walls, and with the progress of time, the plastic layers move
towards the centre of oven from either side and ultimately meet each other at
the centre. During coke making, two opposite reactions take place, viz.
condensation and pyrolysis. The quality and quantity of plastic layer is of
extreme importance and it determines the inherent strength of coke matrix.
3. Coke sorting plant(CSP): This plant sort out cokes on the basis of their
sizes. That is, 25-80 mm sized cokes are sent to Blast Furnace, less than 25
mm sized coke is sent to sintering plant, and nut cokes are directly sold.
4. Bi Product Plant(BPP): With addition to steel, SAIL produces bi products
which is produced my exhaust gases of coke ovens. Main bi products which
they make are tar(Napthene), fertilizers(ammonium sulphate) and Benzene.

Fig:4 Material flow diagram: coal and coke

2.3 BLAST FURNACE:

Fig. 5 Blast Furnace

2.3.1 Raw Material Sources for Blast Furnace

1. Iron Ore
2. Sinter
3.Mn Ore
4. LD Slag
5. Coke
6. Pig Iron Chips

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2.3.2 Description of the Charge Materials:

i.

Iron bearing materials :

Major iron bearing materials used in Blast furnaces are Iron Ore Lump and sinter. The
detailed specification of raw Materials is given in Page no At present the burden is
composed of 30 % Iron Ore Lump and 70 % Sinter. Percentage of Sinter can be raised to 80
% cost effectively subject to its availability. Sinter is a porous lump containing reduced iron,
lime as formed slag & FeO upto 10 %. Sinter used reduced heat & reducing gas requirement
thereby decreases coke rate and improves productivity.

ii.

Fluxes :
The major function of the fluxes, limestone and/or LD Slag is to combine with the ash in the
coke and the gangue in the ores to make a fluid slag that can be drained readily from the
furnace hearth.
The ratio of basic oxides to acid oxides must be controlled carefully to preserve the sulfurholding power of the slag, as well as its fluidity and melting point. In instances where the
acids in the coke ash and ore gangue are not sufficient to make enough slag volume to provide
control of the process, silica gravel or quartzite may be added with the charge.

iii.

Coke :

The main functions of coke are

To produce the heat required for smelting

To supply the chemical reagentscarbon and carbon monoxide (generated at the tuyeres) for
reducing the iron ore.
To support the burden (with adequate permeability)
In addition, it supplies the carbon that dissolves in the hot metal, Because carbon sublimes
rather than melts, the coke retains its strength at temperatures above the melting temperature of pig
iron and slag and provides the structural support that keeps the

un-melted burden materials

from falling into the hearth and provides a lattice through which the reducing gasses generated at the
tuyeres can pass. Size of coke charged in Blast Furnace is +25 to 80mm.

11

As a result of chemical equilibrium limitations, all of the carbon monoxide produced in the
blast furnace cannot be consumed in the reduction of the burden. Consequently, the gas issuing from
the top of the furnace contains sufficient carbon monoxide to have a calorific value of 800 900 Kcal
/ Nm3 of gas.
This gas is typically used to preheat the blast air and to generate power for running the turboblowers; thus, much of the energy is returned to the blast furnace operation. The excess gas is often
used in other portions of the plant. As a consequence of economic and technical supremacy the blast
furnace process continues to become more and more efficient.

2.3.3 Quality of Charge Materials

The important parameters are :-

i.

Particle size and size consist

Resistance to flow increases with reduction in particle diameter

Heat & mass transfer increases with reduction in particle diameter
For optimizing above parameters it has been found that spheres ranging from 3/8
to 2 dia are suitable.

The void fraction of a mixture of particles is less than that of either size.
The void fraction decreases only slightly for a ratio of 0.5.
So upper size limit should be about 2 times the lower one.

Physical strength

Maximum breakdown i.e. disintegration of iron ore occurs between 400 6000 C. So a
high driving rate decreases this phenomenon.

Presence of alkali causes faster degradation.

Softening due to temp is detrimental to indirect reduction due to closure of pores which is
aggravated by mechanical load. So, the Cohesive range should be small.

ii.

Chemical considerations: chemistry, reducibility, reactivity, mineralogy.

iii.

Uniformity of chemical composition:- It can be achieved by blending.

12

2.3.4 Progressive steps by which the two-bell top permits charging of materials
a) Bell type with movable throat armour (MTA)
The trajectory of falling material can be varied by varying the throat dia by means of a set of
variable armoured plates (Called MTA) so that desired burden distribution is achieved.
Adjustments are totally circumferential, but there is a limit to how much adjustment can be
attained.The two-bell system requires less height than other systems and it is a comparatively
simple device. The MTA is hydraulically operated & controlled through PLC. The system is
depicted in the figures below.

Fig. 6: Bell type furnace with MTA

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b) Bell-Less Top
In case of BLT, there are no bells, as the nomenclature states. This top charging unit was
developed to solve the problem of gas sealing under a high-pressure operation, to provide flexibility
for the most advantageous distribution of burden, and to reduce maintenance time and frequency for
the equipment. When the furnace stockline has descended to the desired level, the lower seal valve
opens and allows the charge to flow onto the distribution chute. The distribution chute rotates around
the vertical axis of the furnace and changes to predetermined angles with respect to the horizontal
plane.
The skips dump the materials to a receiving hopper which is separated from the BLT by upper
material gate and upper gas seal valve. After opening of upper material gate & upper seal valve,
material is discharged into BLT material bin placed over lower material gate & lower gas seal valve.
Then the UMG & USV closed to seal the furnace from the atmosphere & receiving hopper is ready to
receive material from the skips.To dump the material into the furnace, lower seal valve opens and
then lower material gate opened. The material is dumped through a rotating chute which can dump
material at any position of the furnace and can complete the dumping in variable number of rotation
so that desired burden distribution is achieved. This system has the flexibility of charging the
materials in distinctive rings, in spiraling rings of smaller diameter, or of point/spot area filling. The
whole BLT system is hydraulically operated & PLC controlled. Besides achieving perfect burden
distribution, BLT ensures very good gas sealing at the furnace top so that furnace can be operated at
high top pressure.

Fig 7: Bell Less Top furnace

14

Fig. 8: CHEMISTRY OF THE BLAST FURNACE PROCESS

CROWN
RING

CONE
PRE-HEATING ZONE
150 3000 C

THROA
T

S
T
A
C
K
O
R
S
H
A
F
T

UPPER REDUCTION
ZONE
300 9000 C

BREAK UP
OF CaCO3

LOWER REDUCTION
ZONE
900 12000 C
FUSION ZONE

SLAG
BIGINS TO
FORM

PIG IRON
BIGINS
MELTING

MOISTUR
E
REMOVA
L
REDUCTIO
N OF IRON

BELLY

BOS
H
COKE
BURNS

1200 16000 C
TUYER
E
TUYERE ZONE,
16000 C

SLAG
FORMATION
ENDS

SLAG, 14200 C

HOT METAL, 13200

C

TAP
HOLE

15

2.3.5 Production of Heat and Reduction of Iron

When the burden materials and coke that are charged into the top of the
blast furnace descend through the stack, they are preheated by the hot gases ascending from the
tuyeres. As a result of this preheat, the coke burns with great intensity when it reaches the lower
portion of the furnace adjacent to the tuyeres and comes in contact with the hot-blast air.
However, because of the very high temperature (approx. 1650C) and the large quantity of carbon
(C) present as coke, the carbon dioxide (CO2 ) formed is not stable and immediately reacts with
additional carbon to form carbon monoxide (CO). Consequently, the combustion of carbon (coke) in
the blast furnace can be expressed by the chemical equation :
C + O2 = CO ; H = +110,458 kJ/kmol
This reaction is the main source of heat for the smelting operation and also produces a
reducing gas (CO) that ascends into the furnace stack where it preheats and reduces most of the iron
oxide in the burden as it descends to the hearth.
Any moisture (H2O) in the blast air also reacts with some of the carbon in the coke in the
combustion zone. This reaction does not produce heat as combustion does but, rather, consumes heat.
However, for every unit of carbon, this reaction produces more reducing gas than that is produced
when carbon is burned in air . (When carbon burns in air, it produces only one unit of CO, but when
it reacts with H2O, it produces one unit of CO and one unit of H2 .)
Consequently, in certain instances, where the inherent reduction rate of the burden materials
is lower than normal and where a relatively high hot-blast temperature is availablebetween 1000C
and 1100C it has been thought to be advantageous to keep the moisture content of the blast at a
uniformly high level by moisture (steam) additions to increase the reducing power of the blast
furnace gas. Natural gas injection provides a similar benefit.
The chemical reaction is expressed by the following equation :
C + H2O = CO + H2 ; H = +131,378 kJ/kmol
An additional benefit is derived from the introduction (or increase) of hydrogen in the furnace
reducing gases, as the percentage of hydrogen decreases the density of the gas. This results in an
equivalent volume of reducing gas providing less resistance to burden decent. The ascending gases
start to reduce the iron oxide of the burden in the upper portion of the blast furnace where the
temperature is below 925C. At this temperature, chemical equilibrium prevents all of the CO and H2
from being used for reduction.
16

2.3.6 Various reduction reactions taking place inside BF is given below:

1/2 Fe2O3 + 3/2 CO

Fe + 3/2 CO2 ;

H = +12,866 kJ/kmol

1/3 Fe3O4 + 4/3 CO

Fe + 4/3 CO2 ;

H = +3940 kJ/kmol

FeO + CO

Fe + CO2

H = 16,108 kJ/kmol

1/2 Fe2O3 + 3/2 H2

Fe + 3/2 H2O ;

H = +48,953 kJ/kmol

1/3 Fe3O4 + 4/3 H2

Fe + 4/3 H2O ;

H = +51,0421 kJ/kmol

FeO + H2

Fe + H2O

H = +25,104 kJ/kmol

FeO + CO

Fe + CO2

H = 16,108 kJ/kmol

CO2 + C

2CO

H = +172,590 kJ/kmol

FeO + C

Fe + CO

H = +156,482 kJ/kmol

FeO + H2

Fe + H2O

H = +25,104 kJ/kmol

H2O + C

CO + H2

H = +131,378 kJ/kmol

FeO + C

Fe + CO

H = +156,482 kJ/kmol

FeO + H2

Fe + H2O

H = +25,104 kJ/kmol

H2O + C

CO + H2

H = +131,378 kJ/kmol

FeO + C

Fe + CO

H = +156,482 kJ/kmol

2.3.6.1 Output Composition:

Hot Metal

94% Fe, 4.0% C, 1.0% Si, 0.5% Mn, 0.2% P,

0.05% S, 1430 oC Hot Metal Temperature at Cast House.

Liquid Slag

32-34% SiO2, 20-22% Al2O3, 28-30% CaO,

10-11% MgO, 1% max FeO, 0.94 Basicity.

BF Gas

22-24% CO, 16-18% CO2, 2% H, 56-58% N,

CV-850 kcal/Nm3, dust content < 10 Mg/m

17

2.4 Cast House

The operation of a blast furnace is a continuous process, and the furnace continues to produce
liquid iron and slag as long as it is in operation. The iron and slag accumulate in the hearth, but
because there is a limit to the amount that can be tolerated before it interferes with the furnace
operation, the slag and iron must be removed from the furnace at regular intervals.
The Cast House is the most important section of Blast Furnace. The function of cast
house is to tap the liquid metal & slag from the hearth of furnace on schedule, separate the
metal & slag in troughs and flow them through runners to metal ladles and slag pots
respectively. Production of Blast Furnace is greatly influenced by effective tapings which
depend on a good cast house practice.
Hydro pneumatic drill machines are used to drill the tap holeupto 2m into the hearth to tap the
metal & slag. Oxygen lancing through mild steel pipes is resorted to if taping is not possible by
drilling alone. The troughs & runners are made with special grade refractory mass to handle upto
40,000 T metal before repair. Few iron runners are also made with low cement castables to handle
more then 1 lakh ton metal before repair. Hydraulic powered mud guns are used to close the tap hole
after casting is over with anhydrous tap hole mass which get quickly hardened inside the tap hole.
The main components of cast house is the tap hole, troughs, iron runners, slag runners, iron &
slag spouts, mud gun and drill machine. Each cast house is provided with a EOT crane (15 T cap for
BF I, II & II and 30 T for BF IV). BF 1, 2 & 3 have one tap hole where as BF 4 has two tap
holes with separate trough & runners for Iron & slag. More over BF 4 cast house has two mud guns
for 2 tap holesbut one common drill machine. BF # 4 Cast house is provided with rocking runner &
pusher car in iron side.
The iron notch, which is used for tapping the hot metal from the furnace, is located slightly
above the floor of the hearth. When the furnace is in operation, the iron notch is completely filled
with a refractory material called taphole clay. To cast the hot metal from the furnace, a taphole is
drilled through this material, and after the cast has been completed, the hole is plugged again with
fresh clay that is extruded into the hole from a mud gun. The mud gun consists of a hollow,
cylindrical barrel and a plunger that pushes the clay out through a nozzle into the taphole. The
plunger is operated either electrically or hydro-pneumatically.

As the hot metal leaves the taphole it is discharged into the trough which is a long, narrow basin. At
the far end of the trough there is a dam to hold back the hot metal until the depth of metal in the
18

trough is sufficient to contact the bottom of a refractory skimmer block. The skimmer holds back the
slag and diverts it into the slag runners.
The hot metal flows over the dam and down the iron runner where, by a series of gates, it is directed
in sequence to the train of ladles positioned under stationary spouts along the runner. A tilting spout
is positioned between two hot metal tracks. The spout is first tilted to fill the ladle on one track and
then tilted to back to fill the ladle on the other track. While the second ladle is being filled, the first
one can be replaced with an empty so that the cast can be continued uninterrupted while several
ladles are filled.

Fig 9: Typical tilting runner arrangement

19

2.5 Steel melting shops (SMS)

2.5.1 SMS I
The SMS I complex of BSL has 5 LD converters, each of 100/130 T capacity. Sin these
converters, technically pure oxygen (99.5%) is blown from top through a water cooled
lance so as to remove the impurities of hot metal oxidation. As a result of this oxygen
blowing process, hot metal converts into steel..
The steel produced at BSL is meant for products like plates and sheets and therefore, of
low carbon type. All the 3 types of steel viz. Killed, Semi Killed and Rimming is
produced at SMS-I. The rated capacity of shop is 2.5 MT of ingot steel.
In converter, the hot metal received from Blast Furnace is converted to steel by
removing carbon and other element present.
The change of this metal to steel is brought by blowing 99.5% pure oxygen in converter
by supersonic speed. Before starting the oxygen blowing, the converter is properly
charged in a defined sequence. At first lime is charged in the bottom. Then scrap
addition is done with the help of a charging crane. The reaction in the converter is
highly exothermic. At that time, the scrap acts as a coolant. Finally, hot metal is charged
and oxygen blowing is done by lowering the lance and opening the oxygen shut-off
valve. The lime is added as a flux and to maintain the basicity of bath.
After the corrective measures are taken temperature and samples are taken and if
found all right the heat is tapped. During tapping of steel, required amount of
Deoxidisers ( FeMn, FeSi, Al etc) are added in the teeming ladle depending upon the
quality of steel ie. whether Rimming, Semi Killed or Killed is made after tapping, the
converter is tilted to the other side of the rimming portion of slag in the converter is
dumped in the slag pot. The slag is then transferred to the slag yard. The teeming ladle
on the other hand is transferred to the teeming bay and teeming is done.

Steel melting- process of removal of impurities like carbon and silicon.

Oxygen blowing process.

It receives hot metals from blast furnace.

Output of sms1 is in ingot form.

Output of sms2 is in slab form.

From sms2 it goes to continuous casting shop.

20

2.5.2 STEEL MELTING SHOP II

There are two LD Converters in the Shop each of 300 hundred Ton Capacity. SMS II
differs with SMS-I mainly because of blowing process and gas recovery system. Unlike
SMS-I, SMS-II have got suppressed combustion system, where atmospheric air is not
allowed to enter in the hood area and the combustion of converter gas is suppressed.
Capacity of SMS-II is 2.25 MT of liquid Steel. At present, mainly Killed & Semi Killed
steels are produced in the shop.
Gas Cleaning Plant widely known as GCP is meant for treating the cases generated
from the Converter. It consists of hood, skirt, stack and down take, all fabricated of steel
tubes. The gases are cooled & cleaned while they pass through this system. This gas is
used by reheating furnaces and Soaking Pits.

Fig.10: Steel Melting Shop

21

2.5.2.1 CONTINUOUS CASTING:The main function of Continuous Casting Shop is to produce steel slabs directly from the
molten steel coming from SMS-II and sending them to Hot Strip Mill (HSM) for hot rolling.

SRU : refining, composition, temperature

Argon purging

a) Background Continuous Casting is the process whereby molten steel is solidified

into a "semi-finished" billet, bloom, or slab for subsequent rolling in the finishing
mills. Prior to the introduction of Continuous Casting in the 1950s, steel was poured
into stationary molds to form "ingots". Since then, "continuous casting" has evolved to
achieve improved yield, quality, productivity and cost efficiency.

Fig.11: Vertical Continuous Casting

Steel from the electric or basic oxygen furnace is tapped into a ladle and taken to the continuous
casting machine. The ladle is raised onto a turret that rotates the ladle into the casting position
above the tundish. Liquid steel flows out of the ladle into the tundish, and then into a watercooled copper mold. Solidification begins in the mold, and continues through the First Zone and
Strand Guide. In this configuration, the strand is straightened, torch-cut, then discharged for
intermediate storage or hot charged for finished rolling.
Depending on the product end-use, various shapes are cast. In recent years, the
melting/casting/rolling processes have been linked while casting a shape that substantially
conforms to the finished product. The Near-Net-Shape cast section has most commonly been
22

applied to Beams and Flat Rolled products, and results in a highly efficient operation. The
complete process chain from liquid metal to finished rolling can be achieved within two hours.

Fig. 12: Conventional and Medium thickness slabs

b) Casting Overview The continuous casting of steel is primarily a heat extraction

process. The heat or enthalpies are era extracted by a combination of heat transfer
mechanism: convection in the liquid pool due to the input of the momentum from the
tundish stream as well as buoyancy driver flow, heat conduction decreases
temperature gradient in the solid cell from the hotsolidification heat transfer does not
begin suddenly at the meniscus in the mould nor is its important limited to the mould,
spray and radiation cooling zone.
The continuous casting has technical and economical advantage. It is also free from
soaking, breakdown & roughing and smaller size product can be achived.
Factor affecting the solidification process :
1.

Incoming steel temperature

2.

Steel chemistry

3.

Product size

4.

mold- cooling characteristics

5.

secondary cooling characteristics intensity &time of spray cooling,

.

-- time of radiation cooling

23

Fig.13: Continuous Casting Process

c) Equipments used in continuous casting :

(a) Ladle Turret (load capacity 2 x 280 ton.)
(b) Ladle Cover Manipulator

( g) TundishPriheating Station
( h ) Submerged Entry Nozzle (SEN)

Priheating Device
(c) Tundish

( i ) Mold Operator Pendent

(d) Tundish Cover

( j ) Emergency Runner System

(e) Tundish Stopper Rod Equipment

(f) Emergency Cut-off Gate

d) The casting process is comprised of the following sections:

1)

A tundish, located above the mold to feed liquid steel to the mold at a regulated rate

2)

A primary cooling zone or water-cooled copper mold through which the steel is fed from the
tundish, to generate a solidified outer shell sufficiently strong enough to maintain the strand
shape as it passes into the secondary cooling zone

24

3)

A secondary cooling zone in association with a containment section positioned below the
mold, through which the still mostly-liquid strand passes and is sprayed with water or water
and air to further solidify the strand

4)

Except straight Vertical Casters, an Unbending & Straightening section

5)

A severing unit (cutting torch or mechanical shears) to cut the solidified strand into pieces for
removal and further processing

6)

To minimize cracking, the casting surface should be maintained in the austenitic range, or in
general above 16000F.

e) Liquid steel transfer

There are two steps involved in transferring liquid steel from the ladle to the molds.
First, the steel must be transferred (or teemed) from the ladle to the tundish. Next, the
steel is transferred from the tundish to the molds. Tundish-to-mold steel flow
regulation occurs through orifice devices of various designs: slide gates, stopper rods,
or metering nozzles, the latter controlled by tundish steel level adjustment.

Fig.14: Liquid Steel Transfer

25

f) Tundish
The shape of the tundish is typically rectangular, but delta and "T" shapes are also
common. Nozzles are located along its bottom to distribute liquid steel to the molds.
The tundish also serves several other key functions:
Enhances oxide inclusion separation
Provides a continuous flow of liquid steel to the mold during ladle exchanges
Maintains a steady metal height above the nozzles to the molds, thereby keeping steel flow
constant and hence casting speed constant as well (for an open-pouring metering system).
Provides more stable stream patterns to the mold(s)
No. of burners per station 5, Calorific value 2100 Kcal/m3

g) Mold
The main function of the mold is to establish a solid shell sufficient in strength to
contain its liquid core upon entry into the secondary spray cooling zone. Key product
elements are shape, shell thickness, uniform shell temperature distribution, defect-free
internal and surface quality with minimal porosity, and few non-metallic inclusions.
The mold is basically an open-ended box structure, containing a water-cooled inner
lining fabricated from a high purity copper alloy. Mold water transfers heat from the
solidifying shell. The working surface of the copper face is often plated with
chromium or nickel to provide a harder working surface, and to avoid copper pickup
on the surface of the cast strand, which can facilitate surface cracks on the product.
Mold heat transfer is both critical and complex. Mathematical and computer modeling
are typically utilized in developing a greater understanding of mold thermal
conditions, and to aid in proper design and operating practices. Heat transfer is
generally considered as a series of thermal resistances as follows:
Heat transfer through the solidifying shell
Heat transfer from the steel shell surface to the copper mold outer surface
Heat transfer through the copper mold
Heat transfer from the copper mold inner surface to the mold cooling water
Length of mold 1000 m
26

The casting mold interface can be divided into 3 sections

2.

From the meniscus to the point where the shell begin to form, in this region liquid
metal is separated from the mold by a thin layer of lubricating oil

3.

The ragion over which the shell has insufficient strength to pull away from the
mold, but due to the condition of the casting surface, intermittent contect exists

4.

The zone over which a definite gas exists, reduced heat transfer takes place by
radition& conduction across the gas in the gap

h) Mold Oscillator
Mold oscillation is necessary to minimize friction and sticking of the solidifying shell,
and avoid shell tearing, and liquid steel breakouts, which can wreak havoc on
equipment and machine downtime due to clean up and repairs. Friction between the
shell and mold is reduced through the use of mold lubricants such as oils or powdered
fluxes. Oscillation is achieved either hydraulically or via motor-driven cams or levers
which support and reciprocate (or oscillate) the mold.
Mold oscillating cycles vary in frequency, stroke and pattern. However, a common
approach is to employ what is called "negative strip", a stroke pattern in which the
downward stroke of the cycle enables the mold to move down faster than the section
withdrawal speed. This enables compressive stresses to develop in the shell that
increase its strength by sealing surface fissures and porosity.
Types of mold :2. The solid block mold
3. Plant mold
4. Tubular mold

27

i) Mold Powder:
Used for the lubrication in the mold
Composition of mold powder : Fly ash 40 50%, Glass 10 23%, Calcium Fluoride
12 17%, Sodium Borate 1 8%, Sodium Carbonate 5 6%, Lime 3 6%, Iron
Oxide 3 4%,

Gyolite 0 4%, Sodium Silicofloride 0 1%.

j) Secondary Cooling
Typically, the secondary cooling system is comprised of a series of zones, each
responsibleresponsible for a segment of controlled cooling of the solidifying strand as
it progresses through the machine. The sprayed medium is either water or a
combination of air and water.
Uniform spray cooling
Constant surface temperature
Multibank spray cooling
Radiant cooling

k) Nozzles
Most frequently spray nozzle used on billet casting machine gives a full cone pattern
(round/square) although just under the mold one or two nozzle producing a V-pattern
are after employed; the length of the spray chamber may vary from as little as 0.5 m to
4 m. The spray chamber in a slab caster typically has a length in excess of 10 m.

l) Strand Containment
The containment region is an integral part of the secondary cooling area. A series of
retaining rolls contain the strand, extending across opposite strand faces. Edge roll
containment may also be required. The focus of this area is to provide strand guidance
and containment until the solidifying shell is self-supporting.
In order to avoid compromises in product quality, careful consideration must be made
to minimize stresses associated with the roller arrangement and strand unbending.
28

Thus, roll layout, including spacing and roll diameters are carefully selected to
minimize

between-roll

bulging

and

liquid/solid

interface

strains.

Strand support requires maintaining strand shape, as the strand itself is a solidifying
shell containing a liquid core, that possesses bulging ferrostatic forces from head
pressure related to machine height. The area of greatest concern is high up in the
machine. Here, the bulging force is relatively small, but the shell is thinner and at its
weakest. To compensate for this inherent weakness and avoid shell rupturing and
resulting liquid steel breakouts, the roll diameter is small with tight spacing. Just
below the mold all four faces are typically supported, with only the broad faces
supported at regions lower in the machine.

m) Bending & Straightening

Equally important to strand containment and guidance from the vertical to horizontal
plane are the unbending and straightening forces. As unbending occurs, the solid shell
outer radius is under tension, while the inner radius is under compression. The
resulting strain is dictated by the arc radius along with the mechanical properties of
the cast steel grade. If the strain along the outer radius is excessive, cracks could
occur, seriously affecting the quality of the steel. These strains are typically
minimized by incorporating a multi-point unbending process, in which the radii
become progressively larger in order to gradually straighten the product into the
horizontal plane.
After straightening, the strand is transferred on roller tables to a cut off machine,
which cuts the product into ordered lengths. Sectioning can be achieved either via
torches or mechanical shears. Then, depending on the shape or grade, the cast section
will either be placed in intermediate storage, hot-charged for finished rolling or sold as
a semi-finished product. Prior to hot rolling, the product will enter a reheat furnace to
adjust its thermal conditions to achieve optimum metallurgical properties and
dimensional tolerances.

29

2.6 Slabbing Mill:

SMS 1 Ingot route

Ingot rolling

Same function as CCS

Rolling

Shearing

Piling

2.7 Hot strips mill(HSM):-

HSM is the customer of SMSII and Slabbing mill. In the furnaces of the hot-rolling mill, the slabs
produced in the continuous casting line are heated to a temperature of approximately 1,250C, before
being rolled into hot-rolled wide strip. The finished material leaves the train (see diagram) at a
maximum speed of 20 m/s.
Fig. 15: Hot Strip Mill

30

01.)

Slab

02.)

roller

Deburring

table 09)

Roughing

device 10.)

Crop

train
shear 17.) Coil weighting machine

03.) Reheating furnace No. 5, walking 11.) High-pressure water 18.) Walking beam conveyer
beam

furnace descaling

04.) Reheating furnace No. 4, pusher-type 12.)

furnace

19.)

Finishing

13.)

Runout

14.)

table/strip sampling
21.)

Outer

coil

coils

07.)

High-pressure

water

of coils

2.9 Cold Rolling Mill

Annealing

Skin Pass
Mill

eye

23.) Finished coil weighting

descaling 16.) Longitudinal transport machine

08.) Sizing press

binding

Downcoilers 22.) Binding through the

06.) Waste gas heat recovery furnaces 3, 4, 15.) Transverse transport of coil
5

conveyer

train 20.) Shear for cropping and

05.) Reheating furnace No. 3, pusher-type cooling

furnace

V-plate

Grains elongated,
permanent strain, hard
& brittle
Heated then soaked,
makes it soft

H2SO4

Pickling
Line

Unrolled
Rolled
Surface hardening

Tandem
Mill

SHEARING
SLITTING

Temp.
Control

Finishing

Table 1 Cold Rolling Mill Process

31

HCl

5 stands(0.15mm)
Hydraulic
automation gauge
control
Computerized mill
control

Emulsion spray

Chapter 3: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

1. Its is an integrated plan and all systems are accumulated at one place.
2. It follows 5W (What, When, Where, Who, Why) for its overall working.
3. BSL makes short coils, plates etc as its products.
4. Products: HR COILS, CR COILS, HR SHEETS, CR SHEETS, GC SHEET.
5. Its BF has five furnaces
6. Each of the 3 furnaces has 3 strokes.
7. Furnace No. 2 has a modernized technique of usage.
8. It has a capability of 4500 T per day with 28 tours.
9. It has 2 SMS shops
10. SMS 1 only makes ingots and delivers it to Slabbing mill as its raw material.
11. It makes semi killed steel, so it has low C %.
12. It has 5 convertors out of which 3 are working at this time.
13. SMS2: It uses modernized technique of CCP.
14. So its a single process to form slab rather than ingots.
15. The final product of slabbing mill and SMS2 are the raw material of HSM.
16. Slabbing mill has ingot as its raw material which comes from SMS1.
17. In HSM thickness of slab is reduced using five strand roller and its products are steel
plates and steel sheet.
18. Sheets coming from HSM is fed as raw material to CRM.
19. And CRM has skin pass mill which is used for surface smoothing.
20. Its also had 4 strand Tandom mill which reduces the thickness between 0.6mm to 0.2
mm.
21. If required hood annealing of sheets is done in which coil is heated and then annealed.
22. It has CCAL (continuous cleaning and annealing line) where both cleaning and annealing
is done simultaneously.
23. Annealing is done to increase its ductility and machinability.
24. It also makes Galvanized sheets which is galvanized at 400 to 450 degree C with the help
of Zn coating over it.

32

Chapter 4:

CONCLUSION AND FUTURE SCOPE

1. Only BF 2 is modernized so to increase the rate of production at a higher pace all of

the blast furnaces should be modernized.
2. SMS1 makes ingot which is then processed in slabbing mill to make slabs using
multiple processes and multiple machinery.
3. If SMS1 is modernized using CCP it can create slabs using just one process and one
setup.
4. Thus saving time and expenditure, increasing the production rate, leading to turn over.

5. SMS2 should be further modernized along with CCP in such a way that HRM is
included in the process thus producing Sheets and plates as final product.

33

REFRENCES
1. William Callister (2003). MATERIAL SCIENCE AND METALLURY.
DELHI: WILEY.
2. DOCUMENTS AND SPECIFICATIONS PROVIDED BY THE INDIVIDUAL
SHOPS.
3. INTERNAL DOCUMENTS PROVIDED BY THE COMPANY

34