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QUICK REFRESHER GUIDE
For
Mechanical Engineering
By
www.thegateacademy.com
Quick Refresher Guide
Contents
CONTENTS
Part
Page No.
#1.
Mathemathics
1 45
1.1
Linear Algebra
18
1.2
Probability & distribution
9 14
1.3.
Numerical Method
15 19
1.4.
Calculus
20 30
1.5.
Differential Equations
31 37
1.6.
Complex Variables
38 42
1.7
Laplace Transform
43 45
#2.
Engineering Mechanics
46 61
2.1
Statics
46 54
2.2
Dynamics
55 61
#3.
Strength of Materials
62 98
3.1
Simple Stress And Strain
62 67
3.2
Shear Force And Bending Moment
68 70
3.3
Stresses In Beams
71 - 74
3.4
Deflection Of Beams
75 83
3.5
Torsion
84 88
3.6
Mohrs Circle
89 91
3.7
Strain Energy Methods
92 - 93
3.8
Columns & Struts
94 98
#4.
Thermodynamics
99 159
4.1
Basic Thermodynamics
99 110
4.2
Properties of pure substances
111 113
4.3
Irreversibility & Availability
114 - 117
4.4
Work, Heat & Entropy
118 122
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Page I
Contents
4.5
Psychrometrics
123 134
4.6
Power Engineering
135 144
4.7
Refrigeration
145 149
4.8
I.C. Engines
150 - 159
#5.
Theory of Machines
160 184
5.1
Mechanisms
160 169
5.2
Gear Trains
170 175
5.3
Flywheel
176 - 179
5.4
Vibrations
180 184
#6.
Machine Design
185 219
6.1
Theory of Failures
185 189
6.2
Fatigue
190 - 198
6.3
Design of Machine Elements
199 219
#7.
Fluid Mechanics
220 273
7.1
Fluid Properties
220 224
7.2
Fluid Statics
225 231
7.3
Fluid Kinematics
232 236
7.4
Fluid Dynamics
237 242
7.5
Boundary Layer
243 249
7.6
Flow through pipes
250 256
7.7
Hydraulic Machines
257 273
#8.
Heat Transfer
274 298
8.1
Conduction
274 286
8.2
Convection
287 289
8.3
Radiation
290 294
8.4
Heat Exchanger
295 298
Page II
#9.
Manufacturing Engineering
Contents
299 - 381
9.1 Engineering Materials
299 304
9.2 Casting
305 321
9.3 Forming Process
322 338
9.4 Joining Process
339 344
9.5 Theory of Metal Cutting
345 361
9.6 Metrology and Inspection
362 379
9.7 Computer Integrated Manufacturing (CIM)
380 381
#10. Industrial Engineering
382 - 403
10.1
Production, Planning and Control
382 387
10.2
Inventory Control
388 392
10.3
Operations Research
393 403
Reference Books
404 405
Page III
Mathematics
Part - 1: Mathematics
1.1 Linear Algebra
1.1.1
Matrix
Definition: A system of m n numbers arranged along m rows and n columns.
Conventionally, single capital letter is used to denote a matrix.
Thus,
A=[
a
a
a
a
a
a
a
a
a
a
a
ith row, jth column
1.1.1.1 Types of Matrices

1.1.1.2 Row and Column Matrices
Row Matrix [ 2, 7, 8, 9]
Column Matrix
[1 ]
1
1
single row ( or row vector)

single column (or column vector)
1.1.1.3 Square Matrix
Same number of rows and columns.

Order of Square matrix no. of rows or columns
Principle Diagonal (or Main diagonal or Leading diagonal): The diagonal of a square
matrix (from the top left to the bottom right) is called as principal diagonal.
Trace of the Matrix: The sum of the diagonal elements of a square matrix.
tr ( A) = tr(A) , is scalartr ( A+B) = tr (A) + tr (B)
tr (AB) = tr (BA)
1.1.1.4 Rectangular Matrix

Number of rows
Number of columns
1.1.1.5 Diagonal Matrix

A Square matrix in which all the elements except those in leading diagonal are zero.
e.g. [
Page 1
Mathematics
1.1.1.6 Unit Matrix (or Identity Matrix)

A Diagonal matrix in which all the leading diagonal elements are 1.
1
e.g.
I = [
]
1
1
1.1.1.7 Null Matrix (or Zero Matrix)
A matrix is said to be Null Matrix if all the elements are zero.
e.g.
1.1.1.8 Symmetric and Skew Symmetric Matrices:

Symmetric, when a = +a for all i and j. In other words
Skew symmetric, when a = - a In other words
= -A
=A
Note: All the diagonal elements of skew symmetric matrix must be zero.
Symmetric
Skew symmetric
a h g
h g
f]
[h b f ]
[h
g f c
g f
Symmetric Matrix
= A
Skew Symmetric Matrix = - A
1.1.1.9 Triangular Matrix

A matrix is said to be upper triangular if all the elements below its principal diagonal
are zeros.
A matrix is said to be lower triangular if all the elements above its principal diagonal
are zeros.
a
a h g
[
]
[
g b
]
b f
f h c
c
Upper Triangular Matrix
Lower Triangular Matrix
1.1.1.10
Orthogonal Matrix: If A. A = I, then matrix A is said to be Orthogonal matrix.
1.1.1.11
Singular Matrix: If |A| = 0, then A is called a singular matrix.
1.1.1.12
)
Unitary Matrix: If we define, A = (A
Then the matrix is unitary if A . A = I
= transpose of a conjugate of matrix A
Page 2
1.1.1.13
Mathematics
Hermitian Matrix: It is a square matrix with complex entries which is equal to its own
conjugate transpose.
A = A or a = a
1.1.1.14
Note: In Hermitian matrix, diagonal elements
1.1.1.15
Skew Hermitian matrix:

It is a square matrix with complex entries which is equal to the negative of conjugate
transpose.
A = A or a =
Note: In Skew-Hermitian matrix , diagonal elements

1.1.1.16
always real
either zero or Pure Imaginary
Idempotent Matrix
If A = A, then the matrix A is called idempotent matrix.
1.1.1.17
Multiplication of Matrix by a Scalar:
Every element of the matrix gets multiplied by that scalar.

Multiplication of Matrices:
Two matrices can be multiplied only when number of columns of the first matrix is equal to the
number of rows of the second matrix. Multiplication of (m n)
, and (n p) matrices results in matrix of (m p)dimension , =, .
1.1.1.18
Determinant:
An n order determinant is an expression associated with n
n square matrix.
If A = [a ] , Element a with ith row, jth column.

For n = 2 ,
a
D = det A = |a
a
a |=a
-a
Determinant of order n
D = |A| = det A = ||
a
a
a
a
|
|
Page 3
1.1.1.19
Mathematics
Minors & Co-Factors:
The minor of an element in a determinant is the determinant obtained by deleting the

row and the column which intersect that element.
Cofactor is the minor with proper sign. The sign is given by (-1)
(where the element
th
th
belongs to i row, j column).
1.1.1.20 Properties of Determinants:

1. A determinant remains unaltered by changing its rows into columns and columns into
rows.
2. If two parallel lines of a determinant are inter-changed, the determinant retains its
numerical values but changes its sign. (In a general manner, a row or a column is
referred as line).
3. Determinant vanishes if two parallel lines are identical.
4. If each element of a line be multiplied by the same factor, the whole determinant is
multiplied by that factor. [Note the difference with matrix].
5. If each element of a line consists of the m terms, then determinant can be expressed as
sum of the m determinants.
6. If each element of a line be added equi-multiple of the corresponding elements of one or
more parallel lines, determinant is unaffected.
e.g. by the operation,
+ p +q , determinant is unaffected.
7. Determinant of an upper triangular/ lower triangular/diagonal/scalar matrix is equal to
the product of the leading diagonal elements of the matrix.
8. If A & B are square matrix of the same order, then |AB|=|BA|=|A||B|.
9. If A is non singular matrix, then |A |=| | (as a result of previous).
10.
11.
12.
13.
Determinant of a skew symmetric matrix (i.e. A =-A) of odd order is zero.

If A is a unitary matrix or orthogonal matrix (i.e. A = A ) then |A|= 1.
If A is a square matrix of order n, then |k A| = |A|.
|I | = 1 ( I is the identity matrix of order n).
1.1.1.21
Inverse of a Matrix
|A| must be non-zero (i.e. A must be non-singular).

Inverse of a matrix, if exists, is always unique.
a b
d
If it is a 2x2 matrix 0
1 , its inverse will be
0
c d
c
| |
b
1
a
Important Points:
1. IA = AI = A, (Here A is square matrix of the same order as that of I )
2. 0 A = A 0 = 0,
(Here 0 is null matrix)
3. If AB = , then it is not necessarily that A or B is null matrix. Also it doesnt mean BA = .
4. If the product of two non-zero square matrices A & B is a zero matrix, then A & B are
singular matrices.
5. If A is non-singular matrix and A.B=0, then B is null matrix.
6. AB BA (in general) Commutative property does not hold
7. A(BC) = (AB)C Associative property holds
8. A(B+C) = AB AC Distributive property holds
Page 4
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
Mathematics
AC = AD , doesnt imply C = D ,even when A

-.
If A, C, D be
matrix, and if rank (A)= n & AC=AD, then C=D.
(A+B)T = A + B
(AB)T = B . A
(AB)-1 = B . A
AA =A A=I
(kA)T = k.A (k is scalar, A is vector)
(kA)-1 =
. A (k is scalar , A is vector)
(A ) = (A )
) (Conjugate of a transpose of matrix= Transpose of conjugate of matrix)
(
A ) = (A
If a non-singular matrix A is symmetric, then A is also symmetric.
If A is a orthogonal matrix , then A and A are also orthogonal.
21. If A is a square matrix of order n then (i) |adj A|=|A|

(ii) |adj (adj A)|=|A|( )
(iii) adj (adj A) =|A| A
1.1.1.22 Elementary Transformation of a Matrix:
1. Interchange of any 2 lines
2. Multiplication of a line by a constant
(e.g. k )
3. Addition of constant multiplication of any line to the another line (e. g.
+p
Note:
Elementary transformations dont change the ran of the matrix.
However it changes the Eigen value of the matrix.
1.1.1.23
Rank of Matrix
If we select any r rows and r columns from any matrix A,deleting all other rows and columns,
then the determinant formed by these r r elements is called minor of A of order r.
Definition: A matrix is said to be of rank r when,
i)
It has at least one non-zero minor of order r.
ii) Every minor of order higher than r vanishes.
Other definition: The rank is also defined as maximum number of linearly independent row
vectors.
Special case: Rank of Square matrix
Rank = Number of non-zero row in upper triangular matrix using elementary transformation.
Note:
1.
2.
3.
4.
r(A.B)
min { r(A), r (B)}
r(A+B) r(A) + r (B)
r(A-B)
r(A) - r (B)
The rank of a diagonal matrix is simply the number of non-zero elements in principal
diagonal.
5. A system of homogeneous equations such that the number of unknown variable exceeds
the number of equations, necessarily has non-zero solutions.
Page 5
Mathematics
If A is a non-singular matrix, then all the row/column vectors are independent.

If A is a singular matrix, then vectors of A are linearly dependent.
r(A)=0 iff (if and only if) A is a null matrix.
If two matrices A and B have the same size and the same rank then A, B are equivalent
matrices.
10. Every non-singular matrix is row matrix and it is equivalent to identity matrix.
6.
7.
8.
9.
1.1.1.24
Solution of linear System of Equations:
For the following system of equations A X = B

a
a
x
x
a
a
Where, A =
,
[a
B =
[x ]
A= Coefficient Matrix, C = (A, B) = Augmented Matrix

r = rank (A), r = rank (C), n = Number of unknown variables (x , x , - - - x )
Consistency of a System of Equations:
For Non-Homogenous Equations (A X = B)
i) If r r , the equations are inconsistent i.e. there is no solution.
ii) If r = r = n, the equations are consistent and there is a unique solution.
iii) If r = r < n, the equations are consistent and there are infinite number of solutions.
For Homogenous Equations (A X = 0)
i) If r = n, the equations have only a trivial zero solution ( i.e. x = x = - - - x = 0).
ii) If r < n, then (n-r) linearly independent solution (i.e. infinite non-trivial solutions).
Note:
Consistent means:
one or more solution (i.e. unique or infinite solution)
Inconsistent means:
No solution
Cramers ule
Let the following two equations be there
a
x +a
x = b ---------------------------------------(i)
x +a
x = b ---------------------------------------(ii)
a
D = |b
a
b |
Page 6
b
D =|
b
a
|
a
a
D =|
a
b
|
b
Mathematics
Solution using Cramers rule:

x =
and x =
In the above method, it is assumed that

1. No of equations = No of unknowns
2. D 0
In general, for Non-Homogenous Equations
D 0 single solution (non trivial)
D = 0 infinite solution
For Homogenous Equations
D 0 trivial solutions ( x = x =x = 0)
D = 0 non- trivial solution (or infinite solution)
Eigen Values & Eigen Vectors
1.1.1.25
Characteristic Equation and Eigen Values:
Characteristic equation: | A
I |= 0, The roots of this equation are called the characteristic
roots /latent roots / Eigen values of the matrix A.
Eigen vectors: [
]X=0
For each Eigen value , solving for X gives the corresponding Eigen vector.
Note: For a given Eigen value, there can be different Eigen vectors, but for same Eigen vector,
there cant be different Eigen values.
Properties of Eigen values
1. The sum of the Eigen values of a matrix is equal to the sum of its principal diagonal.
2. The product of the Eigen values of a matrix is equal to its determinant.
3. The largest Eigen values of a matrix is always greater than or equal to any of the
diagonal elements of the matrix.
4. If is an Eigen value of orthogonal matrix, then 1/ is also its Eigen value.
5. If A is real, then its Eigen value is real or complex conjugate pair.
6. Matrix A and its transpose A has same characteristic root (Eigen values).
7. The Eigen values of triangular matrix are just the diagonal elements of the matrix.
8. Zero is the Eigen value of the matrix if and only if the matrix is singular.
9. Eigen values of a unitary matrix or orthogonal matrix has absolute value 1.
10. Eigen values of Hermitian or symmetric matrix are purely real.
11. Eigen values of skew Hermitian or skew symmetric matrix is zero or pure imaginary.
| |
12.
is an Eigen value of adj A (because adj A = |A|. A ).
Page 7
13. If
i)
ii)
iii)
iv)
v)
Mathematics
is an Eigen value of the matrix then ,

Eigen value of A is 1/
Eigen value of A is
Eigen value of kA are (k is scalar)
Eigen value of A
I are + k
Eigen value of (A
I)2 are (
)
Properties of Eigen Vectors

1) Eigen vector X of matrix A is not unique.
Let is Eigen vector, then C is also Eigen vector (C = scalar constant).
2) If , , . . . . . are distinct, then , . . . . .
are linearly independent .
3) If two or more Eigen values are equal, it may or may not be possible to get linearly
independent Eigen vectors corresponding to equal roots.
4) Two Eigen vectors are called orthogonal vectors if T = 0.
( , are column vector)
(Note: For a single vector to be orthogonal , A = A or, A. A = A. A = )
5) Eigen vectors of a symmetric matrix corresponding to different Eigen values are
orthogonal.
Cayley Hamilton Theorem: Every square matrix satisfies its own characteristic equation.
1.1.1.26
Vector:
Any quantity having n components is called a vector of order n.

Linear Dependence of Vectors
If one vector can be written as linear combination of others, the vector is linearly
dependent.
Linearly Independent Vectors
If no vectors can be written as a linear combination of others, then they are linearly
independent.
Suppose the vectors are x x x x
Its linear combination is x + x + x + x = 0

If , , , are not all zero they are linearly dependent.
If all are zero they are linearly independent.
Page 8
Mathematics
1.2 Probability and Distribution

1.2.1
Probability
Event: Outcome of an experiment is called event.

Mutually Exclusive Events (Disjoint Events): Two events are called mutually exclusive, if the
occurrence of one excludes the occurrence of others i.e. both cant occur simultaneously.
A
B =, P(A
B) =0
Equally Likely Events: If one of the events cannot happen in preference to other, then such events
are said to be equally likely.
Odds in Favour of an Event =
Where m
n
no. of ways favourable to A
no. of ways not favourable to A
Odds Against the Event =

Probability: P(A)=
.
.
P(A) P(A)=1
Important points:
P(A B) Probability of happening of at least one event of A & B
P(A B) ) Probability of happening of both events of A & B
If the events are certain to happen, then the probability is unity.
If the events are impossible to happen, then the probability is zero.
Addition Law of Probability:
a. For every events A, B and C not mutually exclusive
P(A B C)= P(A)+ P(B)+ P(C)- P(A B)- P(B C)- P(C A)+ P(A B C)
b. For the event A, B and C which are mutually exclusive
P(A B C)= P(A)+ P(B)+ P(C)
Independent Events: Two events are said to be independent, if the occurrence of one does not
affect the occurrence of the other.
If P(A B)= P(A) P(B)
Independent events A & B
Conditional Probability: If A and B are dependent events, then P. / denotes the probability of
occurrence of B when A has already occurred. This is known as conditional probability.
P(B/A)=
)
( )
Page 9
For independent events A & B
Mathematics
P(B/A) = P(B)
Theorem of Combined Probability: If the probability of an event A happening as a result of trial is

P(A). Probability of an event B happening as a result of trial after A has happened is P(B/A) then
the probability of both the events A and B happening is
P(A B)= P(A). P(B/A),
[ P(A) 0]
= P(B). P(A/B),
[ P(B) 0]
This is also known as Multiplication Theorem.

For independent events A&B
P(B/A) = P(B), P(A/B )= P(A)
Hence P(A B) = P(A) P(B)
Important Points:
If P
1.
2.
3.
4.
& P are probabilities of two independent events then

P (1-P )
probability of first event happens and second fails (i.e only first happens)
(1-P )(1-P )
probability of both event fails
1-(1-P )(1-P ) probability of at least one event occur
PP
probability of both event occurs
Bayes theorem:
An event A corresponds to a number of exhaustive events B , B ,.., B .
If P(B ) and P(A/B ) are given then,
(
P. /=
). ( )
). ( )
This is also known as theorem of Inverse Probability.

Random variable: Real variable associated with the outcome of a random experiment is called a
random variable.
1.2.2
Distribution
Probability Density Function (PDF) or Probability Mass Function:

The set of values Xi with their probabilities P constitute a probability distribution or probability
density function of the variable X. If f(x) is the PDF, then f(x ) = P( = x ) ,
PDF has the following properties:
Probability density function is always positive i.e. f(x)
f(x)dx = 1 (Continuous)
f(x ) = 1 (Discrete)
Page 10
Mathematics
Discrete Cumulative Distribution Function (CDF) or Distribution Function

The Cumulative Distribution Function F(x) of the discrete variable x is defined by,
F (x) = F(x) = P(X x) =
P(x ) =
f(x )
Continuous Cumulative Distribution function (CDF) or Distribution Function:

If F (x) = P(X x) = f(x)dx, then F(x) is defined as the cumulative distribution function or
simply the distribution function of the continuous variable.
CDF has the following properties:
( )
i)
= F (x) =f(x) 0
ii) 1 F (x) 0
iii) If x
x then F (x ) F (x ) , i.e. CDF is monotone (non-decreasing function)
) =0
iv) F (
v) F ( ) = 1
vi) P(a x b) = f(x)dx = f(x)dx - f(x)dx = F (b) F (a)
Expectation [E(x)]:
1. E(X) =
x f(x ) (Discrete case)
2. E(X) = x f(x )dx (Continuous case)
Properties of Expectation
1. E(constant) = constant
2. E(CX) = C . E(X) [C is constant]
3. E(AX+BY) = A E(X)+B E(Y) [A& B are constants]
4. E(XY)= E(X) E(Y/X)= E(Y) E(X/Y)
E(XY) E(X) E(Y) in general
But E(XY) = E(X) E(Y) , if X & Y are independent
Variance (Var(X))
Var (X) =E,(x
) ]
Var (X)= (x x
) f(xx )
Var (X)= (xx

Var (X) =E(
(Discrete case)
) f(x)dx (Continuous case)
)-,E(x)-
Properties of Variance
1. Var(constant) = 0
2. Var(Cx)
= C Var(x) -Variance is non-linear [here C is constant]
Page 11
Mathematics
3. Var(Cx D) = C Var(x) -Variance is translational invariant [C & D are constants]

4. Var(x-k)
= Var(x) [k is constant]
5. Var(ax+by) = a Var(x) + b Var(y) 2ab cov(x,y) (if not independent) [A & B are
constants]
= a Var(x) + b Var(y) (if independent)
Covariance
Cov (x,y)=E(xy)-E(x) E(y)
If independent
covariance=0,
E(xy) = E(x) . E(y)
(if covariance = 0, then the events are not necessarily independent)

Properties of Covariance
1. Cov(x,y) = Cov(y,x) (i.e. symmetric)
2. Cov(x,x) = Var(x)
3. |Cov(x,y)|
Standard Distribution Function (Discrete r.v. case):
1. Binomial Distribution : P(r) = C p q
Mean = np,
Variance = npq,
S.D. =npq
2. Poisson Distribution: Probability of k success is P (k) =
no. of success trials , n no. of trials , P success case probability
mean of the distribution
For Poisson distribution: Mean = , variance = , and =np
Standard Distribution Function (Continuous r.v. case):
(
1. Normal Distribution (Gaussian Distribution): f(x) =
Where and are the mean and standard deviation respectively

P(
<x<
) = 68%
P(
<x<
) = 95.5%
P(
<x<
) = 99.7%
Total area under the curve is is unity i.e. f(x)dx = 1
P(x1 < x < x2) =
2. Exponential distribution :
3. Uniform distribution:
4. Cauchy distribution :
dx = Area under the curve from x1 to x2

f(x) = e
, x
, here
= , x
f(x)=
, b f(x) a
= , otherwise
f(x)= .(
)
5. Rayleigh distribution function : f(x) =
Mean:
For a set of n values of a variant X=( x , x , . . , x )
Page 12
Mathematics
The arithmetic mean, =
For a grouped data if x , x , . . , x are mid values of the class intervals having frequencies
f , f ,.., f ,then, =
If is mean for n data; is mean for n data; then combined mean of n +n data is
=
If , be mean and SD of a sample size n and m ,
SD of combined sample of size n +n is given by,
(n
n )
D = m -m
( n)
=n
+n
be those for a sample of size n then
+n D +n D
(m , = mean, SD of combined sample)
= (n
(n D )
Median: When the values in a data sample are arranged in descending order or ascending order
of magnitude the median is the middle term if the no. of sample is odd and is the mean of two
middle terms if the number is even.
Mode: It is defined as the value in the sampled data that occurs most frequently.
Important Points:
Mean is best measurement ( all observations taken into consideration).
Mode is worst measurement ( only maximum frequency is taken).
In median, 50 % observation is taken.
Sum of the deviation about mean is zero.
Sum of the absolute deviations about median is minimum.
Sum of the square of the deviations about mean is minimum.
Co-efficient of variation =
100
Correlation coefficient = (x,y) =
( , )
-1 (x, y) 1
(x,y) = (y,x)
|(x,y)| = 1 when P(x=0)=1; or P(x=ay)=1 [ for some a]
If the correlation coefficient is -ve, then two events are negatively correlated.
If the correlation coefficient is zero, then two events are uncorrelated.
If the correlation coefficient is +ve, then two events are positively correlated.
Line of Regression:
The equation of the line of regression of y on x is y
The equation of the line of Regression of x on y is (x
y=
x) =
(x
x)
(y
y)
is called the regression coefficient of y on x and is denoted by byx.
Page 13
Mathematics
is called the regression coefficient of x on y and is denoted by bxy.
Joint Probability Distribution: If X & Y are two random variables then Joint distribution is defined
as, Fxy(x,y) = P(X x ; Y y)
Properties of Joint Distribution Function/ Cumulative Distribution Function:
1. F (
,
) =
2. F ( , ) = 1
3. F (
, ) =
{ F (
, ) = P(
y) = 0 x 1 = 0 }
) = F (x) . 1 = F (x)
4. F (x, ) = P(
x
5. F ( , y) = F (y)
Joint Probability Density Function:
Defined as f(x, y) =
Property:
F(x, y)
f(x, y) dx dy
= 1
Note: X and Y are said to be independent random variable

If fxy(x,y) = fx(x) . fy(y)
Page 14
Mathematics
1.3 Numerical Methods

1.3.1
Solution of Algebraic and Transcendental Equation / Root Finding :

Consider an equation f(x) = 0
1. Bisection method
This method finds the root between points a and b.
If f(x) is continuous between a and b and f (a) and f (b) are of opposite sign then there is a
root between a & b (Intermediate Value Theorem).
First approximation to the root is x1 =
If f(x1) = 0, then x1 is the root of f(x) = 0, otherwise root lies between a and x1 or x1 and
b.
Similarly x2 and x3 . . . . . are determined.
Simplest iterative method
Bisection method always converge, but often slowly.
This method cant be used for finding the complex roots.
Rate of convergence is linear
2. Newton Raphson Method (or Successive Substitution Method or Tangent Method)
( )
xn+1 = xn
(
This method is commonly used for its simplicity and greater speed.
Here f(x) is assumed to have continuous derivative f(x).
This method fails if f(x) = .
It has second order of convergence or quadratic convergence, i.e. the subsequent error at
each step is proportional to the square of the error at previous step.
Sensitive to starting value, i.e. The Newtons method converges provided the initial
approximation is chosen sufficiently close to the root.
Rate of convergence is quadratic.
3. Secant Method
x
=x
) (
f(x )
Convergence is not guaranteed.

If converges, convergence super linear (more rapid than linear, almost quadratic like
Newton Raphson, around 1.62).
4. Regula Falsi Method or (Method of False Position)
Regula falsi method always converges.
However, it converges slowly.
If converges, order of convergence is between 1 & 2 (closer to 1).
Page 15
Mathematics
It is superior to Bisection method.

Given f(x) = 0
Select x0 and x1 such that f(x0) f(x1) < 0
x =x -
, f(x ) =
(i.e. opposite sign)
( )
)
Check if f(x0) f(x2) < 0 or f(x1) f(x2) < 0

Compute x
which is an approximation to the root.

1.3.2
1.
Solution of Linear System of Equations

Gauss Elimination Method
Here equations are converted into upper triangular matrix form, then solved by bac
substitution method.
Consider
a1x + b1x + c1z = d1
a2x + b2x + c2z = d2
a3x + b3x + c3z = d3
Step 1: To eliminate x from second and third equation (we do this by subtracting suitable
multiple of first equation from second and third equation)
a1x + b1y + c1z = d1
(pivotal equation, a1 pivot point.)
b y + c z = d
b y + c z = d
Step 2: Eliminate y from third equation
a1x + b1y + c1z = d1
b y + c2z = d
c z = d
(pivotal equation, b is pivot point.)
Step 3: The value of x , y and z can be found by back substitution.

Note: Number of operations: N =
2.
+n -
Gauss Jordon Method

Used to find inverse of the matrix and solving linear equations.
Here back substitution is avoided by additional computations that reduce the matrix to
diagonal from, instead to triangular form in Gauss elimination method.
Number of operations is more than Gauss elimination as the effort of back substitution
is saved at the cost of additional computation.
Step 1: Eliminate x from 2nd and 3rd
Page 16
Mathematics
Step 2: Eliminate y from 1st and 3rd

Step 3: Eliminate z from 1st and 2nd
3.
L U Decomposition
It is modification of the Gauss eliminiation method.
Also Used for finding the inverse of the matrix.
[A]n x n = [ L ] n x n [U] n x n
a11 a12 a13
1 0 0
a21 b22 c23
L21 1 0
=
a31 b32 c33
L31 L32 1
U11 U12 U13

0
U22 U23
0
0 U31
Ax = LUX = b can be written as

a)LY=b and
b) UX=Y
Solve for from a) then solve for from b). This method is nown as Doolittles method.
Similar methods are Crouts method and Choles y methods.
4. Iterative Method
(i) Jacobi Iteration Method
a1x + b1y + c1z = d1
a2x + b2y + c2z = d2
a3x + b3y + c3z = d3
If a1, b2 , c3 are large compared to other coefficients, then solving these for x, y, z
respectively
x = k1 l1y m1z
y = k2 l2x m2z
z = k3 l3x m3y
Let us start with initial approximation x0 , y0 , z0
x1= k1 l1y0 m1z0
y1= k2 l2y0 m2z0
z1= k3 l3y0 m3z0
Note: No component of x(k) is used in computation unless y(k) and z(k) are computed.
The process is repeated till the difference between two consecutive approximations is
negligible.
In generalized form:
x(k+1) = k1 l1 y(k) m1z(k)
y(k+1) = k2 l2 x(k) m2z(k)
z(k+1) = k3 l3 x(k) m3y(k)
(ii) Gauss-Siedel Iteration Method
Modification of the Jacobis Iteration Method
Start with (x0, y0, z0) = (0, 0, 0) or anything [No specific condition]
Page 17
Mathematics
In first equation, put y = y0 z = z0 which will give x1

In second equation, put x = x1 and z = z0 which will give y1
In third equation, put x = x1 and y = y1 which will give z1
Note: To compute any variable, use the latest available value.
In generalized form:
x(k+1) = k1 l1y(k) m1z(k)
y(k+1) = k2 l2x(k+1) m2z(k)
z(k+1) = k3 l3x(k+1) m3y(k+1)
1.3.3
Numerical Integration
Trapezoidal Formula: Step size h =
f(x)dx =
*( first term
last term)
(remaining terms)+
Error = Exact - approximate

The error in approximating an integral using Trapezoidal rule is bounded by
h
(b
1
a) max |f ( )|
, , -
Simpsons One Third Rule (Simpsons Rule):
f(x)dx =
*( first term
last term)
(all odd terms)
(all even terms)+
The error in approximating an integral using Simpsons one third rule is

h
(b
1
a) max |f ( ) ( )|
, , -
Simpsons Three Eighth Rule:
f(x)dx =
h ( first term
{
last term)
(all multiple of terms)

}
(all remaining terms)
The error in approximating an integral using Simpsons / rule is

(b
a)
max |f ( ) ( )|
, , -
1.3.4 Solving Differential Equations

(i) Euler method (for first order differential equation )
Given equation is y = f(x, y); y(x0) = y0
Page 18
Mathematics
Solution is given by, Yn+1 = yn + h f(xn,yn)

(ii) Runge Kutta Method
Used for finding the y at a particular x without solving the 1st order differential equation
= f(x, y)
K1 = h f(x0, y0)
K2 = h f(x0 + , y0 + )
K3 = h f(x0 + , y0 + )
K4 = h f(x0 +h, y0 + k3)
K = (k1 + 2k2 + 2k3 + k4)
Y(x0+h) = y0 + k
Page 19
Mathematics
1.4 Calculus
1.4.1
Limit of a Function
Let y = f(x)
Then lim
f(x)=
0< |x a|< , |f(x)
i.e, f(x)
|<
as x a implies for any
(>0), (>0) such that whenever
Some Standard Expansions

(1
x) = 1
a
=x
a
nx
x
e =1+x+
log(1
x) = x
log(1
x) =
Sin x = x
n(n
1)(n
.........x
.........a
.........
+
.........
.........
.........
Cos x = 1
Sinh x = x
.........
.........
Cosh x = 1
.........
Some Important Limits

lim
sinx
=
x
lim (1
lim(1
lim
lim
1
) =
x
x) =
1
x
1
x
= log a
=1
Page 20
lim
lim
log(1
x
x
x
x)
Mathematics
=1
a
=
a
lim log|x| =
L Hospitals ule
When function is of
limit.
or
form, differentiate numerator & denominator and then apply
Existence of Limits and Continuity:

1. f(x) is defined at a, i.e, f(a) exists.
2. If lim f(x) = lim f(x) = L ,then the lim f(x) exists and equal to L.
3. If lim
f(x) = lim
f(x)= f(a) then the function f(x) is said to be continuous.
Properties of Continuity
If f and g are two continuous functions at a; then
a. (f+g), (f.g), (f-g) are continuous at a
b.
is continuous at a, provided g(a) 0
c. |f| or |g| is continuous at a
olles theorem
If (i) f(x) is continuous in closed interval [a,b]
(ii) f(x) exists for every value of x in open interval (a,b)
(iii) f(a) = f(b)
Then there exists at least one point c between (a, b) such that
( )=0
Geometrically: There exists at least one point c between (a, b) such that tangent at c is parallel to
x axis
C
C
2
C1
a
Page 21
Mathematics
Lagranges Mean Value Theorem

If (i) f(x) is continuous in the closed interval [a,b] and
(ii) f(x) exists in the open interval (a,b), then atleast one value c of x exist in (a,b) such that
( )
( )
= f (c).
Geometrically, it means that at point c, tangent is parallel to the chord line.
Cauchys Mean Value Theorem

If (i) f(x) is continuous in the closed interval [a,a+h] and
(ii) f (x) exists in the open interval (a,a+h), then there is at least one number
such that
(0< <1)
f(a+h) = f(a) + h f(a+ h)

Let f1 and f2 be two functions:
i) f1,f2 both are continuous in [a,b]
ii) f1, f2 both are differentiable in (a,b)
iii) f2 0 in (a,b)
then, for a
( )
( )
1.4.2
( )
=
( )
b
( )
( )
Derivative:
( ) = lim
( )
Provided the limit exists ( ) is called the rate of change of f at x.

Algebra of derivative:i. (f g) = f
g
ii. (f g) = f g
iii. (f. g) = f . g
f .g
iv. (f/g) =
Page 22
Mathematics
Homogenous Function
Any function f(x, y) which can be expressed in from xn . / is called homogenous function of
order n in x and y. (Every term is of nth degree.)
f(x,y) = a0xn + a1xn-1y + a2xn-2y2
f(x,y) = xn
an yn
. /
Eulers Theorem on Homogenous Function

If u be a homogenous function of order n in x and y then,
x +y
= nu
1.4.3
+ 2xy
+y
= n(n
1)u
Total Derivative
If u=f(x,y) ,x=(t), y=(t)

=
u=
+
x+
.
y
Monotonicity of a Function f(x)

1. f(x) is increasing function if for
, f( )
Necessary and sufficient condition, f (x)
2. f(x) is decreasing function if for
, , f( )
Necessary and sufficient condition, f (x)
f( )
f( )
Note: If f is a monotonic function on a domain D then f is one-one on D.

Maxima-Minima
a) Global
b) Local
Rule for finding maxima & minima:

If maximum or minimum value of f(x) is to be found, let y = f(x)
Find dy/dx and equate it to zero and from this find the values of x, say x is , , (called the
critical points).
Find
at x = ,
If
, y has a minimum value
If
,y has a maximum value
Page 23
If
Mathematics
= , proceed further and find at x = .
If
, y has neither maximum nor minimum value at x =
But If
= , proceed further and find
If
, y has minimum value
If
, y has maximum value
If
at x = .
= , proceed further
Note: Greatest / least value exists either at critical point or at the end point of interval.
Point of Inflexion
If at a point, the following conditions are met, then such point is called point of inflexion
Point of
inflexion
i)
ii)
=0,
Neither minima nor maxima exists
iii)
Taylor Series:
f(a
h)= f(a)
h f(a)
f(a)
.........
Maclaurian Series:
f(x) = f( )
x f( )
f ( )
f ( )
Maxima & Minima (Two variables)

r=
1.
= 0,
2. (i) if rt
(ii) if rt
(iii) if rt
(iv) if rt
,s=
=
, t=
solve these equations. Let the solution be (a, b), (c, d)
s
and r
maximum at (a, b)
s
and r
minimum at (a, b)
s < 0 at (a, b), f(a,b) is not an extreme value i.e, f(a, b) is saddle point.
s > 0 at (a, b), It is doubtful, need further investigation.
Page 24
1.4.4
Mathematics
Standard Integral Results
1. x dx =
, n
2. dx = log x
3. e dx = e
4. a dx =
(prove it )
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
cos x dx = sin x
sin x dx = cos x
sec x dx = tan x
cosec x dx = cot x
sec x tan x dx = sec x
cosec x cot x dx = cosec x
dx = sin
12.
dx =
sec
13.
dx = sec x
14. cosh x dx = sinh x

15. sinh x dx = cosh x
16. sech x dx = tanh x
17. cosech x dx = coth x
18. sech x tanh x dx = sech x
19. cosec h x cot h x dx = cosech x
20. tan x dx = log sec x
21. cot x dx = log sin x
22. sec x dx = log( sec x tan x) = log tan(
23. cosec x dx = log(cosec x cot x) = log tan
x )
24.
dx = log(x
a ) = cosh ( )
25.
dx = log(x
a ) = sinh ( )
26. a
x dx =
27. a
x dx = x
log(x
a )
28. x
a dx = x
log(x
a )
29.
dx =
tan
30.
dx =
log (
) where x <a
31.
dx =
log (
) where x > a
32. sin x dx =
33.
34.
35.
36.
sin
sin x
sin x
cos x dx =
tan x dx = tan x x
cot x dx = cot x x
ln x dx = x ln x x
37. e
sin bx dx =
(a sin bx
b cos bx )
38. e
cos bx dx =
(a cos bx
b sin bx )
Page 25
39. e ,f(x)
Mathematics
f (x)-dx = e f(x)
Integration by parts: u v dx = u. v dx
v dx)dx
I L A T E
E
Selection of U & V
Inverse circular
(e.g. tan 1 x)
Exponential
Logarithmic
Algebraic Trigonometric
Note: Take that function as u which comes first in ILATE

1.4.5 Rules for Definite Integral
1. f(x)dx = f(x)dx+ f(x)dx
2. f(x)dx = f(a
3. f(x)dx =
x)dx
f(x)dx+
=0
4. f(x)dx =2 f(x)dx
=0
a<c<b
f(x)dx = f(a
x)dx
f(a x)dx
f(x)dx =
if f(a-x)=f(x)
if f(a-x)=-f(x)
if f(-x) = f(x), even function
if f(x) = -f(x), odd function
f(x)dx
Improper Integral
Those integrals for which limit is infinite or integrand is infinite in a
then it is called as improper integral.
b in case of f(x)dx,
1.4.6 Convergence:
f(x)dx is said to be convergent if the value of the integral is finite.
If (i)
f(x) g(x) for all x and (ii) g(x)dx converges , then f(x)dx also converges
If (i) f(x) g(x)
for all x and (ii) g(x)dx diverges, then f(x)dx also diverges
( )
( )
If lim
diverge.
is converges when p
The integral
The integral
= c where c 0, then both integrals f(x)dx and g(x)dx converge or both
dx and
1 and diverges when p
e dx is converges for any constant p
is convergent if and only if p
is convergent if and only if p
and diverges for p
Page 26
1.4.7
Mathematics
Vector Calculus:
Scalar Point Function:

If corresponding to each point P of region R there is a corresponding scalar then (P) is said to
be a scalar point function for the region R.
(P)= (x,y,z)
Vector Point Function:
If corresponding to each point P of region R, there corresponds a vector defined by F(P) then F is
called a vector point function for region R.
F(P) = F(x,y,z) = f1(x,y,z) +f2(x,y,z) f3(x,y,z)
Vector Differential Operator or Del Operator:
=.
Directional Derivative:
is the resolved part of f in direction N
.
The directional derivative of f in a direction N
= | f|cos
f. N
is a unit vector in a particular direction.
Where N
Direction cosine: l
n =1
Where, l =cos , m=cos , n=cos ,

1.4.8
Gradient:
The vector function f is defined as the gradient of the scalar point function f(x,y,z) and written
as grad f.
grad f = f =
1.4.9
f is vector function
If f(x,y,z) = 0 is any surface, then f is a vector normal to the surface f and has a
magnitude equal to rate of change of f along this normal.
Directional derivative of f(x,y,z) is maximum along f and magnitude of this maximum
is | f|.
Divergence:
The divergence of a continuously differentiable vector point function F is denoted by div. F and
is defined by the equation.
div. F = . F
Page 27
F=f +
div.F= . f = .
=
Mathematics
/ .( f +
. f is scalar
. =
is Laplacian operator
1.4.10 Curl:
The curl of a continuously differentiable vector point function F is denoted by curl F and is
defined by the equation.
Curl F =
f =|
|
f
F is vector function
1.4.11 Solenoidal Vector Function
If .A = 0 , then A is called as solenoidal vector function.
1.4.12 Irrotational Vector Function
If
A =0, then A is said to be irrotational otherwise rotational.
1.4.13 DEL Applied Twice to Point Functions:

1. div grad f =
2.
3.
4.
5.
f=
---------- this is Laplace equation
curl grad f =
f=0
div curl F = .
F =0
curl curl F =
(
f) = ( . f) grad div F = ( . f)=
(
F) +
F
F
1.4.14 Vector Identities:

f, g are scalar functions & F, G are vector functions
1. (f g) = f + g
2. . (F G) = . F
.G
(F G) =
3.
F
G
4. (fg) = f g + g f
5. . (fG)= f. G f. G
6.
(fG) = f G f
G
7. (F. G) = F (
G) G (
F)
8. . (F G) = G.(
F) F. (
G)
Page 28
(F
9.
G) = F(
G)
G(
Mathematics
F)
Also note:
1. (f/g)= (g f f g)/g
2. (F.G) = F.G F . G
3. (F G) = F G + F G
4.
(fg) = g f + 2 f. g + f
1.4.15 Vector product

1. Dot product of A B with C is called scalar triplet product and denoted as [ABC]
Rule: For evaluating the scalar triplet product
(i) Independent of position of dot and cross
(ii) Dependent on the cyclic order of the vector
[ABC] = A B. C = A. B C
= B C. A= B.C A
= C A. B = C.A B
A B. C = -(B A. C)
B
= (extreme adjacent) Outer
) C
2. (A
= (Outer. extreme) adjacent (Outer. adjacent) extreme
= (C
.A
)B
.B
- (C
)A
(A
B)
C
(B
) = (A
.C
)B
.B
C
- (A
)C
A
(A B ) C A (B C )
1.4.16 Line Integral, Surface Integral & Volume Integral
Line integral = F( )d
If F( )= f(x,y,z) (x,y,z) + (x,y,z)
d = dx dy dz
dy dz )
F( )d = ( f dx
ds, Where N is unit outward normal to Surface.
Surface integral: F .
ds or F . N
Volume integral : F dv
If F(R ) = f(x,y,z) +
(x,y,z)
F dv = fdxdydz
(x,y,z) and v = x y z , then
dxdydz + dxdydz
1.4.17 Greens Theorem

If R be a closed region in the xy plane bounded by a simple closed curve c and if P and Q are
continuous functions of x and y having continuous derivative in , then according to Greens
theorem.
(P dx
dy) = .
/ dxdy
Page 29
Mathematics
1.4.18 Sto es theorem

If F be continuously differentiable vector function in R, then F. dr =
F .N ds
1.4.19 Gauss divergence theorem

The normal surface integral of a vector point function F which is continuously differentiable over
the boundary of a closed region is equal to the
F .N.ds = div F dv
Page 30
Mathematics
1.5: Differential Equations

1.5.1
Order of Differential Equation: It is the order of the highest derivative appearing in it.
1.5.2
Degree of Differential Equation: It is the degree of the highest derivative occurring in it,
after expressing the equation free from radicals and fractions as far as derivatives are
concerned.
1.5.3
Differential Equations of First Order First Degree:
Equations of first order and first degree can be expressed in the form f (x, y, y ) = or
y = f(x, y). Following are the different ways of solving equations of first order and first degree:
1. Variable separable : f(x)dx + g(y)dy = 0
f(x)dx
g(y)dy = c is the solution
2. Homogenous Equation:
( ,
( ,
)
)
To solve a homogeneous equation, substitute y = Vx

=V+x
Separate the variable V and x and integrate.
Equations Reducible to Homogenous Equation:

The differential equation:
This is a non - homogeneous but can be converted to homogeneous equation

Case I: If
Substitute x = X + h
y=Y+k
(h and K are constants)
Solve for h and k

ah b
c=0
ah b
c =0
=
Case II: If
=
=
=
(say)
(
(
)
)
Page 31
Mathematics
Substitute ax +by = t, so that,

(
Solve by variable separable method.

3. Linear Equations:
The standard form of a linear equation of first order:
+ P(x) y = Q(x) , where P and Q are functions of x
Second order linear equation:
d y
dx
P(x)
dy
dx
(x)y = (x)
Commonly nown as Leibnitzs linear equations

Integrating factor, I.F. = e
ye
= . (I. F)dx
y(I. F. ) = . (I. F)dx
Note: The degree of every linear differential equation is always one but if the degree of the
differential equation is one then it need not be linear.
Ex:
x . /
= 0.
.1 Bernoullis Equation:
+Py=Qy
where, P & Q are functions of x only.
Divide by y
y
Substitute, y
Py
=Q
=z
(1
n)Pz = Q (1-n)
This is a linear equation and can be solved easily
4. Exact Differential Equations:

M (x, y) dx + N (x, y) dy = 0
Page 32
Mathematics
The necessary and sufficient condition for the differential equations M dx +N dy = 0 to be

exact is
=
Solution of exact differential equation:
M dx
(terms of N not contaning x ) dy = C
4.1 Equation Reducible the Exact Equation:

Integrating Factor:
Sometimes an equation which is not exact may become so on multiplication by some
function known as Integrating factor (I.F.).
Rule 0: Finding by inspection
1. x dy + y dx = d (x y)
2.
=d( )
3.
= d [log (
4.
=-d( )
5.
= d [tan (
)-
6.
=d[
)-
log(
)]
Rule 1: when M dx + N dy = 0 is homogenous in x and y and M x + N y

Rule 2: If the equation f (x, y) y dx + f (x, y) x dy = 0 and M x N y
/ = f(x), then I.F. = e
Rule 3: If the M dx + N dy = 0 and .

Rule 4: If the equation M dx + N dy = 0 and
1.5.4
0 then I.F. =
0 then I.F. =
( )
/ = f(y) , then I.F. = e
( )
Linear Differential Equation with Constant Coefficients:

-------
The equation can be written as (D
y=X
D
-----
)y = X {Where, D =
f(D) y = X ; f(D) = 0 is called Auxiliary Equation.

Rules for Finding Complimentary Function:
Case I :
If all the roots of A.E. are real and different
Page 33
(D
m ) (D
m ) - - - - - - (D
m )y=0
So, the solution is: y = C e

Case II:
Mathematics
C e
-- - - - -+ C e
If two roots are equal i.e. m = m

y = (C
C x)e
Similarly, if m = m = m
y = (C
Case III:
C x +C x ) e
If one pair of roots are imaginary

i.e.
m =
i , m =
y = e (C cos x
Case IV:
i
C sin x)
If two pairs of root are imaginary

i.e. repeated imaginary root
y=e
1.5.5
i ,
C ) cos x
,(C x
i
(C x
C ) sin x ]
Rules for finding Particular Integral

P.. =
X=
( )
.X
Case I:
When X =
P.I. =
( )
P.I. = x
( )
P.I. =
( )
put D = a
[ ( )
0]
put D = a
[ ( )
0, ( ) = 0]
put D = a
[ ( ) = 0, ( ) = 0, ( )
0]
Case II:
When X = sin (ax + b) or cos (ax +b)
P.I. =
=x
=
)
(
put
)
=-
, (-
0]
put
=-
, (-
, (-
) = 0]
) put
=-
, (-
, (-
Page 34
= , (-
Mathematics
) = 0]
Case III:
When X =
, m being positive integer

P.I. =
= [ ( )-
( )
(D) ,1
(D) [1
( )
( )
( )
( )
Case IV:
When X =
V where V is function of x
P. I. =
( )
V then evaluate
V as in Case I, II & III
Case V:
When X = x V(x)
P.I. =
( )
( )
x V(x) = 0
( )
( )
V(x)
Case VI:
When X is any other function of x
P.I. =
Factorize f(D) = (D
( )
) (D
and then apply,
) - - - - - - - (D
X=
) and resolve
( )
into partial fractions
on each terms.
Complete Solution: y = C.F. + P..

1.5.6
Cauchy-Euler Equation: (Homogenous Linear Equation)

.
Substitute
------ -
=X
x=e
x
= Dy
= D (D-1) y
= D (D-1)(D-2) y
Page 35
Mathematics
After substituting these differentials, the Cauchy Euler equation results in a linear equation
with constant coefficients.
1.5.7
Legendres Linear Equation:

(
ax + b =
- - - - -- -
=X
t = ln (ax + b)
(ax + b)
=aDy
D(D-1)y
D(D-1)(D-2)y
After substituting these differentials, the Legendres equation results in a linear equation with
constant coefficients.
1.5.8
Partial Differential Equation:

z = f(x, y)
=p,
1.5.9
=q,
= r,
= s,
Homogenous Linear Equation with Constant Coefficients:

------ -
= f( x, y)
this is called homogenous because all
terms containing derivative is of same order.

(
-------
) = f(x, y)
{ where D =
and D =
f (D, D) = f(x,y)
Step I: Finding the C.F.
1. Write A.E.
Where m =
2. CF = (y +
CF = (y +
CF =
(y +
----= 0,
and the roots are
,
---- x) + (y +
x) + - - - - - - ,
are distinct
x) + x (y +
x) + (y +
x) + - - - - - - ,
x) + x
(y +
x) +
(y +
x) + - - - -
,
,
two equal roots.

three equal roots.
Page 36
Mathematics
Step II: Finding P.I.

P.. =
( ,
f (x, y)
1. when F( ax +by ) =
, put [ D = a, = b]
2. when F( x, y) = sin (mx +ny), put ( =
,
3. when F(x, y) =
, P. = ( , )
=[ ( ,
4. when F(x, y) is any function of x and y. P. =
( ,
=
))
f (x, y) , resolve
( ,
into partial
fractions considering ( , ) as a function of D alone and operate each partial fraction

)
on f(x, y) remembering that
f(x, y) = ( ,
where c, is replaced by
(
y + mx after integration.
Page 37
Mathematics
1.6: Complex Variables

=
is a complex no., where x & y are real numbers called as real and imaginary part of z.
Modulus or absolute value = | | =
, Argument of
( )=
. /
1.6.1 Function of a Complex Variable: It is a rule by means of which it is possible to find one or
more complex numbers w for every value of z in a certain domain D, then w = f (z)
Where z = x + iy,
w = f (z) = u(x, y) + i v(x, y)
1.6.2
Continuity of f (z):
( ) = ( ).
A function = f (z) is said to be continuous at = if
Further f (z) is said to be continuous in any region R of the z-plane, if it is continuous at
every point of that region.
Also if w = f (z) = u(x, y) + i v(x, y) is continuous at = , then u(x, y) and v(x, y) are also
continuous at x= & y = .
1.6.3
Theorem on Differentiability:
The necessary and sufficient conditions for the derivative of the function f( ) to exist for all
values of in a region R.
i)
ii)
1.6.4
Analytic Functions (or Regular Function) or Holomorphic Functions
, are continuous functions of x and y in R.

=
Cauchy-Riemann equations (CR equations)
A single valued function which is defined and differentiable at each point of a domain D is
said to be analytic in that domain.
A point at which an analytic function ceases to possess a derivative is called Singular point.
Thus if u and v are real Single valued functions of x and y such that
, ,
,
are
continuous throughout a region R , then CR equations
=
=-
are both necessary and sufficient condition for the function f(z) = u
iv to be analytic in .
Real and imaginary part i.e. u, v of the function is called conjugate function.
An analytic function posses derivatives of all order and these are themselves analytic.
Page 38
1.6.5
Mathematics
Harmonic Functions:
If f(z) = u + iv be an analytic function in some region of the z plane then the C R equations are
satisfied.
=
Differentiating with respect to x and y respectively,

=
=0
(Laplace Equation)
Note:
(1) For a function to be regular, the first order partial derivations of u and v must be
continuous in addition to CR equations.
(2) Mean value of any harmonic function over a circle is equal to the value of the function at
the centre.
1.6.6
Methods of Constructing Analytic Functions:
1. If the real part of a function is given then,

( ) =
-i
Integrate with points at (z, 0)
f(z) = . /
dz - i . /
( , )
dz + c
( , )
Similarly in case v(x, y) is known, then

f (z) =
+i
f (z) = . /
( , )
dz + i . /
dz + c
( , )
2. If u (x, y) is known, then to find v(x, y) we have

dv =
dx + dy
dv =
dx +
dy
Integrate this equation to find v.

f (z) = u(x, y) + i v(x, y)
3. If a real part of the analytic function f(z) is given which is harmonic function u (x, y), then
f(z) = 2u . , / - u(0, 0)
1.6.7
Complex Integration
Line integral = ( ) , C need not be closed path
Here, f(z) = integrand , curve C = path of integration
Contour integral = ( )
, if C is closed path
Page 39
Mathematics
If f(z) = u(x, y) + i v(x, y) and dz = dx + i dy
( )
=(
Theorem: f(z) is analytic in a simple connected domain then
( )
= f( )
( ), i.e.
integration is independent of the path

Dependence on Path: In general Complex line integration depends not only on the end points
but also on the path (however analytic function in simple connected domain is independent of
path.)
1.6.8
Cauchys Integral Theorem:
If f(z) is analytic in a simple connected domain D, then for every simple closed path C in D,
() = 0
Note: In other words, by Cauchys theorem if f(z) is analytic on a simple closed path C and
everywhere inside C (with no exception, not even a single point) then ( ) =
D
C
1.6.8.1 Cauchys Integral Formula:

If f(z) is analytic within and on a closed curve and if a is any point within C, then
( )=
( ) =
( ) =
( )
( )
(
)
( )
.
( )=
( )
(
Page 40
1.6.9 Moreras Theorem: If f(z) is continuous in a region and

simple closed C then f(z) is analytic in that region.
Mathematics
( )
= 0 around every
1.6.10 Taylors Series: If f(z) is analytic inside a circle C with centre at a then for z inside C
f(z) = f(a)
f(z) =
where
( )
f(a) (z-a) +
(
=
(z-a) + - - - - - - -
( )
)
Other form, put z = a + h

f(a+h) = f(a) + h ( ) +
( ) + - - - - - - -
1.6.11 Laurents Series: If f(z) is analytic in the ring shaped region R bounded by two concentric
circles and of radii and (
) and with centre at a then for all z in R
(
f(z) =
where,
( )
)
If f(z) is analytic inside the curve then
= and Laurent series reduces to Taylors series.
1.6.12 Zeroes of Analytic Function:

The value of z for which f(z) = 0
If f(z) is analytic in the neighbourhood of a point z = a then by Taylors theorem.
where
if
f(z) =
=
=
( )
=------
= 0, then f(z) is said to have a zero of order n at z =a.
1.6.13 Singularities of an Analytic Function:

A singular point of a function as the point at which the function ceases to be analytic.
1. Isolated Singularity: If z =a is a singularity of f(z) such that f(z) is analytic at each point in its
neighbourhood (i.e. there exists a circle with centre a which has no other singularity 1, then
z =a is called an isolated singularity).
2. Removable Singularity: If all the negative powers of (z-a) in Laurent series are zero then
Page 41
Mathematics
f(z) =
(
)
singularity can be removed by defining f(z) at z = a is such a way that it becomes analytic at
z =a
( ) exists finitely, then z = a is a removable singularity.
Example: f(z) =
, then z = 0 is a removable singularity.
3. Essential singularity: If the numbers of negative power of (z-a) in Laurents series is infinite,
then z =a is called an essential singularity.
( ) does not exist in this case
4. Poles: If all the negative power of (z-a) in Laurents series after
singularity at z = a is called a pole of order n.
A pole of first order is called a simple pole.
are missing then. The
1.6.14 Residue Theorem

If f(z) is analytic in and on a closed curve C except at a finite number of singular point within C
then
f(z)dz = i (sum of the residue at the singular point within C)
Calculation of Residues
1. If f(x) has a simple pole at z=a , then
Res f(a) =
,(
) ( )( )
) ( ), ( )
2. If ( ) = ( ) where ( ) = (
Res ( ) =
( )
( )
3. If ( ) has a pole of order n at z=a , then

( )=(
,(
( )-3
Here n =order of singularity

Note: If an analytic function has singularities at a finite number of points, then the sum of
residues at these points along with infinity is zero.
Page 42
Mathematics
1.7: Laplace Transform

1.7.1
Introduction
Laplace Transform (LT) is a method to get generalized frequency domain representation of a

continuous time signal and is generalization of CTFT (Continuous Time Fourier Transform).
Definition of Laplace Transform
, ( )- = ( ) =
. ( )
, ( )- = ( )=
1.7.2
. ( )
: One sided/ unilateral LT, where S = (
J )
: Two sided/ bilateral LT.
Properties of Laplace transform
Frequency shift
[e-at f(t) ] = F(s + a) and
[eat f(t) ] = F(s - a)
Time shift
[f(t to)] =
. F(s)
Differentiation in Time domain

[
( ) ] = s F(s) f(0) where f(0) is initial value of f(t).
If initial conditions are zero (i.e. f(0) = 0),differentiating in time domain is equivalent to
multiplying by s in frequency domain.
Similarly,
( )]=
F(s) s f(0) -
(0) where
(0) is the value of [
( ) ] at t = 0
Integration in Time domain

0
( ) 1=
( )
and
( ) 3=
( )
( )
Integration in time domain is equivalent to division by s in frequency domain, if f(t) = 0 for t < 0.
Differentiation in Frequency Domain
[ t f(t) ] =
( )
and
( )+ = ( 1)
(F(s))
Differentiation in frequency domain is equal to multiplication by t in time domain.

Integration in Frequency Domain
0
( )
1 =
( )
Page 43
Mathematics
Integration in frequency domain is equal to division by t in time domain.
1.7.3
Initial Value Theorem
If f(t) and its derivative
( ) are Laplace transformable, then
( )=
( )
This theorem does not apply to the rational function F(s) in which the order of numerator
polynomial is equal to or greater than the order of denominator polynomial.
1.7.4
Final Value Theorem
If f(t) and its derivative
(t) are Laplace transformable, then
( )=
( )
For applying final value theorem, it is required that all the poles of
s- plane (strictly) i.e. poles on
axis also not allowed.
1.7.5
Convolution theorem
, ( ). ( )- = ( )
, ( )
( )- =
( ).
( ) be in the left half of
( )
( )
1.7.6 Laplace Transform of the Periodic Function

If f(t) is periodic function with period T, then
( ( )) = (
1.7.7
(s) where
(s) =
( )
Laplace Transform of Standard Functions

Table. Laplace Transform of Standard Functions
S. No
1.
2.
Function, f(t)
( )
u(t)
3.
4.
5.
u(t)
. ( )
6.
t.u(t)
7.
8.
9.
Laplace transform of f(t), L{f(t) = F(s)

1
. ( )
( )
f(t).
sin at. u(t)
1
1
(
1

F(s-a)
(
Page 44

10.
cos at. u(t)
11.
sin hat. u(t)
12.
cos hat. u(t)
13.
14.
15.
f (t)
f (t)
f(u) du
16.
17.
18.
f(u)du
f(t-a).u(t-a)
t . F(t)
19.
20.
f(ta)
f(at)
21.
f (t) f (t)=
e . cos t
22
23
sin t
. f(t)
Mathematics
(
)
(
)
s
(s
a )
s.F(s)-f(o )
s . F(s) s. f(o ) f (o )
1 F(s)
s
F(s)
(o ).
where f
(o ) =
f(u)du
f (u). f (t
u)du
. F(s)
d
( 1) .
(F(s))
ds
|a|. F(as)
1 s
F( a)
|a|
F (s). F (s) where * is convolution operator
(s
)
((s
((s )
F(s)ds
24
25
Page 45
Part 2: Engineering Mechanics

Part 2.1: Statics
2.1 Statics
Statics deals with system of forces that keeps a body in equilibrium. In other words the
resultants of force systems on the body are zero.
Force: A force is completely defined only when the following four characters are specified.
Magnitude
Point of application
Line of action
Direction
Scalar and Vector: A quantity is said to be scalar if it is completely defined by its magnitude
alone. e.g. length, energy, work etc. A quantity is said to be vector if it is completely defined only
when its magnitude and direction is specified. e.g. force, acceleration.
2.1.1 Equivalent force system
Coplanar force system: If all the forces in the system lie in a single plane, it is called coplanar
force system.
Concurrent force system: If line of action of all the forces in a system passes through a single
point it is called concurrent force system.
Collinear force system: In a system, all the forces parallel to each other, if line of action of all
forces lie along a single line then it is called a collinear force system.
Force system
Example
Coplanar like parallel force
Weight of stationary train on rail when the trackis

straight.
Coplanar concurrent
Forces on a rod resting against wall.
Coplanar non- concurrent force
Forces on a ladder resting against a wall when a

person stands on a rung which is not at its center
of gravity.
Non- coplanar parallel
The weight of benches in class room
Non- coplanar concurrent force
A tripod carrying camera
Non- coplanar Non-concurrent force Forces acting on moving bus
Page 46
Newtons law of motion:

First Law: Every body continues in its state of rest or of uniform motion in a straight line unless
it is compelled to change that state by force acting on it.
Second law: The rate of change of momentum of a body is directly proportional to the applied
force & it takes place in the direction in which the force acts.
F
(m
dv
)
dt
Third law: For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.
Principle of transmissibility of force: The state of rest of motion of rigid body is unaltered if a
force acting on a body is replaced by another force of the same magnitude and direction but
acting anywhere on the body along
the line of action of the replaced force.
P
B
P
Parallelogram law of forces: If two forces acting simultaneously on a body at a point are
represented in magnitude and direction by the two adjacent sides of a parallelogram their
resultant is represented in magnitude and direction by the diagonal of the parallelogram which
passes through the point of intersection of the two sides representing the forces.
2.1.2 Equilibrium and Free body diagrams
2.1.2.1 Coplanar Concurrent Forces
Triangle law of forces: If two forces acting simultaneously on a body are represented by the sides
of triangle taken in order, then their resultant is represented by the closing side of the triangle
taken in the opposite order.
Polygon law of forces:
P3
P2
P4
D
P3
R2
R
R1
P1
P4
C
P2
B
Page 47
If a number of forces acting at a point be represented in magnitude and direction by the sides of
a polygon in order, then the resultant of all these forces may be represented in magnitude and
direction by the closing side of the polygon taken in opposite order
P2
P1
Resultant (R) =
tan
= angle between two forces, = inclination of resultant with force P1

When forces acting on a body are collinear, their resultant is equal to the algebraic sum of
the forces.
Lamis theorem: (only three coplanar concurrent forces) If a body is in equilibrium under the
action of three forces, then each force is proportional to the sine of the angle between the other
two forces.
c
P2
P1
P2
b
P3
P1
P3
a
sin
sin
sin
Free body diagram: A free body diagram is a pictorial representation used to analyze the forces
acting on a free body.
A free body diagram shows all contact and non-contact forces acting on the body.
Sample Free body diagrams
600N
W
SMOOTH
600N
R1
SMOOTH
R2
Page 48
A ladder resting on smooth wall
A cantilever beam
A block on a ramp
In a free body diagram all the contacts/supports are replaced by reaction forces which it will
exert on the structure. A mechanical system comprises of different types of contacts/supports.
Types of contacts/supports:
Following types of mechanical contacts can be found in various structures:
Flexible cable, belt, chain or rope

We Weight of cable negligible
Weight of cable not negligible

Force exerted by the cable is always a tension away from the body in the direction of the
cable.
Page 49
Smooth surfaces
Contact force is compressive and is normal to the surface.
Rough surfaces
Rough surfaces are capable of supporting a tangential component F (frictional force as well
as a normal component N of the resultant R.
Roller support
Roller, rocker, or ball support transmits a compressive force normal to supporting surface.
Freely sliding guide
Collar or slider support force is normal to guide only. There is no tangential force as surfaces
are considered to be smooth.
Pin connection
A freely hinged pin supports a force in any direction in the plane normal to the axis; usually
shown as two components Rx and Ry. A pin not free to turn also supports a couple M.
Built in or fixed end
Page 50
A built-in or fixed end supports an axial force F, a transverse force V, and a bending moment M.
2.1.2.2 Coplanar Non-Concurrent Forces
Varignons theorem: The algebraic sum of the moments of a system of coplanar forces about a
momentum center in their plane is equal to the moment of their resultant forces about the same
moment center.
B
R.d = P1.d1 + P2.d2

Effect of couple is unchanged if
Couple is rotated through any angle.

Couple is shifted to any position.
The couple is replaced by another pair of forces whose rotated effect is the same.
Condition for body in Equilibrium:
The algebraic sum of the components of the forces along each of the three mutually
direction is zero.
The algebraic sum of the components of the moments acting on the body about each of
the three mutually perpendicular axes is zero.
When a body is in equilibrium, the resultant of all forces acting on it is zero. Thus, the resultant
force R and the resultant couple M are both zero, and we have the equilibrium equations
R F 0
&
M= M=0
For collinear force system

F
For non-collinear force system
These requirements are both necessary and sufficient conditions for equilibrium.
Two forces can be in equilibrium only if they are equal in magnitude, opposite in direction, and
collinear in action. If a system is in equilibrium under the action of three forces, those three
forces must be concurrent.
Page 51
Types of Equilibrium:
There are three types of equilibrium as defined below:
Stable Equilibrium: A body is in stable equilibrium if it returns to its equilibrium position after it
has been displaced slightly.
Unstable Equilibrium: A body is in unstable equilibrium if it does not return to its equilibrium
position and does not remain in the displaced position after it has been displaced slightly.
Neutral Equilibrium: A body is in neutral equilibrium if it stays in the displaced position after if
has been displaced slightly.
Stable Equilibrium
Unstable Equilibrium
Neutral Equilibrium
2.1.3 Virtual Work

Work: When a force acts on a body and moves it through some distance in its own direction, then
work is said to be done. Thus, work may be defined as the product of the force and the distance
moved in the direction of the force. Mathematically, we can write that
Work = Force distance
U=FS
When the distance moved by the body is not in the direction of the force then to determine the
work done, the component of the force in the direction of the distance moved may be multiplied
with the distance moved For example if the force F is acting at an angle with the direction of
the distance S moved, then work done is given by
U = F cos S
Virtual Displacement: It may be defined as the infinitesimally small imaginary (or hypothetical or
virtual) displacement given to a body or to a system of bodies in equilibrium, consistent with the
constraints. The virtual displacement may be either rectilinear or angular.
Virtual Work: The product of the force F and the virtual displacement s in the direction of the
force is called virtual work.
U
F s
Principle of virtual Work

It states that if a system of forces acting on a body or a system of bodies are in equilibrium and if
the system is supposed to undergo a small virtual displacement consistent with its geometrical
constraints, the algebraic sum of the virtual work done by the system of forces is zero.
Page 52
2.1.4 Trusses and Frames

Trusses are commonly used for construction of roofs of workshop factories and bridges. The
trusses are subjected to mainly three types of loads, viz, dead load, live load and wind load. The
dead load is self weight of truss; live load is the load which is applied to the truss; e.g. the load
acting on a bridge truss due to the passing of a train, load acting on a workshop truss due to an
electric overhead, travelling crane, the wind load due to the high velocities of wind blowing in a
particular region.
When the number of members m in a truss satisfies the condition,
m = 2j 3
where j is the number of joints, then the truss is known as a perfect truss, otherwise imperfect.
The truss is called deficient or redundant, if m < (2j-3) or m > (2j 3), respectively.
A pin jointed frame which has just sufficient number of members to resist the loads without
undergoing deformation in space is called perfect frame. If number of members in frame is less
than that that required for a perfect frame then it is called deficient frame. If number of
members in frame is more than that required for perfect frame then it is called redundant frame.
A redundant frame is indeterminate.
The following assumptions are made in solving trusses:
1. The members of truss are connected at the joints by friction less joints.
2. The members of truss lie in a common plane (plane truss).
3. The loads are applied only on the pins connecting the members and that the lines of
action of the loads lie in the plane of the truss.
4. The weight of members is negligible as compared to the applied loads.
5. The truss is rigid and that it does not deform or change its shape upon the application of
the loads.
The member of a truss may be in tension or compression. A member in tension is called a tie and
a member in compression a strut.
Methods of Solution: Two methods are generally used for determining the forces in various
members of a truss. These methods are
1. Analytical methods
(a) Method of joints (concurrent force system).
(b) Method of sections (non-concurrent force system).
2. Graphical method
Method of section is used when
Large truss in which only few forces are required

Situation where method of joints fail.
While determining the reactions at the supports, the following points should be remembered
Page 53
(a) At simply supported (i.e., pinned or roller support) support there can be only a vertical
reaction.
(b) At fixed support, the reaction can take an arbitrary direction.
A frame in which all the member lies in a single plane is called plane frame. While a frame in
which all the member do not lie in a single plane is called space frame.
4
5
1
For perfect frame, m = (2j -3)
3
2
For deficient frame, m < (2j -3)
If there is only one force acting at joint, then for the equilibrium, this force should be equal zero.
If there are two forces acting at a joint then, for the equilibrium, forces should act along the same
straight line. The two forces should be equal and opposite. If the (only) two forces acting at a
joint are not along the same straight line, then for the equilibrium of the joint each force should
be equal to zero.
If three forces act at a joint and two of them are along the some straight line then, for the
equilibrium of the joint, the third force should be equal to zero.
Page 54
Part 2.2: Dynamics

2.2 Dynamics
Dynamics can be divided into two main branches:
(a) Kinematics
(b) Kinetics
In kinematics, motion of particles or rigid bodies is studied without considering the forces that
produce or change this motion.
In kinetics, motion of particles or rigid bodies is studied with the unbalanced force system that
produces or changes this motion.
2.2.1 Kinematics of Rectilinear Motion
Motion with constant acceleration:
Where u = initial velocity, v = final velocity, s = distance of travel, t = time and a = acceleration
Motion of Bodies Projected vertically upwards
When a body is projected vertically upwards, it is under the effect of the downward acceleration
due to gravity, i.e., it moves with retardation. Its velocity, therefore, gradually decreases until it
becomes zero; the body is then for an instant at rest and immediately begins to fall with a
velocity which increases numerically but is negative. Thus, we get
gs
The following important results can be deduced from these equations:

Time to reach the highest point,
Maximum height reached,
Time for returning to the starting point time of flight =
2.2.2 Kinematics of Curvilinear motion
Motion of projectile:
Maximum height (h) =
Page 55
Time required to reach maximum height (t) =
time of flight =
Range (R) =
for maximum range, = 450

2.2.3 Kinetics of rectilinear motion
D Alemberts rinciple
It was pointed out first of all by DAlembert that on the line of equation of static equilibrium,
equation of dynamic equilibrium can also be established by introducing inertia force in the
direction opposite to acceleration in addition to the real forces acting on the system.
According to Newtons second law of motion,
F = ma where
or
Now
is the inertia force Example represents the D Alemberts principle which may be
stated as follows:
When different forces act on a system such that it is in motion in a particular direction, the
algebraic sum of all the forces acting on the system in the direction of the motion, including the
inertia force taken in opposite direction to motion is zero. Thus in general
F
ma
Where
F
or
ma
where indicates the sum of all forces acting on the body in the direction of motion.
2.2.4 Kinetics of Curvilinear Motion
Central force motion
Centrifugal force =
Where r = radius of the path
= angular velocity
Page 56
v = linear speed
g = acceleration due to gravity
oment of momentum (angular momentum)of the whole body
Where I = m
, k being the radius of gyration.
2.2.5 Impulse and Momentum

From Newtons second law of motion
Or
For a finite period of time, integrating, we get
If
is constant, above equation may be integrated, giving
Where
indicates vector difference of two momentum terms.
If the forces
are variable, they must be given as a function of time and should be similarly
integrated. Forces that cannot be expressed mathematically as a function of time may be plotted
on a force-time curve, in which the area under the curve is equal to the left side of the equation.
Linear impulse of a force is defined as Ft and linear momentum is defined as mv. Thus, it may be
expressed as follows:
Ft = mv mvo
The resultant impulse of the external forces acting upon a body is equal to the change of
momentum of the body. Both impulse and momentum are vector quantities. The units of impulse
and momentum are Ns.
Conservation of Linear Momentum
If the sum of the external forces acting on any system of mutually attracting and impinging
bodies resolved in any direction is always zero, the total momentum of the system in that
direction remains constant during the motion.
Let the two bodies have masses
and
with velocities and respectively, before coming
into contact with each other, and velocities
and
at the end of the period of contact. Then
according to the conservation of linear momentum, we have
Page 57
Collision of Elastic Bodies

If two bodies suddenly collide, an impulsive force, or impact, is set up between them. When the
direction of each body is along the common normal at the point where they touch, the impact is
said to be direct. When the direction of motion of either or both, is not along the common normal
at the point of contact, the impact is said to be oblique. If the pressure exerted on the surfaces of
contact coincides with the line joining the mass centres of the bodies, the impact is central. If
such is not the case, it is eccentric.
For a very short period of time after the two bodies come in contact, the mass centres continue
to approach each other. This is known as the period of deformation. During this period the
intensity of the force between the surfaces increases. For an instant at the end of the period of
deformation, the mass centres are moving with the same velocity. If the bodies are elastic, the
impulsive forces causes centres to begin separating and, after a second short interval, the
surfaces of the bodies are no longer in contact. This second short period is known as the period
is known as the period of restitution. Time of impact is the sum of the period of deformation and
period of restitution. The time of impact is very small. For this reason, the resultant impulse of
the external forces acting on the system during this time must be small and can be neglected. On
the bosis of this assumption, the sum of the momentum before impact is equal to the sum of the
momentum after impact, i.e, the conservation of momentum holds, thus for direct central impact,
we have
Coefficient of Restitution
For direct central impact Newton verified experimentally that the relative velocity after impact
is in a constant ratio to the relative velocity before impact. If the bodies collide obliquely, the
same fact holds for their compound velocities along the common normal at the point of contact.
This ratio is known as the coefficient of restitution, and is denoted by e. Thus
in which the proper sign of the four velocities must be included.

The value of e lies between zero and one. It is zero for perfectly inelastic bodies and one for
perfectly elastic bodies.
Conservation of Angular Momentum
According to this principle, if a system of two rotating bodies are brought into contact for a short
time period, and no external torque is applied to the system during this time, the resultant
angular impulse on the system is zero.
Suppose the two bodies have moments of inertia and
and angular velocities
and
repectively, before coming, into contact, and angular velocities
and
and the end of the
period of contact. Then the principle of conservation of angular momentum may be stated as
Page 58
2.2.6 Work and Energy

Work: If a force acts on a body and causes it to move some distance, work is said to be done by
the force. Thus, work is a measure of accomplishment. Therefore, work done by a constant force
is equal to the product of the force and the displacement of its point of application in the
direction of the force. It is measured in Nm.
Energy: The capacity to do work is called energy. It is measured in N.m.
Potential Energy: This is the energy which a body possesses because of its position.
Kinetic Energy: This is the energy which a body possesses because of its velocity.
Power: The rate of doing work is called power.
Work Done by a Force
The work done by a force is equal to the product of the force, F, and its displacement, s, provided
the force is constant and the displacement, of the body is in the same direction as the force.
Denoting work by
, we have
= F.s
Relation between work and change of kinetic energy:
Net work = change in kinetic energy
Where
represents kinetic energy. This equation represents the principle of work and energy.
Power = (F cos ) v.
v is the velocity of the point where the force F is acting.
is the angle between the directions of the force and the velocity.
If both are in the same direction then
.
One metric horse power = 735.5 watts
Work of the Elastic force: If a prismatic bar of area of cross section A, length and elastic constant
E is stretched then the work of elastic force can be calculated by treating it as a spring of
stiffness k.
Principle of work and Energy:

Work energy principle: The work done by a force acting on a particle during its displacement is
equal to the change in kinetic energy of the particle during that displacement.
U
&
are
Page 59
Net W.D. by the force for displacing a body from (1) to (2)
(
W.D. by a force for displacing a body from (1)

negative ( ve).
(2) is positive (+ve) and from (1) (2) is
Principle of conservation of energy: states that the sum of the potential energy and the kinetic
energy of a particle (or of a system of particles) remains constant during the motion under the
action of conservative forces.
E
This principle cannot be applied where frictional force is involved.

Work of the gravity force:
(
is positive upwards
is negative upwards.
Force exerted by the spring is not a constant force but it varies linearly with the displacement
from the undeformed position.
U
du
F dx
sign indicates that Force and displacement are in opposite directions.
If a particle of mass m is moving with velocity
Let v and
and .
U
( E)
its inetic energy E is given by
be the velocities of the particle at points 1 and 2 and the corresponding distance be
mV
(
( E)
( E)
( E)
Page 60
W.D. by the springs +ve W.D. by the system (springs)

W.D. on the system ve. W.D. on the system (springs)
When spring is stretched W D by force is ve ie wor is done on the spring
When the spring returns returns towards undeformed position W D is ve(or)wor is done by the spring
Work Done by a Couple or Torque
Let a couple Fr act on a body so that the body starts rotating. As the body rotates through a small
angle d , the work done by the force is
Fds = Fr d
When the body rotates through the angle
the total work done is,
Relation between Work and Kinetic Energy for Rotation

Consider a rigid body rotating about an axis 0 with an angular velocity w as shown in a Fig. The
particle of mass dm in this body has a velocity v = rw normal to the radial line r.
The kinetic energy of the particle is, as
O
Rigid body
Therefore,
(
=
Where
)
(
rotating about a fixed axis.

is the mass moment of inertia with respect to the axis of rotation.
Page 61
Strength of Material
Part 3: Strength of Material

Part 3.1: Simple Stress and Strain
3.1.1 Simple Stress & Strain
Stress is the internal resistance offered by the body per unit area. Stress is represented as force
per unit area. Typical units of stress are N/m2, ksi and MPa. There are two primary types of
stresses: normal stress and shear stress. Normal stress,, is calculated when the force is normal
to the surface area; whereas the shear stress, is calculated when the force is parallel to the
surface area.
Pnormal _to _area

A
Pparallel _ to _ area
A
Linear strain (normal strain, longitudinal strain, axial strain), , is a change in length per unit
length. Linear strain has no units. Shear strain, is an angular deformation resulting from shear
stress. Shear strain may be presented in units of radians, percent, or no units at all.
parallel _ to _ area
Height
tan [ in radians]
3.1.2 Hookes Law: Axial and Shearing Deformations

Hookes law is a simple mathematical relationship between elastic stress and strain: stress is
proportional to strain. For normal stress, the constant of proportionality is the modulus of
elasticity (Youngs Modulus), E.
E
The deformation, , of an axially loaded member of original length L can be derived from Hookes
law. Tension loading is considered to be positive, compressive loading is negative. The sign of
the deformation will be the same as the sign of the loading.
PL
L L
E AE
This expression for axial deformation assumes that the linear strain is proportional to the
normal stress
E and that the cross-sectional area is constant.
Page 62
When an axial member has distinct sections differing in cross-sectional area or composition,
superposition is used to calculate the total deformation as the sum of individual deformations.
PL
L
P
AE
AE
When one of the variables (e.g., A), varies continuously along the length,
PdL
dL
P
AE
AE
The new length of the member including the deformation is given by
Lf L
The algebraic deformation must be observed.
Hookes law may also be applied to a plane element in pure shear. For such an element, the shear
stress is linearly related to the shear strain, by the shear modulus (also known as the modulus of
rigidity), G.
G
The relationship between shearing deformation, s and applied shearing force, V is then
expressed by
VL
AG
3.1.3 Stress-Strain Diagram

Actual rupture
strength
Stress
Ultimate strength
Rupture
strength
Yield point
Elastic limit
Proportional limit
Page 63
Proportional Limit: It is the point on the stress strain curve up to which stress is proportional to
strain.
Elastic Limit: It is the point on the stress strain curve up to which material will return to its
original shape when unloaded.
Yield Point: It is the point on the stress strain curve at which there is an appreciable elongation
or yielding of the material without any corresponding increase of load; indeed the load actually
may decrease while the yielding occurs.
Ultimate Strength: It is the highest ordinate on the stress strain curve.
Rupture Strength: It is the stress at failure
3.1.4 Poissons Ratio: Biaxial and Triaxial Deformations
Poissons ratio, , is a constant that relates the lateral strain to the axial strain for axially loaded
members.
lateral
axial
Theoretically, Poissons ratio could vary from 0 to 0.5, but typical values are 0.33 for aluminum
and 0.3 for steel and maximum value of 0.5 for rubber.
Poissons ratio permits us to extend Hookes law of uniaxial stress to the case of biaxial stress.
Thus if an element is subjected simultaneously to tensile stresses in x and y direction, the strain
in the x direction due to tensile stress x is x/E. Simultaneously the tensile stress y will
produce lateral contraction in the x direction of the amount y/E, so the resultant unit
deformation or strain in the x direction will be
y
x
E
E
Similarly, the total strain in the y direction is
y
E
x
E
Hookes law can be further extended for three-dimensional stress-strain relationships and
written in terms of the three elastic constants, E, G, and . The following equations can be used to
find the strains caused due to simultaneous action of triaxial tensile stresses:
1
x y z
E
1
y z x
E
Page 64
1
z x y
E
xy
yz
zx
xy
G
yz
G
zx
G
For an elastic isotropic material, the modulus of elasticity E, shear modulus G, and Poissons
ratio are related by
E
21
E 2G1
The bulk modulus (K) describes volumetric elasticity, or the tendency of an object's volume to
deform when under pressure; it is defined as volumetric stress over volumetric strain, and is the
inverse of compressibility. The bulk modulus is an extension of Young's modulus to three
dimensions.
For an elastic, isotropic material, the modulus of elasticity E, bulk modulus K, and Poissons ratio
are related by
E 3K1 2
3.1.5 Thermal stresses
Temperature causes bodies to expand or contract. Change in length due to increase in
temperature can be expressed as
L
L..t
Where, L is the length, (/oC) is the coefficient of linear expansion, and t (oC) is the
temperature change.
From the above equation thermal strain can be expressed as:
=
If a temperature deformation is permitted to occur freely no load or the stress will be induced in
the structure. But in some cases it is not possible to permit these temperature deformations,
which results in creation of internal forces that resist them. The stresses caused by these
internal forces are known as thermal stresses.
Page 65
When the temperature deformation is prevented, thermal stress developed due to temperature
change can be given as:
E..t
3.1.6 Thin-Walled Pressure Vessels

Cylindrical shells
0 : 1 (2t x) p(2rx) 0
Hoop stress or circumferential stress = pr/t = pd/2t
0 : 2 (2 rt ) p(2 r ) 0
2
Longitudinal stress = pr/2t = pd/4t
Page 66
Spherical shells
0 : 2 (2 rt ) p(2 r ) 0
Hoop stress = longitudinal stress =
1 2
pr
2t
Page 67
Part 3.2: Shear Force and Bending Moment
3.2.1 Shear and Moment

The shear force, V at a section of a beam is the sum of all vertical forces acting on the beam
between that section and any one of its ends. It has units of Newtons, pounds, kips, etc. Shear
force is not the same as shear stress, since the area of the object is not considered.
The direction (i.e., to the left or right of the section) in which the summation proceeds is not
important. Since the values of shear will differ only in sign for summation to the left and right
ends, the direction that results in the minimum no. of calculations should be selected.
i
sec tion _ to
one _ end
Shear is positive when there is a net upward force to the left of a section, and it is negative when
there is a net downward force to the left of the section.
Shear force sign conventions

The bending moment, M, at a section of a beam is the algebraic sum of all moments and couples
located between the section and any one of its ends.
F d
i i
sec tion _ to
one _ end
i
sec tion _ to
one _ end
Bending moments in a beam are positive when the upper surface of the beam is in compression
and the lower surface is in tension. Positive moments cause lengthening of the lower surface and
shortening of the upper surface. A useful image with which to remember this convention is to
imagine the beam smiling when the moment is positive.
Bending moment sign conventions

Page 68
3.2.2 Shear Force and Bending Moment Relationships

The change in magnitude of the shear at any point is equal to the integral of the load function,
w(x), or the area under the load diagram up to that point.
x2
V2 V1 wxdx
x1
wx
dV x
dx
The change in magnitude of the moment at any point is equal to the integral of the shear
function, or the area under the shear diagram up to that point.
x2
M 2 M1 V xdx
x1
V x
dM x
dx
3.2.3 Shear Force and Bending Moment Diagrams

Both shear force and bending moment can be described mathematically for simple loadings by
the preceding equations, but the formulas become discontinuous as the loadings become more
complex. It is more convenient to describe complex shear and moment functions graphically.
Graphs of shear and moment as functions of position along the beam are known as shear force
and bending moment diagrams.
The following guidelines and conventions should be observed when constructing a shear
diagram.
The shear at any section is equal to the sum of the loads and reactions from the section to
the left end.
The magnitude of the shear at any section is equal to the slope of the moment function at
that section.
Loads and reactions to the left of the section acting upward are positive
The shear diagram is straight and sloping for uniformly distributed loads.
The shear diagram is straight and horizontal between concentrated loads.
The shear is undefined at points of concentrated loads.
The following guidelines and conventions should be observed when constructing a bending
moment diagram. By convention, the moment diagram is drawn on the compression side of the
beam.
The moment at any section is equal to the sum of the moments and couples from the
section to the left end.
The change in magnitude of the moment at any section is the integral of the shear
diagram, or the area under the shear diagram. A concentrated moment will produce a
jump or discontinuity in the moment diagram.
Page 69
The maximum or minimum moment occurs when the shear is either zero or changes its
sign.
The moment diagram is parabolic and is curved downward for downward uniformly
distributed loads.
Note:
If the external load is not at right angles to the axis of the beam, the loading can be resolved
axially and transversely to the beam
Transverse: Components (sin ) produces B.M. and S.F.

Axial: Component (cos ) produces pull or push
If there is any internal hinge in beam , bending moment will be zero at hinge point.
Variation of S.F. and B.M. for different loadings on spans of beams:
S.No.
1
2
3
4
5
Type of loading
Point load
U.D.L.
U.V.L. or Triangular
Parabolic
Bending couple
Variation of S.F.
Rectangle
Linear
Parabolic
Cubic
No shear variation
Variation of B.M.
Inclined line for linear
Square Parabola
Cubic Parabola
Fourth degree polynomial
A vertical step at the point of
application
Page 70
Part 3.3: Stresses in Beams

3.3.1 Bending Stress
For positive bending moment, the lower surface of the beam experiences tensile stress while the
upper surface of the beam experiences compressive stress. The bending stress distribution
passes through zero at the centroid, or neutral axis, of the cross section. The distance from the
neutral axis is y; and the distance from the neutral axis to the extreme fiber (i.e., the top or
bottom surface most distant from the neutral axis) is c.
Bending stress varies with location (depth) within the beam. It is zero at the neutral axis, and
increases linearly with distance from the neutral axis, as predicted by Equation,
My
I
Figure. Bending Stress Distribution at a Section in a Beam

In the above equation, I is the centroidal area moment of inertia of the beam. The negative sign
in the equation, required by the convention that compression is negative, is commonly omitted.
Since the maximum stress will govern the design, y can be set equal to c to obtain the extreme
fiber stress.
b,max
Mc
I
This equation shows that the maximum bending stress will occur at the section where the
moment is maximum. For standard structural shapes, I and c are fixed. Therefore, for design, the
elastic section modulus S, is often used.
I
c
M
S
For a rectangular b x h section, the centroidal moment of inertia and section modulus are
Page 71
bh3
I
12
bh 2
Srec tan gular
6
Also, the strain in any fiber varies directly with its location y from the neutral axis and can be
found by the equation
y
R
Or,
b
y
E
R
The above mentioned bending stress eqn. is based on following assumptions:
The transverse sections which are plane and normal before bending remain plane and
normal to the longitudinal fibres after bending (Bernoullis Assumption).
Material is homogeneous, isotropic and obeys Hooks Law and limits of eccentricity are not
exceeded.
Every layer is free to expand or contract.
Modulus of elasticity has same value for tension and compression.
The beam is subjected to pure bending and therefore bends in an arc of a circle.
Radius of curvature is large compared to the dimensions of the cross section.
Points to remember:
Pure Bending: Only B.M. but no S.F.
Neutral Layer: The layer which does not undergo any change in length (N.A.)
Neutral axis: Line of intersection of Neutral Layer with plane of cross section. It passes through
C.G. of cross section. At this axis the strain changes its sign.
Equation of Pure Bending:
M/I=/y=E/R
Curvature = (1/ R) = (M / EI), EI = Flexural rigidity
Section Modulus (
I/c): It represents the strength of the section. Greater the value of ,
stronger will be the section.
3.3.2 Shear Stress
The shear stresses in a vertical section of a beam consist of both horizontal and transverse
(vertical) shear stresses.
The exact value of shear stress is dependent on the location, y, within the depth of the beam. The
shear stress distribution is given by equation shown below. The shear stress is zero at the top
and bottom surfaces of the beam. For a regular shaped beam, the shear stress is maximum at the
neutral axis
Page 72
xy
QV
Ib
Figure: Dimensions for Shear stress Calculations

In the above equation, I is the area moment of inertia, and b is the width or thickness of the beam
at the depth y within the beam where the shear stress is to be found. The first (or statical)
moment of the area of the beam with respect to the neutral axis, Q, is defined by,
c
Q ydA
y1
For rectangular beams, dA bdy. Then, the moment of the area A above 1ayer y is equa1 to the
product of the area and the distance from the centroidal axis to the centroid of the area.
Q y ' A'
For a rectangular beam, the equation for max, can be simplified. The maximum shear stress is 50
percent higher than the average shear stress.
max, rec tan gular
3V 3V
1.5 avg
2A 2bh
For a beam with a circular cross section, the maximum shear stress is
max,circular
4V
4V
4
avg
2
3A 3r
3
For a steel beam with web thickness tweb and depth d, the web shear stress is approximated by
avg
V
V
Aweb dtweb
Page 73
Figure. Dimensions of a Steel Beam
3.3.3 Composite Beams

A composite structure is one in which two or more different materials are used. Each material
carries part of the applied load. Examples of composite structure include steel-reinforced
concrete and timber beams with bolted-on steel plates.
Most simple composite structures can be analyzed using the method of consistent deformations,
also known as the transformation method. This method assumes that the strains are the same in
both materials at the interface between them. Although the strains are the same, the stresses in
the two adjacent materials are not equal, since stresses are proportional to the modulus of
elasticity.
The transformation method starts by determining the modulus of elasticity for each (usually two
in number) of the materials in the composite beam and then calculating the modular ratio, n.
Eweaker is the smaller modulus of elasticity.
E
E wea ker
The area of the stronger material is increased by a factor of n. The transformed area is used to
calculate the transformed composite area, Ac,t , or transformed moment of inertia, Ic,t. For
compression and tension members, the stresses in the weaker and stronger materials are
wea ker
F
Ac,t
stronger
nF
Ac,t
For beams in bending, the bending stresses in the weaker and stronger materials are
wea ker
Mcwea ker
I c ,t
stronger
nMcstronger
I c,t
Page 74
Part 3.4: Deflection of Beams

3.4.1 Double Integration Method
The curvature of a beam caused by a bending moment is given by Eq. (1), where is the radius
of curvature, c is the largest distance from the neutral axis of the beam, and max is the maximum
longitudinal normal strain in the beam.
1 max M d 2 y d
c
EI dx
dx
max
------- (1)
------- (2)
Using the preceding relationships, the deflection and slope of a loaded beam are related to the
moment M(x), shear V(x), and load w(x) by Eqs. (3) through (7).
y deflection
y'
------- (3)
dy
slope
dx
------- (4)
y''
d 2 y Mx
EI
dx2
------- (5)
y'''
d 3 y Vx
EI
dx3
------- (6)
y''''
d 4 y wx
EI
dx 4
------- (7)
If the moment function, M(x), is known for a section of the beam, the deflection at any point on
that section can be found from Eq. (8). The constants of integration are determined from the
beam boundary conditions in the table shown below.
EIy
Mxdx
------- (8)
Table. Beam Boundary Conditions

End condition
Simple Support
Built-in Support
Free end
Hinge
M
0
0
0
0
0
Page 75
When multiple loads act simultaneously on a beam, all of the loads contribute to deflection. The
principle of superposition permits the deflections at a point to be calculated as the sum of the
deflections from each individual load acting individually. Superposition can also be used to
calculate the shear and moment at a point and to draw the shear and moment diagrams. This
principle is valid as long as the normal stress and strain are related by the modulus of elasticity,
E. Generally this is true when the deflections are not excessive and all stresses are kept below
the yield point of the beam material.
Points to be remembered
Curvature
EI
/
= M
- - - - - for + ve B.M
lope dy / dx radians EI EI. dy / dx
Deflection = y, EIy =
EI y /
= dM / dx = Shear force +F
EI y /
= dF / dx = Load +
- - - - - for -ve B.M
3.4.2 Area Moment Method

Theorem 1: The angle between tangents drawn at any two points on the deflected curve is equal
to the area of M / EI diagram between the two points.
i.e., = area of M / EI diagram.
A = area of B.M.D.
Theorem 2: The intercept on a vertical line made by two tangents drawn at the two points on the
deflected curve, is equal to the moment of M / EI diagram between the two points about the
vertical line.
= distance of C.G. of B.M.D.
e.g,: (Suitable for cantilevers) from objective point of view.
Step 1: To determine slope and deflection at any point say B.
L
A
x
xL
xLx
Step 2: Draw (BMD) / (EI) i.e., M / EI

Step 3: Slope = area of (M / EI) diagram between fixed end point under consideration.
Step 4: Deflection A / EI,
M
A
B
,
xLx
L
2
Page 76
A = B.M.D area between fixed end and point under consideration.

= distance of C.G. of M/EI
from point under consideration.
3.4.3 Maxwells Law of Reciprocal Deflections:
Consider cantilever beam AB. Let C be an intermediate point. Then the deflection at C due to a
point load P at B say
, is equal to deflection at B due to a point load P at C i.e.,
A
3.4.4 Slope and deflection of beams

SL No. 1: Cantilever subjected to point load at free end
W
B
A
Maximum Bending Moment

Slope
Maximum Deflection
SL No. 2: Cantilever subjected to point load on its span
W
a
A
Page 77

Slope
(3
Maximum Deflection
SL No. 3: Cantilever subjected to uniformly distributed load.

w/unit run
B
A
) where W =
(total load on the cantilever)
Slope
Maximum Deflection
SL No. 4 Cantilever subjected to uniformly distributed load up to a certain length from fixed end
w/unit run
C
A
a
Page 78
Slope
Maximum Deflection
) where W =
)+ *
-+
SL No. 5 Cantilever subjected to uniformly distributed load up to a certain length from free end
w/unit run
a
)
B
)*
Slope
Maximum Deflection
(3
)
4
)+
SL No. 6 Cantilever subjected to a couple at free end
B
A

Slope
Maximum Deflection
Page 79
SL No.7 Cantilever subjected to linearly varying load up to a certain length
run
B

Slope
Maximum Deflection
SL No. 8 Simply supported beam subjected to point load at centre.
W
/
/
C

Slope
Maximum Deflection
Page 80
SL No.9 Simply supported beam subjected to point load on its span

W

Slope
Maximum Deflection
SL No. 10 simply supported beam with uniformly distributed load

w/unit run
B
A

Slope
where W =
( total load on the beam )

(
Page 81
Maximum Deflection
SL No.11 Simply supported beam with linearly varying load as shown

w/unit run
A
C
Slope
Maximum Deflection
( at x
0 519 from A )
SL No. 12 simply supported beam with linearly varying loads as shown

w/unit run

Page 82
Slope
Maximum Deflection
Sign conventions used :
Slope: Clockwise
Counter- clockwise
Deflection : upwards
Downward
Page 83
Part3.5: Torsion
3.5.1 Torsion
If moment is applied in a plane perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the beam (or) shaft, it
will be subjected to Torsion.
e.g.:
Shaft Transmitting Torque or power.

L beams
Portico beams
Curved beams
Close coiled springs.
Torsion formula:
T
Where T = Torque applied
= Twist of cross section
= Maximum shear stress due to torsion
R = Radius of shaft
L = Length of shaft
J = Polar moment of inertia =
=
for solid circular shaft
for Hollow circular shaft
Assumptions:
1. Plane normal sections of shaft remain plane after twisting.
Page 84
2.
3.
4.
5.
Torsion is uniform along the shaft

Material of the shaft is homogeneous, and isotropic.
Radii remain straight after torsion.
Stress is proportional to strain i.e., all the stresses are with in elastic limit.
Note:
The stress setup at any point in a cross section is one of pure shear or simple shear.
The longitudinal axis is neutral axis.
The shear stress will vary linearly from zero at the centre to maximum at the outer surface
(any point on periphery)
Distribution along vertical
Torsional Section Modulus:

:
As the value of Torsional modulus increases, the Torsional strength increases. For E.g.: A
hollow circular shaft compared to that of a solid shaft of same area, will have more
torsional strength.
For a solid circular shaft,

For a hollow circular shaft,
= Outer diameter,
= inner diameter.
Torsional Rigidity: GJ, unit: kg.
or
The torsional which produces unit twist per unit length.

Angle of Twist,
3.5.2 Torsion of shafts
Power Transmitted by a Shaft:
In SI system : Power (P) is measured in watts (W)
Page 85
where T = Average Torque in kN-m, N in rpm

. .
1 watt = 1 Joule / sec = 1 N. m/sec

1 metric H.P.
Metric System
746 watts 0.75 kW
H.P.
Where T = average torque in kg.m

Design of Shaft: To be safe against maximum permissible shear stress.
Diameter of shaft,
Composite Shafts: When two dissimilar shafts are connected together to form one shaft, the shaft
is known as composite shaft.
Shafts in Series: If the driving torque is applied at one end, and the resisting torque at the other
end, the shafts are said to have been connected in series.
( )
T
( )
For such shaft,
Both the parts carry same Torque i.e.,

Total angle of twist at fixed end is sum of separate angles of twist of two shafts.
Shafts in Parallel:
OR
Page 86
If the Torque T is applied at the junction of two shafts and resisting Torque at their remote
ends, the shafts are said to be connected in parallel.
For such a case,
T=
. .,
If both the shafts are of same material
.
Combined Bending and Torsion:

Let a shaft be subjected to a bending moment of M and twisting moment T at a sector.
Now bending stress,
Shear stress,
Principle stresses are,
2
2
2
/4)
/4)
16
16
16
Equivalent Torque: It is the twisting moment, which acting along produce the maximum shear
stress due to combined bending and Torsion.
Equivalent Bending Moment: The bending moment to produce the maximum bending stress
equal to greater principle stress .
1
(
2
Comparison of Hollow and Solid Shafts:
When the areas of solid and hollow sections are equal,
For e.g. If K
) /
0.6,
1.7
Page 87
When radius of solid shaft is equal to external radius of hollow shaft,

1
The ratio of the weight of a hollow shaft, and solid shaft of equally strength is
1
(1
) /
3.5.3 Close coiled helical spring subjected to Axial Pull (W)

Assumptions:
each turn is practically a plane at right angles to the axis of helix

stresses in the material are due to Pure Torsion
Bending couple is negligible
axial force need not be considered at a section.
Stresses at a section of a rod: A section of a rod is subjected to direct shear force (W) and a
Torque (T = WR)
Maximum Shear Stress = (
)
- (1)
,1
R = Radius of coil, d = dia of circular wire or rod.
Spring Index: (m) 2R/d,

If m is large, the effect of direct shearing force may be neglected.
16
If m is small, then maximum shear stress can be calculated by A.M. Wahls formulae that takes
account for initial curvature of the spring wire:
Max.
Twist and deflection of free end:

Twist
64
, deflection
Stiffness of Spring: Load required to produce unit deflection.
/64
Page 88
Part 3.6: Mohrs circle

3.6.1 Mohrs Circle
Mohr's circle gives us a graphic tool by which, we can compare the different stress
transformation states of a stress cube to a circle. Each different stress combination is described
by a point around the circumference of the circle.
Compare the stress cube to a circle created using the circle offset
2
x y
a ave
and
2y
x y
2
xy
2
y
yx
x-face coordinate: ( x , xy )
xy
x
xy
x
y-face coordinates: ( y , xy )
yx
-
y
y
R
(x , -xy )
x y
2
xy
2
x y
ave
+
(x , xy )
xy
Notes:
(meaning counterclockwise around the cube) is downward

- (meaning clockwise around the cube) is up on the axis
A rotation angle of on the stress cube shows up as 2 on the circle diagram and rotates in
the same direction. The largest and smallest values of are the principle stresses, 1 and 2.
The largest shear stress, max is equal to the radius of the circle, R. The center of the circle is
located at the value of the average stress, ave
If 1 2 in magnitude and direction (nature) the Mohr circle will reduce into a point and
no shear stress will be developed.
Page 89
If the plane contain only shear and no normal stress (pure shear), then origin and centre of
the circle will coincide and maximum and minimum principal stress equal and opposite.
1
, 2 -
The summation of normal stresses on any two mutually perpendicular planes remains
constant.
x
1 2
3.6.2 Applications: Thin-Walled Pressure Vessels

Cylindrical shells:
Hoop stress or circumferential stress =
Longitudinal stress =
Page 90
4
(
Spherical shells:
Hoop stress = longitudinal stress =
pd
8t
Page 91
Part 3.7: Strain Energy Methods

3.7.1 Elastic Strain Energy in Uniaxial Loading
Strain energy, also known as internal energy per unit volume stored in a deformed material. The
strain energy is equivalent to the work done by the applied force. Simple work is calculated as
the product of a force moving through a distance.
Work = force x distance = FdL

Work per volume =
FdL
=
AL
Work per unit volume corresponds to the area under the stress-strain curve.
For an axially loaded member below the proportionality limit, the total strain energy is given by,
1
P2 L
P
2
2 AE
The strain energy per unit volume is
U
2
AL 2E
3.7.2 Elastic Strain Energy in Flexural Loading

In the beam shown in the figure consider a differential element isolated by two transverse
sections at a distance dx apart. Treating this element as an axially loaded bar, where P = dA =
(My/I)dA, the energy stored in it is
N.A.
y
P
dx
dU = P2dx/2AE = M2y2/
d
(dA)2 dx/2(dA)E
y dA
Therefore, for the entire length of the beam we obtain:
M dx
2EI
Page 92
3.7.3 Elastic Strain Energy in Torsional Loading

For a circular bar of constant cross section, the strain energy stored in the body is equal to the
product of average torque and the angular deformation; that is
U = 1/2 T = T ( )
When the torque varies the result may be applied over a segment of length dx and integrated
over the length of the bar to obtain
T dx
2GJ
3.7.4 Castiglianos Theorem

It states that the deflection caused by any external force is equal to the partial derivative of the
strain energy with respect to that force.
P
Interpretation: The partial derivative of the strain energy with respect to one of the external
loads equals the displacement of the point of application of load in the direction of that load.
3.7.5 Impact or Dynamic Loading
The problem of impact is analogous to that of a falling body stopped by spring. Let us consider a
free falling body of mass m from a height h that produces a deflection in the spring.
Relationship between dynamic and static deflection can be obtained by equating the resultant
work done to the zero change in kinetic energy.
The ratio of the maximum dynamic deformation to the static deformation st can be given by
the equation
2h
This ratio is called as the impact factor.

Also the stress due to gradually applied load may be applied by the impact factor to obtain the
maximum stress:
(1
For sudden loading, free fall h does not exist i.e., h 0. i.e., a suddenly applied load (dynamic
condition), produced a deflection which is twice as great as that obtained when the load is
applied gradually.
Page 93
3.8: Columns & Struts

3.8.1 Columns & Struts
Definitions:
Columns and Stanchions

Struts
Beam
Beam column
:
:
:
:
Vertical compression members in building

compressions members in roof trusses
Jib of a crane.
Co-beam that is acted on by an axial compressive
force in addition to transversely applied loads.
Short Column: Short columns, called piers or pedestals, will fail by compression of the material.
These columns fail essentially by direct crushing at ultimate load.
Crushing load P
f . A, f
ultimate crushing stress.
Long columns: Long columns will buckle in the transverse direction that has the smallest radius
of gyration. Buckling failure is sudden, often without significant warning. If the material is wood
or concrete, the material will usually fracture (because the yield stress is low); however, if the
column is made of steel, the column will usually fail by local buckling, followed later by twisting
and general yielding failure. Intermediate length columns will usually fail by a combination of
crushing and buckling.
Radius of gyration: r
I/A
Slenderness Ratio: Effective length/least radius of gyration.

As slenderness ratio increases, permissible stress or critical stress reduces, consequently, load
carrying capacity also reduces.
Radius of gyration will be least along major axis of cross section.

e.g. for a rectangular column along yy axis
Y
Y
For a given area, Tubular section will have maximum radius of gyration.
H-Section is more efficient than I-Section.
Equilibrium of a column: A column is said to have buckled or failed when it reaches Neutral
Equilibrium.
Page 94
3.8.2 Eulers Theory of Buckling

Critical load: The load at which a long column fails is known as the critical load or Euler load. The
Euler load is the theoretical maximum load that an initially straight column can support without
transverse buckling. For column with frictionless or pinned ends, this load is given by Eulers
formula shown below.
2 EI
Pcr 2
L
--------- (1)
The corresponding column stress is given by the equation shown below. This stress cannot
exceed the yield strength of the column material.
cr
Pcr
2 E
A L 2

r
] --------- (2)
L is the longest unbraced column length. If a column is braced against buckling at some point
between its two ends, the column is known as a braced column, and L will be less than the full
column height.
The quantity L/r is known as the slenderness ratio. Long columns have high slenderness ratios.
The smallest slenderness ratio for which Eq. (2) is valid is the critical slenderness ratio, which
can be calculated from the materials yield strength and modulus of elasticity. Typical
slenderness ratios range from 80 to 120. The critical slenderness ratio becomes smaller as the
compressive yield strength increases.
Most columns have two radii of gyration, rx and ry, and therefore, have two slenderness ratios.
The largest slenderness ratio will govern the design.
The smallest force at which a buckled shape is possible. Prior to this load the column remains
straight. The columns buckle in the plane of the major axis of the cross section as shown below.
Y
X
X
Page 95
Assumptions:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Column is initially perfectly straight and is axially loaded.

Section of column is uniform.
The material is perfectly elastic, homogeneous, isotropic and obeys hooks law.
Length of column is very large compared to lateral dimension.
Direct stress is small compared to bending stress corresponding to buckling condition.
Self weight of column is ignorable.
The column will fail by buckling alone.
Effective length of columns:

Effective length and critical loads for various boundary conditions compared to a column whose
both ends are hinged.
L = Eff. Length
Boundary Condition
1. Both ends hinged
I = actual length
Eff. Length (L)
L
Critical load
EI/L
L/2
EI/L
L/2
EI/L
2. Both ends fixed

L
3. One end fixed and

other hinged
L
2L
EI/4L
EI/L
4. One end fixed and

other end free
L
5. One end fixed, at

other end only lateral
displacement and no
rotation
Page 96
6. One end pinned, at

other only lateral
displacement no
rotation
7. One end fixed, at

other end lateral
displacement and
partial rotation.
2L
EI/4L
1.5L
EI/2.5L
Limitations of Eulers formula:

Eulers formula can also be written as
E/(L/r)
As and E are constant for a particular material, Eulers formula is valid for a particular range of
slenderness ratio, for e.g. for mild steel whose = 3300 Kg/cm and E = 2.1 10 Kg/cm
Euler formula is not valid for slenderness ratio less than 80.
Eulers formula is valid only up to proportional limit i.e., in inelastic zone, the formulae are not
valid
Note:
i) The relation between slenderness ratio and corresponding critical stress is
hyperbolic
ii) According to Euler formulae the critical load does not depend upon strength
property of material the only material property involved is the elastic modules E
which physically represents the stiffness characteristics of the material.
3.8.3 Rankines formula
It is empirical formula
Takes into account both direct crushing (Pc) load and Euler critical load (P ).
1
1
1
i. e. ,
P
P
P
P .P
P
P
P
Basic Formula:
.
P
( / )
Where
Rankines constant
L = eff. Length
yield stress.
Rankines Co-efficient: is independent of geometry and end conditions, can be modified to
incorporate imperfections
Page 97
Material
Mild steel
Wrought Iron
Cast Iron
3200
2500
5500
Rankines Constant
1/7500
1/9000
1/1600
Rankines formula is valid for any type of column

No limitations for slenderness ratio.
Page 98
Thermodynamics
Part 4: Thermodynamics
Part 4.1: Basic Thermodynamics
4.1.1 Thermodynamic systems
Thermodynamic system is a quantity of matter or region in space considered for the analysis of a
problem.
Surroundings: Everything external to the system.
Boundary: It separates system and surroundings
Boundary
System
Surroundings
Classification of system:
Open system: Both energy and mass can transfer across the boundary e.g., Steam turbine,
centrifugal pump.
Energy in
Mass out
Mass in
Energy out
Closed system: Energy transfer occurs across the boundary. No mass transfer across the
boundary
Energy out
Energy in
e.g. Gas compressed in a piston-cylinder assembly
Page 99
Cylinder
Thermodynamics
Gas
Piston
Thermal conductor
Isolated system: Neither mass nor energy transfers across the boundary e.g. Universe
Mass Transfer
X
Energy
Transfer
X
Thermodynamic property: Any characteristic of a system by which its physical condition can be
described, eg. Pressure, temperature, volume, etc.
Thermodynamic state: All the properties have definite values.
Change of state: Any operation in which one or more of the properties of the system changes.
Path of change of state: The succession of states passed through during a change of state.
4.1.2 Thermodynamic Processes
Process: When path is completely specified, the change of state is called process.
Types of thermodynamic properties
a) Intensive properties independent of mass eg. Pressure, temperature, density.
b) Extensive properties depends on the mass of the system eg. Volume, energy etc.
Thermodynamic equilibrium should satisfy the following.
a) Mechanical equilibrium
b) Thermal equilibrium.
c) Chemical equilibrium
Quasi static process: The departure of the state of the system from the thermodynamic
equilibrium is infinitely small.
The quasi static process is an infinite slow process.
Page 100
Thermodynamics
All are in
thermodynamic
equilibrium
1
P
2
V processes):
Thermodynamic processes (non-flow
a) Constant pressure or Isobaric process:
P=C
W = p v
V
b) Constant volume process or Isochoric process :
2
V=C
P
1
V
c) Isothermal (constant temperature) process:
T=C
1
P
2
W=
d) Reversible Adiabatic or Isentropic process:

P
constant
Page 101
Thermodynamics
1
P
=C
2
V
e) Polytropic process (generalized process)
P
const
n index of expansion
1
P
=C
2
V
n=
Representation of thermodynamic processes on P V diagram:

C
C
=C
=C
V=c
V
Thermodynamic Process
Constant volume (V = C)
Constant pressure (P = C )
Isothermal (T = C)
Polytrophic (P
c
Reversible adiabatic (P
C
Index of expansion (n)
0
1
1< n < 1.25
(= 1.4 )
Page 102
Thermodynamics
4.1.3 Zeroth law, First law & Second law of thermodynamics

Zeroth law of thermodynamics (ZLTD):
-
Definition: When a body A is in thermal equilibrium with a body B, and also separately with
a body C, then B and C will be in thermal equilibrium with each other.
ZLTD is the basis for temperature measurement
A reference body used for quantitave measurement of temperature is called thermometer
A certain physical characteristic of thermometer which changes with change in temperature
is called thermometer property.
C
If t
t
Then t
First law of thermodynamics (FLTD):

FLTD is postulated by J.P. Joule
It is law of conservation of energy (energy can neither be created nor be destroyed)
Energy is of 2 types
1. Energy in transit
2. Energy in storage
e.g. Heat & work
e.g. Internal energy
For a closed system undergoing a cyclic process, FLTD states that
For a closed system undergoing non cyclic process, FLTD:

+ U
For a cyclic process U 0 (i.e.: U = constant)
Note: Q heat supplied/liberated
W= work done
U- internal Energy
-
As per FLTD, heat (Q) and work (W) are mutually convertible
00kJ of
00 kJ of
00kJ of
00kJ of
Sign convention of heat and work:

Heat supplied to the system (+ve)
Heat liberated from the system (-ve)
Page 103
Thermodynamics
+ve
ve
Work done by the system (+ve)
Work done on the system (-ve)
ve
+ve
Perpetual motion machine of first kind (PMM1)is a fictitious machine which gives continuous
output without any input. It violates FLTD
Q=0
PMM1
W
FLTD for a non cyclic process (non-flow process)
U
1
P
2
V
FLTD for a steady flow process
Steady flow properties of the system are constant with respect to time.
Flow energy or flow work: work done by the fluid on itself to cause the fluid flow.
Flow work = PV kJ
Flow work is a point function
Enthalpy (H): H= (U+PV) kJ
Where, U internal energy(kJ)
PV flow work (kJ).
Specific enthalpy, h= (u+pv) kJ/kg
Where u specific internal energy (kJ/kg
Page 104
Thermodynamics
pv = flow work per unit mass (kJ/kg)

Steady Flow Energy Equation (SFEE):
Control Volume
(1)
(2)
,
(3)
,
(4)
Control Surface
Fig. SFEE
m
C
mass flow rate kg s)

ensity kg m .
velocity m s
temp or 0K)
SFEE continued
Mass balance:
m = constant
m + m
m + m
(From Fig. SFEE)
In general,
. m
. m
mass flow rate at inlet
mass flow rate at outlet
Continuity equations:
m =
Where A = Cross-sectional area m
C = velocity (m/s)
v = specific volume (m kg)
= density (m kg)
m =
Energy balance:
[ otal Energy ]
[ otal Energy ]
Page 105
Thermodynamics
(1)
(2)
(1)
(2)
datum
+ m *
Where
m *
+ m *
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
m[
+ (
)+
- - - - - SFEE
m[
+ (
)+
- - - - - SFEE
and
Applications of SFEE
(i)
Boiler Condenser
HPS(
HPW(
Boiler
Page 106
Thermodynamics
LPS(
LPW (
Condenser
=0
C
HPW High Pressure Water

HPS High Pressure Steam
(ii)
LPW Low Pressure Water

LPS Low Pressure Steam
Turbine/Compressor
Turbine
Compressor
LPF(
HPF(
LPF(
q
C
HPF(
0
C
HPF high pressure fluid

LPF - low pressure fluid.
Page 107
(iii)
Thermodynamics
Nozzle /Diffuser
Nozzle
(1)
Diffuser
(2)
(2)
(1)
h C
(2)
(1)
(1)
(2)
h
C
q
w
h
C
h
C
h
C
0
0
SFEE: For Nozzle

(h
h )+ C
C
C
(h
h )
i.e. gain in kE = drop in enthalpy
C + h
exit velocity, C
h
(h
h )+
(h
h )= C
C
gain in enthalpy = drop in KE
where C
exit velocity, m/s
h
h ) = enthalpy drop, J/kg
In general, C
C
C
h m s
h
= 000 h
h where h an h are given in kJ/kg
C
. h
h
for a gas nozzle h C
)
where C
specific heat k
C
(i) SFEE for a throttling process:

q
0
=0
C
C
FEE
h
h
0
h
h
Throttling process is also called is isenthalpic process.
Page 108
Thermodynamics
(ii) SFEE for a water pump:

(2)
(2)
(1)
(1)
q
C
h
0
C
h
= g(
i.e. work input = increase in P.E
(vi) SFEE for a heat exchanger

q
0
0
FEE h
h
0
Increase in enthalpy of cold fluid = decrease in enthalpy of heat fluid
h
h
m C t
t =m C
m
mass flow rates of hot and cold fluids respectively

C C
spacific heats
t t
temperatures
Second law of thermodynamics:
Also calle as law of egra ation of energy
Kelvin Planck Statement: It is impossible for a heat engine to produce net work in a complete
cycle if it exchanges heat only with bodies at a single fixed temperature.
Page 109
Thermodynamics
Impossible
Heat Engine
W
HE
i.e. (W<
o heat engine (HE) is 100% efficient
PMM 2 fictitious heat engine with 100% efficiency
Clausius statement: It is impossible to construct a device, which operating in a cycle, will
produce no effect other than the transfer of heat from a cooler to a hotter body
Impossible
HP/K+1
Heat pump (HP)/refrigerator

The performance of heat pump or refrigerator is represented by its COP (coefficient of
performance)
Page 110
Thermodynamics
Part 4.2: Properties of pure substances

4.2.1 Properties of pure substances
A substance that is homogeneous and invariable in chemical composition in all of its three
phases (solid, liquid and gases) is called pure substance.
E.g. Water steam mixture
Atmospheric air
Combustion Products of a fuel.
Heat supplied: it causes
a) Change in temperature without phase change sensible heat
b) Change in phase at constant temperature latent heat
Phase diagrams:
(f)
CP
(e)
T
(d)
(c)
2
1
(a)
3 (b)
V
(a) - Saturated liquid curve (SLC)
(b) - Saturated vapour curve (SVC)
(c) - vapour dome
(d) - under cooled liquid.
(e) - Super heated vapour zone
(f) - Gaseous Zone
------- saturated liquid states
3 3 3 3 ------ saturated vapour states
CP --- Critical Point.
Critical point: Water changes its phase directly to vapour with no distinction between liquid and
vapour phases.
-
At critical point, change in enthalpy, change in specific volume etc. are zero
At critical point (for water) pressure, p
0. ar
Temperature,
3 .
Page 111
Thermodynamics
Triple point: the state at which all three phases solid, liquid and gas exist in equilibrium is called
triple point.
For water, triple point is
T = 273.16K
P = 4.587mm of Hg
Dryness fraction: Wet steam characterized by dryness fraction.
where m
mass of vapour
m
mass of liqui
0
x
0
00 liqui
x
00 vapour
Mollier Diagram:
Constant pressure lines
Constant dryness fraction lines

(quality lines)
.
s
h enthalpy (kJ/kg)
s entropy (kJ/kg K )
specific Volume(m kg
Sublimation: Solid directly converts into vapour.
Steam Tables: Two types
a) Pressure entry
b) Temperature entry
Properties for pure substance (water)
a) Wet steam:
(iii)
(iv)
specific volume of dry saturated steam (directly available from steam tables )
ryness fractio
h= h + xh
Page 112
(v)
Thermodynamics
s=s +xs
where
h s
for saturate liquid
h s
for ry saturate steam
b) Superheated steam (
V=
h = h +C
s = s + C ln *
where
superheated steam temperature, Kelvin
saturated steam temperature, Kelvin
C
specific heat of steam kJ/kg k
Note: internal energy, u = (h PV) kJ/kg
Page 113
Thermodynamics
Part 4.3: Irreversibility & Availability

4.3.1 Availability and irreversibility
s
} reversi le process
} irreversi le process
entropy generated in the process

0
irreversi le process
0
reversi le process
= lost work or lost heat = Irreversibility (I)

Irreversibility: (I)
I=
for heat engines
I=
for compressor/ refrigerator
Available Energy (AE) or EXERGY:

Maximum work that can be obtained from the given heat source.
AE=Q*
+
T
(A E)
T0
(U E)
S
AE=Q*
Unavailable Energy (UV) or ANERGY:

UE =
Anergy: Minimum heat losses that are to be suffered during energy conversion process.
4.3.2 Ideal or perfect gases
Ideal gas: * Inter molecular forces are negligible
* O eys all erfect gas Laws at low pressure an high temperatures.
Page 114
Thermodynamics
Perfect gas Laws:

(a) Boyles Law V
at T = const
(b) Charless Law V T at P = const
V
= const = R
PV = RT - characteristic gas equation
P Pressure (Pa)
v Specific volume (
R characteristic gas constant (J/kg K)
T Temperature (K)
For m kg of gas
PV = mRT
(c) Regnauts Law
C C are constant for a given gas
C specific heat at constant pressure
C specific heat at constant volume
(d) Joules Law
u = f(T) only
h = f(T) only
where u = specific internal energy (J/kg)

h= specific enthalpy (J/kg)
(e) Avoga ros hypothesis It states that equal volumes of different gases at same pressure
and temperature contain equal no of molecules.
- At NTP 22.4136
of any perfect gas has its mass equal to its molecular weight in kg.
- In a gram of perfect gas, there are 6.023
0 molecules.
Avogadro Number, A = 6.023
Universal Gas Constant:

PV = mRT - - - - - - - - (1)
Where R = characteristic gas constant. Its value changes from gas to gas.
- - - - - - - - - (2)
PV = nR
= universe gas constant. Its value is constant for all the gases.
Where R
Page 115
.3
Thermodynamics
kJ kg mol K
In equation (2) n = no. of moles =

= MR Relation between R and R
R
Specific heat (C):
C=
kJ
kJ
Units: kg K or kg
For solids only one specific heat
For liquids only one specific heat
For gases two specific heats
1. C (specific heat at constant pressure)
2. C ( specific heat at constant volume)
C
and C
Change in enthalpy
H = mC
-
|
Change in internal energy
mC
Relation between C C
C
C
R
C
C
adiabatic index
C
C
. for diatomic gases
= 1.67 for monoatomic gases
= 1.33 for triatomic gases.
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
4.3.3 Real gases

a) Compressibility factor, Z =
Where, molar specific volume
If
Z=1,P =R
a perfect gas
Z 1,
a real gas
I.
Z>1
Inter molecular forces are repulsive

II.
Z<1
Page 116
Thermodynamics
Inter molecular forces attractive

In general 0.95
.05
a) Vander waals equation
] R
* + + [
a
is a constant. It is called forces of cohesion.
another constant. It calle as co volume.

The values of a & b have been obtained using kinetic theory of gases.
Page 117
Thermodynamics
Part 4.4: Work, Heat & Entropy

4.4.1 Work & Heat
For any closed system, non- flow work is given by
W = p , applicable for any process.
Change in internal energy uring any process U
mC
Work and Heat calculations for various thermodynamic processes are:

Constant pressure or Isobaric process:
Work done, W = p = p (
Change in internal energy u
As per FLTD,
mC (
P=C
1
W = p v
V
U +
= mC
Q = mC
+p
)
Constant volume process or Isochoric process:
V=C
P
1
V
W =p v
U = mC
Page 118
Thermodynamics
U+
= mC
Isothermal (constant temperature) process:
T=C
1
P
2
W=
W =p
mR ln ( )
= mRT ln ( )
U = mC
Q = mRT ln ( )
Reversible Adiabatic or Isentropic process:
P
constant
1
P
=C
2
V
W =p
For an isentropic process
0
0
QW=
[ ]
[ ]
Page 119
Thermodynamics
Polytropic process (generalized process)

P
const
n index of expansion
1
P
=C
2
n=
W=
U = mC
U +
mC
[ ]
[ ]
0 in polytropic process.
4.4.2 Heat Engine
A heat engine cycle is a thermodynamic cycle in which there is net heat transfer to the system
and a net work transfer from the system. The system which executes a heat engine cycle is called
a heat engine.
The function of a heat engine cycle is to produce work continuously at the expense of heat input
to the system. So the net work done W and heat input Q are of primary interest.
The efficiency of a heat engine is defined as
et ork Output of the cycle
otal heat input to the system
Carnot Cycle:
1
2
4
3
V
1-2: Isothermal expansion

Heat supplied to the system, q
2-3: Isentropic expansion
Page 120
Work done by the system,
Thermodynamics
3-4 : Isothermal expansion
Heat rejected by the system, q
. s
4-1 : Isentropic compression
Work done on the system,
Carnot efficiency,
Where
source temp Kelvin

- Sink temp, Kelvin
In general representation
source temp K
sink temp K
Carnot cycle consists of 4 reversible processes.

Carnot cycle is an ideal cycle.
No other heat engine has more efficiency than heat engine working on carnot cycle
Heat engines connected in series:
(A) For equal work output (

(B) For equal efficiency (
),
Page 121
Thermodynamics
Important note Always convert temperature to Kelvin units.

4.4.3 Entropy
-
It is outcome of SLTD
The entropy of the universe always increases and it represents the degree of irreversibility
associated with the process.
Entropy of the system increases upon heating and decreases upon cooling.
Clasius theorem: When closed system undergoes a cyclic process.
0
R Reversi le
i.e,
0 for unit mass
. s
=
s
For closed system
1
2
Process
a) V = C
change in entropy
s
s
C log
b) P = C
C log
c) T = C
R log
d) Adiabatic
e) Isentropic (Reversible adiabatic)
s
s
s
0
s =0
Clasius inequality: It states that when a closed system undergoes a cyclic process,
a)
0 for irreversi le cycle
b)
impossi le
c)
0 reversible
Principle of increase of entropy
0
q 0 for the universe

[s]
0
i.e. 0 irreversi le process
0 reversi le process
impossi le process
Page 122
Thermodynamics
Part 4.5: Psychrometrics

The science which investigates the thermal properties of moist air, considers the measurement
and control of the moisture content of air, and studies the affects of atmospheric moisture on
material an human comfort may properly e terme sychrometrics.
4.5.1 Dew Point Temperature:
Suppose a mixture of air-water vapour which is not saturated is cooled at constant pressure
the partial pressure of water vapour remains constant till it is equal to the saturation
pressure of water. With continued cooling, the water vapour begins to condense. The
constant pressure cooling of a mixture is represented on a T-S diagram in Fig.
P = constant
T
If a mixture of air-water vapour is cooled at constant pressure, the temperature at which

water vapour begins to condense is called the dew point temperature.
At dew point the partial pressure of water vapour in the mixture is equal to the saturation
pressure of water.
The composition of air-water vapour mixture is usually specified in terms of specific
humidity or relative humidity.
Specific Humidity: Specific humidity (SH) or humidity ratio is defined as the ratio of mass of
water vapour to the mass of dry air in the mixture.
0.
0.
Where m m = Mass of water vapour and dry air, respectively

p p = Partial pressure of water vapour and air in the mixture, respectively
P = Total pressure.
Relative Humidity: Relative humidity (RH) is defined as the ratio of the partial pressure of the
water vapour in the mixture to the saturation pressure (p ) of water at the mixture temperature.
0.
Adiabatic Saturation: Consider the steady flow of an unsaturated air-water vapour mixture
through an insulated device as shown in fig. called adiabatic saturator. Assume the equilibrium
is attained between the water and air-water vapour mixture in the device and hence saturated
air-water vapour leaves the device.
Page 123
Unsaturated air
water Vapour
mixture
m
m
Thermodynamics
saturated air water

Vapour mixture
m
m
Liquid water
Consider the device as control volume and apply material and energy balances to get
Mass balance of air: m
m
Mass balance for water: m + m
m
Energy balance: m h + m h + m h
m h
+ m
These equations can be solved to obtain

h
Where,
m = mass flow rate of dry air;
m = mass flow rate of water vapour / water
h = specific enthalpy of dry air;
h = specific enthalpy of water vapour / water
Subscripts 1, 2, 3 denote the conditions at the points shown in fig. If air is treated as an ideal gas,
we can write (h
h
C
. Assume that liquid water enters the device at the same
temperature as the air leaving the device. That is
.
Then, h
h
h
h
h
an h
h
h
h
Thus,
C
+
h
The specific humidity and relative humidity of an air-water vapour mixture can be measured
with an adiabatic saturator.
For all practical purposes, the adiabatic saturation temperature (T3) does not depend upon
the temperature at which liquid water enters the device
The adiabatic saturation temperature (T3) does not depend upon the temperature at which
liquid water enters the device
The adiabatic saturation temperature (T3) depends only on the conditions (T1, SH1) of the
entering air.
Psychrometric Chart:
A graphical representation of the solution of the adiabatic saturation relation is called

psychrometric chart.
The enthalpy of air-water vapour mixture is expressed on the basis of dry air and is given by
h
h + h
*
That is h represents the enthalpy of 1 kg dry air and the enthalpy of the accompanying
water vapour.
In the psychrometric chart, the enthalpies of air and water vapour are measured with
reference to 0. ome psychrometric charts use 0 as reference state for air an 3 as
reference state for water vapour.
Page 124
Thermodynamics
The adiabatic saturation relation when expressed in terms of enthalpy reduces to h

h .
That is during adiabatic saturation h* remains constant
The lines of constant h* coincide with the lines of constant wet bulb temperature, because h
depends on
= (=
) only. Once
is specified p is fixed because
p and hence
is fixed.
4.5.2 Applications of Psychrometry

The field of air conditioning uses various processes such as heating, cooling, humidification and
adiabatic mixing of air-water vapour mixtures. These processes can be easily analysed with the
help of a psychrometric chart.
Adiabatic Mixing of Streams: Consider the steady flow of steams 1 and 2 into the adiabatic mixer
shown in Fig. The mixture leaves the device as stream 3. Considering the device as a control
volume, one can write the following material and energy balance equations
Mass balance for air : m + m
ma
Mass balance for water : m
+ m
Energy balance : m h + m h
m h
These equations can be solved to obtain
The adiabatic mixing process is shown in Fig.
Adiabatic
mixer
Control
volume
RH
Dry bulb Temp ()
Dehumidification: If a mixture of air-water vapour is cooled at constant pressure, the specific

humidity of the mixture does not undergo any change till the dew point temperature is reached,
but its relative humidity increases. Further cooling results in condensation of water vapour and
the specific humidity decreases. A schematic diagram of a dehumidifier is shown in Fig.
Page 125
Heating coil
Refrigerant
Humid
air
1
Thermodynamics
Cooling unit
Dehumidified
air
4
Heating unit
Condensed
water
3
Dehumidification of air-water vapour mixture can be achieved by cooling the mixture below
its dew point temperature, allowing some water to condense, and then reheating the mixture
to the desired temperature
For cooling the mixture, chilled water can be sprayed into the mixture or the mixture can be
made to pass over cooling coils through which a cold refrigerant is circulated.
The dehumidification process is represented on a psychrometric chart in Fig. below.
*h
O/kg
Specific Humidity(SH) kg
dry air
h kJ kg ry air
h
R
R
*h
2
23
Dry bulb emp.
41
C
Humidification with Cooling: If an unsaturated air-water vapour mixture is made to flow through
porous pads soaked in water, the mixture gets saturated. Since the process occurs without any
energy exchange as heat with the surroundings, it is adiabatic. The energy required for the
evaporation of water comes from air-water vapour mixture resulting in a decrease in its
temperature.
The process of humidification with cooling is extensively used in evaporative coolers or

desert cooers which are used for cooling homes in hot and dry climates.
The rate at which water is evaporated in the evaporative cooler is given by
m
m
Page 126
Thermodynamics
where,
and
denote the specific humidity of air-water vapour mixture at the inlet and
outlet of the cooler, respectively.
A schematic diagram of an evaporative cooler is shown in fig. And the process of

humidification with cooling is shown on a psychrometric chart.
Water
Dry air
Cool and humid

air;
Porous pad
2
1
Dry bulb
Degree of Saturation: The water vapour exists at the dry bulb temperature T of the mixture and
partial pressure . Consider now that more water vapour is added in this Control volume V at
temperature T itself. The partial pressure will go on increasing with the addition of of water
vapour until it reaches a value p corresponding to state 2, after which it cannot increase further
as p is the saturation pressure or maximum possible pressure of water at temperature T. The
thermodynamic state of water vapour is now saturated at point 2. The air containing moisture in
such a state is called saturated air.
Page 127
Thermodynamics
2
3
T
Saturated water
Vapour in saturated
Super heated water vapour

in unsaturated Air
Air
In this state the air is holding the maximum amount of water vapour (the specific humidity being
, corresponding to the partial pressure p ) at temperature T of the mixture. The maximum
possible specific humidity,
at temperature T is thus
s
0.
/ (p
p )]
he ratio of the actual specific humi ity

to the specific humi ity
of saturated air at
temperature is terme as the egree of saturation enote y the sym ol . hus
[
Relative Humidity: Relative humidity denoted by the symbol or RH is defined as the ratio of the
mass of water vapour m in a certain volume of moist air at a given temperature mass of water
vapour m in the same volume of saturated air at the same temperature. Thus if
and are
the specific volumes of water vapour in the actual moist air and saturated air respectively at
temperate T and in volume V, at points 1 and 2 respectively
Using the perfect-gas relationship between points 1 and 2,

v
v or
We have
It can be shown that
0.
0.
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - (1)
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - (2)
Page 128
Thermodynamics
From eqs 1 and 2 we get
Enthalpy of Moist Air: The enthalpy of moist air h is equal to the sum of the enthalpies of dry air
and associated water vapour, i.e (h = h + h ) per kg of dry air, where h is the enthalpy of the
dry air part and h is the enthalpy of the water vapour part. h
C t
.005 t kJ/kg
C A
Reference state
S
Again taking the reference state enthalpy as zero for saturate liqui at 0 the enthalpy of the
water vapour part, at point A is expressed as
h
where C
h
t + h
specific heat of liquid water, t
+C
t kJ kg
dew point temperature
latent heat of vaporization at DTP, C
specific heat of superheated vapour
Taking the specific heat of liquid water as 4.1868 kJ/kg K) and that of water vapour as 1.88
kJ kg K in the range 0 to 0 we have
h
t + h
+ .
Accordingly, enthalpy of water vapour at A, at DPT of t and DBT of t, can be determined more
conveniently by the following two methods:
i) h
ii) h
0 + C
Thus, employing the second expression an taking the latent heat of vaporization of water at 0
as 2501 kJ/kg, we obtain the following empirical expression for the enthalpy of the water vapour
part
h
50 + .
.005 +
t kJ kg
500 + .
. .
Page 129
Thermodynamics
Humid Specific Heat:
+ ( )0
+ ( ) 0
where
+
.005 + .
kJ kg .a. K
umi specific heat is the specific heat of moist air +
kg per kg of ry air. he term
C t governs the change in enthalpy of moist air with temperature at constant specific
humi ity an the term
h 0 governs the change in enthalpy with the change in
specific humidity, i.e. due to the addition or removal of water vapour in air.
ince the secon term .
is very small compare to the first term 1.005, an
approximated value of C of 1.0216 kJ/kg d.a.) (K) may be taken for all practical
purposes in air-conditioning calculations.
Thermodynamic wet bulb temperature or temperature of adiabatic saturation:
For any state of unsaturated moist air, there exists a temperature t* at which the air
becomes adiabatically saturated by the evaporation of water into air, at exactly the same
temperature t*
The leaving air is saturated at temperature t*. The specific humidity is correspondingly
increase to *. The enthalpy is increased from a given initial value h to the value h*.
he weight of water a e per kg of ry air is * - which a s energy to the moist air
of amount equal to *- h , where h * is the specific enthalpy of the injected water at t*.
Adiabatic
Enclosure
Outlet air
Inlet Air
t
t*
t*
*
h*
Feed Water
= (* - ) per kg of Dry air
Therefore, since the process is strictly adiabatic, we have by energy balance

+
Let us compare the expressions for the wet ul temperature t an the temperature of
adiabatic saturation t*, i.e.
It follows that if k
Or f k C
L
C
D
Page 130
Thermodynamics
hen t t* i.e. the two temperatures are equal. he imensionless quantity f k C is

called the Lewis number. The air and water vapour mixture at low pressures, this
number is approximately equal to unity (L
0.9 5 .
The measurable wet bulb temperature is equal to the thermodynamic wet bulb
temperature.
For any other kind of gas and vapour mixture these would not be the same
In the case of air and water vapour mixture, the two temperatures are exactly the same.
Mixing with Condensation: When large quantity of cold air mixes with a quantity of warmer air at
a high
1
1
4
Adiabatic Mixer
2
relative humidity, there is a possibility of condensation of water vapour, the mixture will then
consist of saturated air and the condensate.
2
t
It the DB of the mixture falls elow 0 the con ensate may eventually freeze.
If may be noted that due to condensation, the specific humidity of the mixture
, will be
reduced to below . Correspondingly, the temperature of the air would be increased to t from
t due to the release of the latent heat of the condensate. Now, if
represents the mass of the
condensate per unit mass of the mixture, we have by moisture and energy balance
or
[ m
+ m
+ m
Page 131
and
m h + m h
or
[ m
h + m
Thermodynamics
m h
h
+ m
Where h is the enthalpy of the condensate at temperature t of the mixture. The two variables
to be solved are t and . By assuming different values of t and substituting for , h and h ,
the two equations can be solved by trial and error to obtain he final state after mixing.
Sensible Heat Process-Heating or Cooling:
t
m h
h
+
.005 + .
where C is the humid specific heat. This heat, denoted by the subscript S, is called the sensible
heat. If a building to be air conditioned r receives or loses heat due to transmission or other
reasons, it is supposed to have sensible heat load.
m denotes the mass flow rate of dry air. Generally the flow rate of dry air is measured in
terms of cubic meters of air per minute (cmm). Then the mass flow rate of dry air can be
calculated from
m
where
is the volume flow rate of air. Expressing this in cmm, we have
m
cmm
0 kg . a. s
For the purpose of calculation stan ar air is taken at 0 an 50 percent R . he ensity
of standard air is approximated to 1.2 kg/m d.a. The value of humid specific heat is taken as
1.0216 kJ/ (kg d.a.) K. we obtain
[ cmm .
.0
0] t 0.0 0 cmm t k
Latent Heat Process-Humidification or Dehumidification:
When the state of air is altered along the t = constant line, such as BC moisture in the form of
vapour has to be transferred to change the humidity ratio of the air.
This transfer of moisture is given by
)
Page 132
Thermodynamics
Because of this change in the humidity ratio, there is also a Change in enthalpy of the air
given by (h
h ). In air-conditioning practice this change in enthalpy due to the change in
the Humidity ratio is considered to cause a latent-heat transfer
Given by
m h
h
500
If the building gains or loses moisture, it is supposed to have a latent-heat load. A gain of
moisture will require the condensation of moisture for the dehumidification of air in the
conditioning apparatus, and hence a cooling load. On the other hand, a loss of moisture will
necessitate the evaporation of water for the humidification of air in the apparatus and hence
a heating load.
[ cmm .
50
0]
50
Total Heat Process:
The change in temperature causes a sensible heat load given by

m h
h
m C t
t
The change in the humidity ratio causes a moisture transfer given by
m
And a latent heat load given by
m h
h
m h +
+
m h
h
m [C t
t +h
]
again, expressing the mass flow rate in cmm, we get
[
.
0]
0.0
Which is the same as

0.0 0 + 50
Page 133
Thermodynamics
Sensible Heat Factor (SHF): The ratio of the sensible heat transfer to the total heat transfer is
termed as the sensible heat factor. Thus SHF
+
SHF
[ h
h
[0.0 0
h
h + h
h ]
h
h h
0.0 0 + 50 ]
0.0 0 0.0
The process line AC is called the sensible heat factor line or process or condition line.
A zero SHF line is vertical on the psychrometric chart and implies no sensible heat transfer. An
SHF of 0.75 to 0.8 is quite common in air conditioning practice in a normal dry climate. A lower
value of SHF, such as 0.65, implies a high latent head load, which is quite common
+
here tan
e see tan is the slope of the

function of SHF
+ tan
F 1]
F line AC on the sychrometric chart which is purely a
(1 SHF)
C
SHF
Page 134
Thermodynamics
Part 4.6: Power Engineering

4.6.1 STEAM NOZZLES
A steam nozzle may be defined as a passage of varying cross section, through which heat
energy of steam is converted to kinetic energy. Its major function is to produce a steam jet with
high velocity to drive steam turbine. A turbine nozzle performs two functions:
(i) It transforms a portion of energy of steam (obtained from steam generating unit) into
kinetic energy.
(ii) In the impulse turbine it directs the steam jet of high velocity against blades, which are
free to move in order to convert kinetic energy into shaft work. In reaction turbines the
nozzles discharge high velocity steam. The reactive force of the steam against the nozzle
produces motion and work is obtained.
Convergent
part
Divergent
part
Entry
Exit
Throat
Fig. Convergent divergent nozzle.
The cross section of a nozzle at first tapers to a smaller section (to allow for changes which
occur due to changes in velocity, specific volume and dryness fraction as the steam expands); the
smallest section being known as throat, and then it diverges to a large diameter. The nozzle
which converges to throat and diverges afterwards is known as convergent divergent nozzle.
In convergent nozzle there is no divergence after the throat.
In a convergent divergent nozzle, because of the higher expansion ratio, addition of divergent
portion produces steam at higher velocities as compared to a convergent nozzle.
Velocity of steam at the exit of nozzle, C = 44.2 h
where h = heat drop during expansion of steam.
Discharge through the Nozzle and Conditions for its Maximum Value:
Let p = initial pressure of steam
v = initial volume of 1 kg of steam at pressure p
p
steam pressure at the throat
v = volume of 1 kg of steam at pressure p m
A = cross sectional area of nozzle at throat (m
Page 135
Thermodynamics
C = velocity of steam (m/s)

The steam flowing through the nozzle follows approximately the equation given below:
pv = constant
where, n = 1.135 for saturated steam
and = 1.3 for superheated steam
[For wet steam, the value of n can e calculate y Dr. enners equation
n = 1.035 + 0.1 x where x is the initial dryness fraction of steam]
The discharge through the nozzle is maximum when critical pressure ratio, i.e.,
(
The value of maximum discharge is given by

m
An ( ) (
4.6.2 STEAM TURBINES

Definitions and Formulae
1. The steam turbine is a prime mover in which the potential energy of the steam is
transformed into kinetic energy, and latter in its turn is transformed into the mechanical
energy of rotation of the turbine shaft.
2. The most important classification of steam turbines is as follows:
(i) Impulse turbines
(ii) Reaction turbines
(iii)
Combination of impulse and reaction turbines.
3. The main difference between Impulse and Reaction turbines lies in the way in which
steam is expanded while its moves through them. In the former type, steam expands in
the nozzle and its pressure does not change as it moves over the blades while in the
latter type the steam expands continuously as it passes over the blades and thus there is
a gradual fall in pressure during expansion.
4. The different methods of compounding are:
(i) Velocity compounding
(ii) Pressure compounding
(iii)
Pressure velocity compounding
(iv)Reaction turbine.
5. Force (tangential) on the wheel
= m (
+
) Nm
Power per wheel =
The common types of steam turbines are:

1. Impulse turbine.
2. Reaction turbine.
Page 136
Thermodynamics
Impulse Turbines
Velocity Diagram for Moving Blade
Fig. Velocity diagram for moving blade.
Fig. shows the velocity diagram of a single stage impulse turbine.

C
liner velocity of moving blade (m/s)
C
absolute velocity of steam entering moving blade (m/s)
C
absolute velocity of steam leaving moving blade (m/s)
C
velocity of whirl at the entrance of moving blade.
= tangential component of C .
C
velocity of whirl at exit of the moving blade.
= tangential component of C .
C
velocity of flow at entrance of moving blade.
= axial component of C .
C
velocity of flow at exit of moving blade.
= axial component of C .
C
relative velocity of steam at moving blade at entrance.
C
relative velocity of steam at moving blade at exit.
angle with the tangent of the wheel at which steam with velocity C enters. This is also
called nozzle angle.
angle which the ischarging steam makes with the tangent of the wheel at the exit of
moving blade.
entrance angle of moving la e.
= exit angle of moving blade.
The steam jet issuing from the nozzle at a velocity C impinges on the la e at an angle .
The tangential component of this jet (C ) performs work on the blade, the axial
compontent (C ) however does not work but causes the steam to flow through the turbine.
Page 137
Thermodynamics
As the blades move with tangential velocity of (C ), the entering steam jet has a relative
velocity C
with respect to la e which makes an angle with the wheel tangent. he
steam then glides over the blade without any shock and discharges at a relative velocity of C
at an angle with the tangent of the blades. The relative velocity at the inlet (C ) is the
same as the relative velocity at the C if there is no frictional loss at the blade. The absolute
velocity C of leaving steam makes an angle to the tangent at the wheel.
To have convenience in solving the problems on turbines it is a common practice to combine
the two vector velocity diagrams on a common base which represents the blade velocity
C as shown in Fig. This diagram has been obtained by superimposing the inlet velocity
diagram on the outlet diagram in order that the blade velocity lines C coincide.
S
Fig. 6.3
Important Formulae:
(
1. Blade or diagram efficiency,

2. Stage efficiency,
3. The axial thrust on the wheel due to difference between the velocities of flow at entrance
and outlet :
Axial force on the wheel = m (C
C )
4. Energy converted to heat by blade friction
= loss of kinetic energy during flow over blades
= m (
)
5. Optimum value of ratio of blade speed to steam is,
6. The blade efficiency for two stage turbine will be maximum when,
In general optimum blade speed ratio for maximum blade efficiency or maximum work
done is given by
and the work done in the last row = of total work
where n is the number of moving rotating blade rows in series.
In practice more than two rows are hardly preferred.
7. The degree of reaction of reaction turbine stage is defined as the ratio of heat drop over
moving blades to the total heat drop in the stage.
Page 138
Thermodynamics
8. The blade efficiency of the reaction turbine is given by

ecomes maximum when
cos
and hence
9. The state point may be defined as that point on h s diagram which represents the
condition of steam at that instant.
10. Theoretical efficiency of reheat cycle is given by
, neglecting pump work.
4.6.3 Rankine Cycle
Basis for steam turbine power plant
Working substance is steam.
B- boiler
ST Steam Turbine
SC Steam Condenser
P Pump
HPL High Pressure Liquid
LPL Low Pressure Liquid
HPV- High Pressure Vapour
LPV Low Pressure Vapour
HPV
(1)
ST
B
LPV
(2)
(4)
HPL
(3)
LPL
(1)
(4)
(1)
(4)
P
P
T
(2)
(3)
(2)
(3)
V
S
Page 139
Thermodynamics
boiler pressure
- Con enser pressure
Rankine cycle contains
2 isentropic processes(expansion & pumping )
2 isobaric processes (boiling & condensation)
1-2 isentropic expansion in steam turbine work developed per kg of steam,
h
h
3 isobaric condensation. Heat rejected by the steam, q
h
h
3 4 isentropic pumping
Work supplied per kg of steam,
h
h
Isobaric heat adition
Heat supplied per kg of steam in the boiler
q =h
h
Net work done = q
q
=
00
In general
Work ratio,
0.95<
0.9
Specific steam consumption (KJ/KWh): The amount of steam consumed by the steam power
plant per unit power output
SSC =
Where m
mass flow rate of steam, kg/h
P = net power output k
SSC =
SSC =
-
Effects of Reheating
1. Net work output increases
2. Efficiency of the plant increases
3. Life of steam turbine blades increases
Rankine Cycle with Regeneration:

-
Purpose of regeneration: To increase the efficiency of the plant by increasing the mean
temperature of heat addition.
Regeneration: some amount of steam is extracted from the turbine and is used to increase
the temperature of fee water. his process is calle lee ing.
Page 140
Thermodynamics
M kg/s
ST
Boiler
m kg/s
M kg/s
(M m) kg/s
Condenser
Regenerator
M-m
M kg/s
(1)
M
(7)
T
(6)
(5)
(2)
(4) (M m) (3)
S
M = total mass flow rate of steam
= mass flow rate of bled steam
Effects of Regeneration:
-
Efficiency increases
Work output decreases
Rankine cycle with Reheating:

HP
T
LPT
Reheated steam
Condenser
Pump
Page 141
Thermodynamics
Purpose of reheating: To avoid blade erosion by increasing the dryness fraction of the steam
at the end of expansion process in steam turbine.
To avoid blade erosion , dryness fraction should be greater than or equal to 0.88
x
0.
Reheating involves partial expansion of steam in HPT and then extract this steam for
reheating in to the boiler, feed the reheated steam to LPT for further expansion (refer Fig. )
(1)
(3)
T
(2)
(6)
(5)
(4)
s
1-2 : expansion in HPT

2-3 : Reheating Process
3-4 : Expansion in LPT
Binary power cycles:
-
2 working fluids are being used

In general,
g working fluid for primary cycle
Steam - working fluid for secondary cycle
1
Turbine
ST
a
2
ST
Condenser
Steam Turbine
Pump
Cascade Heat exchanger
(
Pump
Page 142
Thermodynamics
4
T
Steam
c
S
4.6.4 Brayton (or) Joule Cycle:
2
P
1
V
-
Basic cycle for gas turbine plant and jet propulsion systems.
Cycle contains 2 isentropic and 2 constant pressure processes.
Pressure ratio (r =
Compression ratio (r) =
1-2 : isentropic compression through the required pressure ratio(r

C
KJ/Kg
(r )
work input to the compressor
2-3 constant pressure heat addition
q
KJ/Kg
Page 143
Thermodynamics
3-4 Isentropic expansion process work developed by the turbine,

C
KJ Kg
4-1 Isobaric (constant pressure ) heat rejection.

q
KJ/Kg
q
Work ratio
For gas tur ine plants 0. 5
0.55
For steam tur ine plants 0.95

Effect of
0.9
on Brayton cycle efficiency
r
r
r
+
+
r
C [
----------
Pressure ratio for
----------
Pressure ratio for
] KJ Kg
Page 144
Thermodynamics
Part 4.7: Refrigeration

4.7.1 Refrigerator
Source
Source
heat supplied to source

heat extracted from sink
= source temperature
HP/K+1
= sink temperature
HP/K+1
W = work input
Sink
CO
Sink
CO
Heat Pump
Refrigerator
Carnot COP =
Carnot COP =
Actual COP=
Actual COP=
Relative COP =
Relative COP =
CO
CO
Simple Vapor Compression Cycle:
Fig. T-s diagram of refrigeration cycle

Page 145
Thermodynamics
Figure shows a simple vapor compression refrigeration cycle on T-s diagram for different
compression processes. The cycle works between temperatures
and
representing the
condenser and evaporator temperatures respectively. The various processes of the cycle A-B-CD (A-B-C-D and A-B-C-D) are as given below:
i) Process B-C B-C or B-C Isentropic compression of the vapor from state B to C. If
vapor state is saturate
B or superheate
B the compression is calle
ry
compression. If initial state is wet B the compression is calle wet compression as
represente y B-C.
ii) Process C-D C-D or C-D): Heat rejection in condenser at constant pressure.
iii) Process D-A: An irreversible adiabatic expansion of vapor through the expansion value.
The pressure and temperature of the liquid are reduced. The process is accompanied by
partial evaporation of some liquid. The process is shown by dotted line.
iv) Process A-B (A-B or A-B
eat a sorption in evaporator at constant pressure. he
final state epen s on the quantity of heat a sor e an same may e wet B ry B or
superheate B .
COP of Vapor Compression Cycle:
CO
eat extracte at low temperature

ork supplie
Heat extracted at low temperature = Heat transfer during the process A-B = refrigerating effect.
Work of compression
(adiabatic compression).
o CO
Now, heat rejected to the condenser,
+
+
(a) Mass of Refrigerant in Circulation:

Refrigeration effect
KJ/Kg of refrigerant
Or, mass of refrigerant in circulation,
kg/min ton
(b) Piston Displacement:

Let the specific volume of the vapor at B i.e at suction of the compressor be, v and let the
volumetric efficiency of the compressor be
, then piston displacement required per min.
Piston displacement
(m / min ton)
Page 146
Thermodynamics
(c) Power Required by Compressor:

(i) If the compression is isentropic, then,
Work of compression
KJ/Kg
Hence, Power required
(KW / ton)
(ii) If the compression is polytropic ( v = C).

Work of compression
Or Power required
(KW/ton)
(d) Heat Rejected to Cylinder Jacket:

- KJmin
m ,
ton
(e) Heat Rejected in Condenser:

Heat rejected in condenser
(KJ / Kg)
Total heat rejected
(KJ /min- ton)
4.7.2 Reversed Carnot Cycle

Reversed Carnot cycle is shown in below Figure. It consists of the following processes.
Process a-b: Absorption of heat by the working fluid from refrigerator at constant low
temperature during isothermal expansion.
Process b-c: Isentropic compression of the working fluid with the aid of external work.
The temperature of the fluid rises from
to
Process c-d: Isothermal compression of the working fluid during which heat is rejected at
constant high temperature .
Process d-a: Isentropic expansion of the working fluid. The temperature of the working fluid falls
from to .
Fig. Reversed Carnot cycle

Page 147
Thermodynamics
COP of Refrigerator:
Practically, the reversed Carnot cycle cannot be used for refrigeration purpose as the isentropic
process requires very high speed operation, whereas the isothermal process requires very low
speed operation.
4.7.3
Reversed Brayton Cycle
(a) Air refrigeration system
(b) Air refrigeration system
Page 148
Thermodynamics
(c) Air refrigeration system

The working of air-refrigeration cycle is represented on p-v and T-s diagrams in Fig. (b) and (c).
Process 1-2 represents the suction of air into the compressor. Process 2-3 represents the
isentropic compression of air by the compressor. Process 3-5 represents the discharge of high
pressure air from the compressor into the heat exchanger. The reduction in volume of air from
v to v is due to the cooling of air in the heat exchanger.
Process 5-6 represents the isentropic expansion of air in the expander. Process 6-2 represents
the absorption of heat from the evaporator at constant pressure.
Page 149
Thermodynamics
Part 4.8: I.C. Engines

4.8.1 Basics of I.C. Engine
Engine Components: The I.C. Engine Figure below showing its various components.
Suction Valve
Intake of suction manifold
S
S
Top dead center T.D.C
S
Piston
Gudgeon of wrist pin
S
Bottom deadScenter BDC
Cylinder head
Exhaust Valve
S
Exhaust
manifold
S
S
Clearance volume, Vc
S
Stroke volume Vs
Cylinder volume V
S
S
Cylinder
Connecting rod
S
Crank Pin
Crank case
CrankSShaft
Crank
S
S
Name of the part
Material used
Cylinder
Cast iron
Cylinder head
Cast iron, aluminum alloy
Piston
Cast iron, aluminum alloy
Piston rings
Silicon cast iron
Connecting rods
Steel
Crank shaft
Alloy steel
Bearing
White metal
Cylinder liner
Nickel alloy steel
Engines erminology
Piston Swept Volume (Vs): The nominal volume generated by the piston when travelling
from one dead centre to the next one.
Vs = A
Clearance Volume (Vc): The nominal volume of the space on the combustion side of the
piston at top dead centre
Cylinder Volume (V) : The sum of piston swept volume and clearance
volume
Page 150
Thermodynamics
V = Vc + Vs
Compression Ratio (r): It is ratio of cylinder volume to clearance volume.

r = V/Vc
I.C. Engine classification:
On the basis of the number of stroke engine can be four-stroke engine or can be two stroke
engine.
On the basis of the working cycle it can be spark ignition (otto cycle) engine or it can be
compression ignition engine (diesel cycle).
Four stroke Engine:

Stroke
Valve position
Suction stroke.
Suction valve open

Exhaust valve closed
Compression stroke
Both valves closed
Expansion stroke
Both valves closed
Exhaust stroke
Exhaust valve open

Suction valve closed.
Valve timing diagrams:

For four-stroke S.I. engine
BDC
Exhaust
Opens
Intake
Closes
Power
Exhaust
Opens
Intake valve
open
Compressio
n
Intake
opens
Overlap
Exhaust valve open
Intake valve
open
Compressio
n
Intake
Closes
Power
Exhaust
Opens
Intake
Closes
Exhaust valve open
Exhaust
Opens
BDC
Page 151
For two-stroke engine

Rotation
Ignition
occurs
T.D.C
Expansion
Compression
Thermodynamics
Exhaust port
closes
Exhaust port
closes
Inlet port
closes
B.D.C
Inlet port
closes
Inlet port open

Exhaust
port open
Four-stroke cycle
Two-stroke cycle
The cycle is completed
The cycle is completed in
in four strokes of the piston.

It has only one power stroke
two strokes of the piston.

It has one power stroke in
in two revolutions of crank
each revolution of crank
Shaft
shaft
Turning moment is not
More uniform turning
uniform hence heavier
moment hence lighter
flywheel is needed
flywheel is needed.
More volumetric efficiency
Less volumetric efficiency
Higher thermal efficiency
Lower thermal efficiency
It contains valves
It contains only ports not valves
Better part load efficiency
Poor part load efficiency
S.I. Engines
C. I. Engines
Based on otto cycle
Based on diesel cycle
Fuel has high self
Fuel has low self
ignition temperature
Compression ratio
is between 6 to 10.5
ignition temperature
Compression ratio
is between 14 to 22
Lower max. efficiency
Higher max. efficiency
Lighter
Heavier
Page 152
Thermodynamics
For a muticylinder engine a smaller flywheel is required

Performance parameter:
Indicated thermal efficiency (

fuel energy.
): It is a ratio of energy in the indicated horse power to the
=
I. P. = Indicated power
mf = Mass of fuel
QLHV = Lower Heat Calorific Value
Brake thermal efficiency (

power to the fuel energy.
): Brake thermal efficiency is the ratio of
energy in the brake
. .
b. p. = break power.
Mechanical efficiency (
=
): It is a ratio of brake power to the indicated horse power.
. .
. .
=
=
f. p. = i. p. b. p.
f. p. = friction power
f.p. is usually assumed constant. At part loads b.p. is changed, thus from b.p. & f.p., ip. can be
calculated.
Volumentric efficiency ( ): It is defined as the ratio of the air actually induced at ambient
conditions to the swept volume of engine.
=
Relative efficiency or efficiency ratio: It is defined as ratio of thermal efficiency of the actual
cycle to that of the ideal cycle.
=
Specific fuel consumption (sfc): It is expressed in grams per horsepower-hour or per kWh.
Page 153
bsfc =
isfc =
. .
. .
Thermodynamics
kg/kWh
kg/kWh
Fuel-Air Ratio: It is relative proportion of the fuel and air in the engine.
Mean Piston speed = 2LN

L length of cylinder
r.p.m.
Mean effective pressure,
=
n=
. .
for 4s
n = N for 2s
k = No. of cylinders
Equivalent ratio:
=
= 1 chemically correct
< 1 lean mixture
> 1 rich mixture
NOTE:
In line engines : all cylinders are arranged linearly and transmit power to a single crankshaft
Radial engines: air cooled aircraft engines, odd cylinders are employed for balancing, pistons
of all cylinders are coupled to same crankshaft.
4.8.2 Air Standard Cycles

Assumptions in ideal or air standard cycle
The working medium is a perfect gas throughout, i.e., it follows the law pV= mRT.
The working medium has constant specific heats.
The working medium does not undergo any chemical change throughout the cycle.
Page 154
Thermodynamics
The kinetic and potential energies of the working fluid are neglected.
The operation of the engine is frictionless.
All the process are reversible.
The constant volume or Otto cycle:

P
3
T
Constant
3
W.D. in expansion
3-4 = area 3-4-6-5-3
4
1
Constant
1
5
Process
12
23
34
41
Remark
Adiabatic and reversible compression
Combustion
Adiabatic and reversible expansion
Exhaust stroke
Thermal efficiency, =
Work done = heat added heat rejected = cv(T3 T2) cv(T4 T1)
=1
=1
Thus the efficiency of otto cycle depends only on compression ratio (r), and the efficiency
increases with increasing compression ratio and . The efficiency at compression ratio 5 is
47.5% and at compression ratio 10 is 60.2%
Monoatamic gas
= 1.67
Air
= 1.4
Exchaust gas
= 1.30
Page 155
Thermodynamics
Mean effective pressure (mep)

mep =
(
Constant pressure or Diesel cycle:

3
T
Isothermal
P
Reversible
adiabatic
2
=
=
=1
= cut off ratio

=
,r=
Page 156
Thermodynamics
The efficiency of the diesel cycle is different from that of the Otto cycle only by the bracketed
term, which is always greater that unity.
Mean Effective Pressure (mep)
mep =
=
The efficiency decreases as cut off ratio increases. If cut off ratio is greater than 10% of stroke,
smoking occurs in an actual engine because there is no sufficient time for the combustion
process to be completed before the exhaust valve opens.
The dual combustion or mixed or limited pressure cycle
The name dual combustion is derived from the fact that it incorporates the features of both
otto and diesel cycles.
High speed diesel engine is based on this.
3
v = constant (otto )
4
v = constant
2
P
2
P = constant (Diesel)
5
1
=
=
=1
=
*
,
If = 1 in above equation it becomes otto cycle and when
= 1, it becomes diesel cycle.
Page 157
Thermodynamics
mep
[
Comparison of Otto, Diesel, and dual Combustion (Limited - pressure) Cycles:
For same compression ratio and same heat input: The heat rejected in the Otto cycle is less
than that in the diesel cycle and dual combustion cycle thus the efficiency of the Otto cycle
is more than the diesel and the dual combustion cycle for same compression ratio and same
heat input.
otto
dual
diesel
T
3
2
4
For constant maximum pressure and same heat input.
Page 158
Constant pressure
Thermodynamics
4
2
1
Constant volume
6
S
For same maximum pressure and temperature
>
>
T
Constant
pressure
4
2
Constant
volume
Page 159
Theory of Machines
Part 5: Theory of Machines

Part 5.1: Mechanisms
5.1.1 Introduction
Mechanism: A system that consists of links and joints and converts one form of motion to
another form (or) A system of links and joint that converts the available form of motion to the
desired form.
Planar Mechanism: A mechanism that is constrained to move in a single plane or in parallel
planes is referred as a planar mechanism or plane mechanism.
Degrees of Freedom: Number of independent co-ordinates that are required to specify the
system completely. DOF of a rigid body in spatial motion are 6, consisting of 3 translatory
freedom and 3 rotational freedoms
DOF of a rigid body in plane motion are 3 consisting of 2 translatory freedoms and one rotational
freedom.
Link / Kinematic Element: A rigid body or a resistant body that forms the part of a mechanism.
Classification of links: The links or the kinematic elements are the basic building block. They are
classified as follows:
Binary link: It connects with two other links
Ternary link: It connects with three other links in a system
Quatenary Link: It connects with four other links.
Kinematic Pair: Two links or elements connected with a joint that allows the relative motion
between the links.
Page 160
Theory of Machines
Classification of kinematic pairs:

Based on Degrees of Freedom: A kinematic pair allows few degrees of freedom and constraints
some of them. When two bodies are joined together one of the body (base) has all the DOF,
whereas the other body looses some DOF and has few DOF relative to the base body. Depending
on the allowed degrees of freedom and constrained degrees of freedom they are classified into
Class I, Class II .. Class V incase of spatial kinematic pairs and class I and class II in planar
kinematic pairs.
Class-n kinematic pair allows n degrees of freedom for the pair and constrains 6-n (3-n) degrees
of freedom. A pair that constrains all the degrees of freedom of the second link relative to the
first link is not considered as a kinematic pair. It is a rigid joint.
Based on Nature of relative motion: Based on the relative motion that exists between the two
links the pairs can be classified as Rotary/ Revolute pairs, Sliding/ Prismatic pairs, Cylindrical
pairs, special pairs and so on.
Based on Nature of contact: Based on the nature of contact between the two links the kinematic
pairs are classified as lower pairs and higher pairs. When the two bodies have surface to surface
contact they are referred as lower pairs. When the contact between the bodies is a point or line
contact they are referred as higher pairs.
Based on type of closure: Closure means the way the two bodies are held together to have
continuous contact. Two types of joint closures exists they are form closure and force closure.
Form Closure: The two links are held together by the shape of the links and they cannot
be detached easily.
Force Closure: The contact is maintained by an external force either the gravity force or
spring force and the two bodies can be separated easily.
Kinematic chain:
A kinematic chain is formed by connecting number of links with kinematic pairs so that there
exists definite relation between the motion of various links. They can be of two types closed
kinematic chains and open kinematic chains.
A mechanism is obtained by fixing any one link in a kinematic chain.
Degrees of Freedom of a Kinematic chain: A kinematic chain is formed by connecting number of
links with number of pairs. Let n be the no. of links and is the number of pairs of class n. Then
as for grublers criterion the DOF of a spatial kinematic chain is given by
For a planar kinematic chain.
Page 161
Theory of Machines
Degrees of Freedom of a Mechanism: As one link is fixed in a kinematic chain to get a mechanism.
Grublers equation for the DOF of a mechanism is as follows for spatial mechanism
(
For a planar mechanism

(
Note: A mechanism has six (three) degrees of freedom less compared to that of the kinematic
chain from which it is obtained.
Classification based on degrees of freedom:
Zero degrees of freedom: Structure
Negative degrees of freedom: Super structure/ Preloaded structure
Positive degrees of Freedom: Mechanism
Four bar chain/quadric cycle chain: It is the basic chain that consists of four links and four
turning pairs. It is the basic chain from which many one DOF mechanism can be derived. The
necessary condition to form a four bar chain based on their length is l s p q.
When l is the length of the longest link, s is that of the shortest link and p, q are the lengths of the
remaining two links. Though a chain is formed by satisfying the above condition it may not
result in useful mechanism, if one barely satisfy the condition.
Grashoffs Condition: Grashoffs condition checks the link proportions and classifies the chains
mechanism
If l
If l
If l
s
s
s
p
p
p
q
q
q
Grashoffs or Class I
Non grashoffs or Class-II
Special Grashoffs or Class-III
Inversion: By fixing one link in a kinematic chain a mechanism is obtained. By fixing different
links, different mechanisms are obtained. Inversion is the process of obtaining different
mechanism by fixing different links in a kinematic chain.
B
Nomenclature of four bar mechanisms:

Page 162
Theory of Machines
A four bar mechanism is as shown in figure; AD, the link 1 is known as the fixed link. AB, the link
2 acts as input link. The link 3 BC is the coupler and the link 4 CD is the output link. The input
and output links can be interchanged. If the input/output link can have complete rotation about
its centre it is known as crank. If it has only a partial revolution it is known as a rocker or an
oscillatory link. Based on this the mechanisms can be classified as C-C, C-R, R-C, R- R
mechanisms.
Inversions of Grashoffs 4-bar chain (l s p q): The mechanisms obtained from the
Grashoffs kinematic chain are based on the positions of the shortest link
Shortest link fixed-Double crank mechanism

Link adjacent to shortest link is fixed crank-Rocker mechanism
Link opposite to the Shortest link is fixed: Rocker-Rocker mechanism
Inversions of Non-Grashoffs 4-bar chain: l
By fixing any link it results in Rocker-Rocker mechanism.

Inversion of Special Grashoffs Chain:
Parallelogram or anti-parallelogram connection will result in double crank or drag link
mechanism. Deltoid connection will result in crank-Rocker mechanism.
In parallelogram connection both long links and short links are opposite to each other. In deltoid
connection both long links and short links are side by side.
Equivalent linkage: By replacing any pair in a kinematic chain with its equivalent (from the same
class). An equivalent chain can be obtained, by replacing any turning pair in a four bar chain
with a sliding pair a slider crank chain can be obtained. By replacing any two turning pairs with
sliding pairs a double slider crank chain can be obtained.
Inversions of a single slider crank chain:
I inversion: An I.C. engine mechanism/compressor mechanism
II inversion: wit-worth Quick return motion mechanism and rotary engine.
III inversion: Crank and slotted level type quick return motion mechanism and oscillating
cylinder engine
IV inversion: Hand pump
Inversions of Double Slider Crank chain:
I inversion: Scotch Yoke-mechanism. Useful for generating trignometric functions
II inversion: Elliptical trammel. Useful for tracing the elliptical curves
III inversion: Oldhams Coupling. Useful for connecting two parallel shafts with little offset.
Mechanical Advantage: The ratio of load to effort is known as mechanical advantage.
Mechanical advantage =
Page 163
Theory of Machines
5.1.2 Dynamic Analysis of Slider-crank Mechanism
ODC
IDC
Fig. 5.1.2.1
Figure shows a slider crank mechanism in which the crank OA rotates in the clockwise direction.
r are the lengths of the connecting rod & the crank respectively.
Let x
displacement of piston from IDC (Inner Dead Centre).
Velocity of Piston:
V
r *sin
If n is large compared to sin

V r *sin
+
If
V
is neglected if n is quite large

r sin
Acceleration of Piston:
a r *cos
+
If n is very very large
a r cos as in case of SHM
When
i.e. at IDC, a r *
i.e. at ODC, a
t
a
+
*
, when direction of motion is reversed

+
Angular velocity & Angular Acceleration of connecting rod:

.
angular velocity of connecting rod.

sin *(
angular acceleration of the connecting rod
Page 164
Theory of Machines
The ve sign indicates that the sense of angular acceleration of the rod is such that it tends to
reduce the angle . Thus, in the given case, the angular acceleration of the connecting rod is
clockwise.
Engine Force Analysis:
An engine is acted upon by various forces such as weight of reciprocating masses and connecting
rod, gas forces, forces due to friction & inertia forces due to acceleration & retardation of engine
elements, the least being dynamic in nature. The effect of the weight & the inertia effect of the
connecting rod is neglected.
A
( + )
Fig. 5.1.2.2
Let
p
p
m
area of the cover end

area of the piston rod
pressure on the cover end
pressure on the rod end
mass of the reciprocating parts.
Force on the piston due to gas pressure,

p
p
Inertia force,
m a.
mr (cos
)
Net (Effective) force on the piston,
In case friction resistance is also taken into account,
Force on the piston,
In case of vertical engines, the weight of the piston or reciprocating parts also acts as force
and thus,
Force on the piston,
mg
1. Force (thrust) along the connecting rod:
Let
Force in the connecting rod shown in Fig (1.2.2)
Then equating the horizontal components of forces.
cos
or
2. Thrust on the sides of cylinder:
It is the normal reaction on the cylinder walls.
sin
tan
Page 165
Theory of Machines
3. Crank Effort:
Force is exerted on the crankpin as a result of the force on the piston. Crank effort is the net
effort (force) applied at the crank pin perpendicular to the crank which gives the required
turning moment on the crank shaft.
Let = crank effort
As t r
r sin(
)
sin(
)
sin(
)
4. Thrust on the Bearing
The component of along the crank (in the radial direction) produces a thrust on the crank
shaft bearings.
)
cos(
cos(
)
Turning moment on crank shaft
*sin
+
5.1.3 Velocity Analysis in 4-bar Mechanism:

Consider the mechanism shown in Figure 5.1.3.1. The pre requisite for the velocity analysis is
the knowledge of position of all the links which is available from the position analysis or from
configuration diagram. If the link 2 rotates with
rad/sec in counter clock wise direction. The
velocity of other links is obtained as follows.
AB
B
b
C
a, d
DC
A
c
BC
Fig. 5.1.3.1
Construction procedure for velocity polygon: A and D are fixed points having zero velocity mark,
a, d at a convenient location and they act as reference for the velocity polygon. Velocity of B
relative to A will be l
perpendicular to AB in the direction of
so draw ab to with a
length l
. Velocity of C relative to will be to C but sense is not known hence draw a line
to C passing through b. Velocity of C relative to D will be lr to DC sense is not known. So draw
a line lr to DC through d. hese two lines will intersect at C that completes the velocity polygon.
In the velocity diagram the vector bc indicates the velocity of C relative to B and
. Similarly dc = l from which
can be obtained.
l = bc gives
Page 166
Theory of Machines
Capital letters deals with the configuration diagram is AB, CD are respective link positions, lower
case letters indicate the points on the velocity diagram
Cases:
1. When the link AB and BC are parallel to each other
Velocity of polygon will be a straight line
Velocity of B is equal to the velocity of C.
l
=l
and
=0
If both AB and DC are on the same side of AB both have the angular velocity in the same
sense. If they are on opposite side i.e. BC crosses AD; AB and DC will have velocities in the
opposite sense
2. When AB and DC are parallel
i.e. they are in the same line,
3. When BC and CD are parallel
i.e. they are in same line,
and
and
l =
l =
l .
Instantaneous Centre: The instantaneous centre, for a plane body moving in a two dimensional
plane is a point in its plane around which all other points on the body are rotating at the instant.
This point itself is the only point that is not moving at that instant.
The number of instantaneous centers in a mechanism depends upon number of links. If N is the
number of instantaneous centers and n is the number of links.
N=
nn 1
2
There are three types of instantaneous centers namely fixed, permanent and neither fixed nor
permanent.
For Four bar mechanism, n = 4, N =
nn 1 44 1
6
=
2
2
I13
I34
3
I23
4
2
I24
I12
I14
Fig. 5.1.3.2
Page 167
Theory of Machines
Fixed instantaneous center I12, I14

Permanent instantaneous center I23, I34
Neither fixed nor permanent instantaneous center I13, I24
Coriolis Acceleration: To illustrate this let us take an example of crank and slotted lever
mechanisms.
P
2
P1
B1
B2
B on link 3
3
A on link 2
A1
2
Fig. 5.1.3.3
Assume link 2 having constant angular velocity 2, in its motions from OP to OP1 in a small
interval of time t. During this time slider 3 moves outwards from position B to B2. Assume this
motion also to have constant velocity VB/A. Consider the motion of slider from B to B2 in 3 stages.
1. B to A1 due to rotation of link 2.
2. A1 to B1 due to outward velocity of slider VB/A.
3. B1 to B2 due to acceleration r to link 2 this component in the coriolis component of
acceleration.
We have Arc B1B2 = Arc QB2 Arc QB1
= Arc QB2 Arc AA1
Arc B1B2
= OQ d - AO d
= A1B1 d
= VB/A 2(dt)2
Page 168
Theory of Machines
The tangential component of velocity is r to the link and is given by Vt = r. In this case has
been assumed constant and the slider is moving on the link with constant velocity. Therefore,
tangential velocity of any point B on the slider 3 will result in uniform increase in tangential
velocity. The equation Vt = r remain same but r increases uniformly i.e. there is a constant
acceleration r to rod.
Displacement B1B2 = at2
= f (dt)2
f (dt)2 = VB/A 2 (dt)2
fcrB/A = 22 VB/A Coriolis acceleration
The direction of coriolis component is the direction of relative velocity vector for the two
coincident points rotated at 90o in the direction of angular velocity of rotation of the link.
Figure 5.1.3.4 shows the direction of coriolis acceleration in different situation.
fcr
2
2
fcr
(a) Rotation CW slider moving up
(b) Rotation CW slider moving down

fcr
fcr
(c) Rotation CCW slider moving up
(d) Rotation CCW slider moving down

Fig. 5.1.3.4
Page 169
Theory of Machines
Part 5.2: Gear Trains

5.2.1 Gears
Gears are machine elements that transmit motion by means of successively engaging teeth. The
gear teeth act like small levers. Gears are highly efficient (nearly 95%) due to primarily rolling
contact between the teeth.
Gear Classification: Gears may be classified according to the relative position of the axes of
revolution.
Gears for connecting parallel shafts:

1. Spur gears: They are common types of gears with straight teeth.
2. Helical gears: The teeths on helical gears are cut at an angle to the face of the gear. Because
of the angle of the teeth on helical gears, they create a thrust load on the gear when they
mesh.
3. Double helical gears (Herringbone gears): Herringbone gear is a special type of gear which
is a side to side (not face to face) combination of two helical gears of opposite hands. Their
advantage over the simple helical gear is that the side-thrust of one half is counter-balanced
by that of the other half.
4. Rack and Pinion: Racks are straight gears that are used to convert rotational motion to
translational motion by means of a gear mesh.
Gears for connecting intersecting shafts:

1. Bevel Gears: Bevel gears are useful when the direction of a shaft's rotation needs to be
changed. The teeth on bevel gears can be straight, spiral or hypoid.
Gears for neither parallel nor intersecting shafts:

1. Worm Gears: Worm gears are used when large gear reductions are needed. It is common for
worm gears to have reductions of 20:1, and even up to 300:1 or greater.
Gear Terminology:
Addendum: The radial distance between the Pitch Circle and the top of the teeth.
Page 170
Theory of Machines
Arc of Action: Is the arc of the Pitch Circle between the beginning and the end of the engagement of a
given pair of teeth.
Arc of Approach: Is the arc of the Pitch Circle between the first point of contact of the gear teeth and
the Pitch Point.
Arc of Recession: That arc of the Pitch Circle between the Pitch Point and the last point of contact of
the gear teeth.
Backlash: Play between mating teeth.
Base Circle: The base circle of an involute gear is the circle from which involute teeth profiles are
derived.
Center Distance: The distance between centers of two gears.
Chordal Addendum: The distance between a chord, passing through the points where the Pitch
Circle crosses the tooth profile, and the tooth top.
Chordal Thickness: The thickness of the tooth measured along a chord passing through the points
where the Pitch Circle crosses the tooth profile.
Circular Pitch: Millimeter of Pitch Circle circumference per tooth. Pc =
Circular Thickness: The thickness of the tooth measured along an arc following the Pitch Circle
Clearance: The distance between the top of a tooth and the bottom of the space into which it fits on
the meshing gear.
Contact Ratio: The ratio of the length of the Arc of Action to the Circular Pitch.
Dedendum: The radial distance between the bottom of the tooth to pitch circle.
Diametral Pitch: Teeth per mm of diameter. DP = T/D
Face: The working surface of a gear tooth, located between the pitch diameter and the top of the
tooth.
Face Width: The width of the tooth measured parallel to the gear axis.
Flank: The working surface of a gear tooth, located between the pitch diameter and the bottom of
the teeth
Gear: The larger of two meshed gears. If both gears are of the same size, they are both called "gears".
Land: The top surface of the tooth.
Line of Action: That line along which the point of contact between gear teeth travels, between the
first point of contact and the last.
Module: Millimeter of Pitch Diameter to Teeth. m
Page 171
Theory of Machines
Pinion: The smaller of two meshed gears.

Pitch Circle: The circle, the radius of which is equal to the distance from the center of the gear to the
pitch point.
Pitch Point: The point of tangency of the pitch circles of two meshing gears, where the Line of
Centers crosses the pitch circles.
Pressure Angle: Angle between the Line of Action and a line perpendicular to the Line of Centers.
Profile Shift: An increase in the Outer Diameter and Root Diameter of a gear, introduced to lower the
practical tooth number or acheive a non-standard Center Distance.
Ratio: Ratio of the numbers of teeth on mating gears.
Root Circle: The circle that passes through the bottom of the tooth spaces.
Root Diameter: The diameter of the Root Circle.
Working Depth: The depth to which a tooth extends into the space between teeth on the mating
gear.
Path of contact: The length of path of contact is the length of common normal cut-off by the
addendum circles of the wheel and the pinion.
Path of approach:
R A 2 R 2 cos2 R sin
Path of recess:
ra 2 r 2 cos2 r sin
Length of path of contact
R A 2 R 2 cos2 ra 2 r 2 cos2 R r sin
ra = Radius of addendum circle of pinion,

R A = Radius of addendum circle of wheel
r = Radius of pitch circle of pinion,
R = Radius of pitch circle of wheel.
= Pressure angle.
Arc of contact: Arc of contact is the path traced by a point on the pitch circle from the beginning to
the end of engagement of a given pair of teeth.
Lenght of path of approach

cos
Lenght
of
path
of recess
Length of arc of recess
cos
Length of path of contact
Length of arc contact
cos
Contact Ratio (or Number of Pairs of Teeth in Contact): The contact ratio or the number of pairs of
teeth in contact is defined as the ratio of the length of the arc of contact to the circular pitch.
Length of arc of approach
Length of the arc of contact

THE GATE ACADEMY PVT.LTD. H.O.: #74, Keshava Krupa (third Floor), 30PthCCross, 10th Main, Jayanagar 4th Block, Bangalore-11
Contatratio
Page 172
Mathematically,
PC Circular pitch m
Where:
and
Theory of Machines
m = Module.
5.2.2 Gear Trains

The combination of gear wheels by means of which motion is transmitted from one shaft to
another shaft is called a gear train. The gear trains are of the following types:
Simple Gear Trains: The typical spur gears are shown in diagram. The direction of rotation is
reversed from one gear to another. It has no affect on the gear ratio. The teeth on the gears must
all be of the same size so if gear A advances one tooth, so does B and C.
t = number of teeth on the gear,

D = Pitch circle dia meter, N = speedin rpm
D
m = module =
t
and module must be the same for all gears ,
otherwise they would not mesh.
D
D
D
m= A = B = C
tA
tB
tC
D A = m t A;
DB = m t B
and
DC = m t C
= angula r velocity.
D
v = linear velocity on the circle. v = = r
2
v
v
GEAR 'A'
GEAR 'B'
(Idler gear)
GEAR 'C'
The velocity v of any point on the circle must be the same for all the gears, otherwise they would be
DC
DA
DB
slipping.
v A
A DA B DB C DC
A m t A B m t B C m tC
A t A B t B C tC
or in terms of rev / min
N A t A N B t B N C tC
If A is the driving wheel and C is driven wheel, then
Velocity Ratio =
Train Value: It is reciprocal of velocity ratio.
In an ideal gear box, the input and output powers are the same so;
2 N1 T1 2 N 2 T2
60
60
T2 N1
N1 T1 N 2 T2
GR
T1 N 2
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Theory of Machines
It follows that if the speed is reduced, the torque is increased and vice versa. In a real gear box,
power is lost through friction and the power output is smaller than the power input. The
efficiency is defined as:
Power out 2 N 2 T2 60 N 2 T2
Power In
2 N1 T1 60
N1 T1
Because the torque in and out is different, a gear box has to be clamped in order to stop the case
or body rotating. A holding torque T3 must be applied to the body through the clamps.
The total torque must add up to zero.
T1 + T2 + T3 = 0
If we use a convention that anti-clockwise is positive and clockwise is negative we can determine
the holding torque. The direction of rotation of the output shaft depends on the design of the
gear box.
Compound Gear Trains: Compound gears are simply a
chain of simple gear trains with the input of the second
being the output of the first.
Since gear B and C are on the same shaft
B C
A tB tD
GR
D t A tC
Since 2 N
The gear ratio may be

written as :
N In t B t D
GR
N Out t A t C
Reverted Gear train: The driver and driven axes lies on
the same line. These are used in speed reducers, clocks
N
t t
and machine tools.
GR A B D
ND
t A tC
If R and T=Pitch circle radius & number of teeth of the

gear
RA + RB = RC + RD and
tA + tB = tC + tD
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Theory of Machines
Epicyclic Gear Train: Epicyclic means one gear revolving upon and around another. The design
involves planet and sun gears as one orbits the other like a planet around the sun.
The diagram shows a gear B on the end of an arm. Gear B meshes with gear C and revolves
around it when the arm is rotated. B is called the planet gear and C the sun.
Suppose gear C is fixed and the arm A makes one revolution. Determine how many revolutions
the planet gear B makes.
Step
Action
Revolve all once
Revolve C by 1 revolution, keeping the arm fixed
tC
tB
-1
tC
tB
Add
Step 1 is to revolve everything once about the center.

Step 2 identify that C should be fixed and rotate it backwards one revolution keeping the arm
fixed as it should only do one revolution in total. Work out the revolutions of B.
Step 3 is simply add them up and we find the total revs of C is zero and for the arm is 1.
The number of revolutions made by B is 1
tC
t B
Note: that if C revolves -1, then the direction of B is opposite so
tC
.
tB
Page 175
Theory of Machines
Part 5.3: Flywheel

A flywheel is a device which serves as a reservoir to store energy when the supply of energy is
more than the requirement and releases energy when the requirement is more than the supply.
Thereby, it controls the fluctuation of speed of the prime mover during each cycle of operation.
5.3.1 Turning Moment Diagram
A turning moment diagram also known as a crank effort diagram is the graphical representation
of the turning moments for different positions of the crank.
Turning Moment Diagram for Single-cylinder Double acting Steam Engine:
g
Torque
crank angle,
FIG. 5.3.1.1
It can be observed from Fig. 5.3.1.1 that during the outstroke (

) the turning moment is
maximum when the crank angle is little less than 9 ( 2) zero when the crank angle is zero
(). Similar turning moment diagram is obtained during the instroke (
).
Note that the area of the turning-moment diagram is proportional to the work done per
revolution as the work is the product of turning-moment & the angle turned.
The mean torque against which the engine works is given by
mean torque and is the mean height of the turning-moment diagram.
where
is the
When the crank turns from angle

to
(Fig. 5.3.1.1), the work done by the engine is
represented by area
. But the work done against the resisting torque is represented by the
area
. Thus, the engine has done more work than what has been taken from it. The excess
work is represented by the area
. This excess work increases the speed of the engine and is
stored in the flywheel.
During the crank travel from
or
the work needed for the external resistance is
proportional to
, whereas the work produced by the engine is represented by the area under
. Thus, during this period, more work has been taken from the engine that is produced. The
loss is made up by the flywheel which gives up some of its energy & the speed decreases during
this period.
Similarly, during the period of crank travel from
to , excess work is again developed and is
stored in the flywheel and the speed of the engine increases. During the crank travel from
to
, the loss of work is made up by flywheel and the speed again decreases.
The area
,
,
&
represent fluctuations of energy of the fly wheel. When the crank is
at b, the flywheel has absorbed energy while the crank has moved from a to b and thereby, the
speed of the engine is maximum. At c, the flywheel has given out energy while the crank has
moved from b to c and thus, the engine has a minimum speed. Similarly, the engine speed is
Page 176
Theory of Machines
again maximum at d & minimum at a. Thus, there are two maximum & two minimum speeds for
the turning-moment diagram.
The difference between the greatest & the least speeds of the engine over one revolution is
known as the fluctuation of speed
Turning Moment Diagram for Single-cylinder Four stroke Engine:
Turning moment
p
0
SUCTION
EXHAUST
EXPANSION
COMPRESSION
Fig.5. 3.1.2
In case of a four-stroke IC engine, the diagram repeats itself after every two revolutions instead
of one revolution as for a steam engine. It can be seen from the diagram (Fig. 5.3.1.2) that for the
majority of the suction stroke, turning moment is ve but becomes ve after point p. During the
compression stroke, it is totally ve. It is ve throughout the expansion stroke & again ve for
most of the exhaust stroke.
Turning Moment Diagram for Multi-cylinder Engine:
Mean
Torque
Torque
1st
2nd
3rd
Fig. 3.1.3
As observed in the foregoing paragraphs, the turning-moment diagram for a single cylinder
engine varies considerably & a greater variation of the same is observed in case of four stroke,
single-cylinder engine. For engines with more than one cylinder, the total crank shaft torque at
Page 177
Theory of Machines
any instant is given by the sum of the torques developed by each cylinder at the instant. For
example, if an engine has two cylinders with cranks at 90, the resultant turning moment
diagram has a less variation than that for a single cylinder. In a three-cylinder engine having its
cranks at 120, the variation is still less.
Fig. 5.3.1.3 shows the turning moment diagrams for a multi-cylinder engine. The mean torque
line ab intersects the turning moment curve at a, b, c, d & e. The area under the wavy curve is
equal to the area
. As discussed earlier, the speed of the engine will be maximum when the
crank positions correspond to b, d & minimum corresponding to a, c, e.
Fluctuation of Energy:
Let ,
be the areas in work units of the portions above the mean torque ae of the turning
moment diagram (Fig. 5.3.1.3) these areas represent quantities of energies added to the
flywheel. Parallely areas ,
below ae represents quantities of energies taken from the
flywheel.
The energies of the flywheel corresponding to positions of the crank are as follows.
Crank position
a
b
Flywheel energy
E
E+
E+
d
e
E+
E+
The greatest of these energies is the maximum kinetic energy of the flywheel & for the
corresponding crank position, the speed is maximum.
The least of these energies is the least kinetic Energy of the fly wheel & for the corresponding
crank position, the speed is minimum.
The difference between the maximum & minimum kinetic energies of the fly wheel is known as
the maximum fluctuation of energy.
Whereas the ratio of this maximum fluctuation of energy to the work done per cycle is defined as
the co-efficient of fluctuation of energy.
The difference between the greatest speed & the least speed is known as the maximum
fluctuation of speed & the ratio of the maximum fluctuation of speed to the mean speed is the coefficient of fluctuation of speed.
5.3.2 Size of Flywheel
There are two types of flywheels: disc type & arm type. In the arm type of flywheel, the weight of
the flywheel is mainly located in the rim & the arms & boss do not contribute much in storing the
energy.
Page 178
Theory of Machines
The whole weight of the flywheel is assumed to be concentrated in the rim of the flywheel,
therefore it is usual practice to neglect the weight of the arms and the boss in the design of the
flywheel.
I = moment of Inertia of the Flywheel
maximum speed =
minimum speed =
mean speed =
Kinetic energy of the Flywheel at mean speed
Maximum fluctuation Energy
Co-efficient of fluctuation of speed
(
). (radius of gyration)
,
where,
is the average speed, ks =
is the coefficient of fluctuation of speed
The Hoop stress in the flywheel can be determined by assuming it is as a ring.

Hoop stress,
Where,
is the density of the rim &
is its peripheral speed.
If b & d be the respective width and diameter of the flywheel & t its thickness, then
.
Co-efficient of Fluctuation of energy (
):
Excess energy developed by the engine between two cranks positions.

where,
.
where,
mean torque
mean speed =
&
4 for steam engine &

4 for four stroke IC engine.
Page 179
Theory of Machines
Part 5.4: Vibrations

Vibration refers to oscillations about an equilibrium point. A system vibrates when, it is possible
for energy to be converted from one form to another and back again. There are three types of
vibrations viz. Free Vibrations, Damped Vibrations & Forced Vibrations
5.4.1 Free Vibration
A free vibration is one that dies away with time due to energy dissipation. Usually there is some
initial disturbance. Following this initial disturbance the system vibrates without any further
input. This is called the transient vibration or free vibration. Consider the motion of the
spring/mass system when it is initially disturbed and then allowed to vibrate freely. The
displacement of the mass with time, x(t), is measured from the static equilibrium position, i.e.
the rest position.
If the spring has a linear stiffness k, then
= kx.
If at some time t the mass is displaced an amount x(t) in the positive direction as shown.
Then there will be a force on the mass from the spring of kx(t).
hus from Newtons second law of motion using a free body diagram,
m + kx(t) = 0
. . .5.4.1.1
Equilibrium
position
x(t)
Equation (5.4.1.1) is called the equation of motion. The equation is unchanged if gravity effects
are included. The solution of the equation of motion gives,
x(t) = x(0) cos
( )
where x(0) is the initial displacement from the equilibrium position; (0) is the initial velocity.
The frequency n is called the undamped natural frequency and is given by
Thus for an initial displacement but with no initial velocity the motion is sinusoidal with an
amplitude x(0) and frequency n,
x(t) = x(0) cos
Page 180
Theory of Machines
The undamped natural frequency does not depend on the initial conditions or the amplitude of
motion. It only depends on the mass and stiffness.
5.4.2 Damped Vibrations
Real vibration systems have a source of energy dissipation and it is convenient to represent this
by a massless viscous damper as shown. This produces a drag force opposing the motion which
depends on the velocity of the mass.
Thus the damping coefficient c, of the damper, results in an additional force
( ) on the mass.
hus from Newtons second law of motion using a free body diagram, the equation of motion is,
m +
Equilibrium
position
( ) + kx(t) = 0
. . . 5.4.2.1
x(t)
It is useful to divide equation (5.4.2.1) by m so that rearranging we obtain,

( )
Where
as
( )
( )=0
. . . 5.4.2.2
is the undamped natural frequency as before and the viscous damping ratio is defined
The solution of equation (5.4.2.2) has different forms depending on the value of .
If the initial conditions are x(0) and (0) then for
x(t) =
[ ( )
x(t) =
[ ( )
x(t) =
[ ( )
[ ( )
( )]
[ ( )
( )] ]
[ ( )
( )]
Logarithmic decrement: or damping ratio < 1.0 then vibration will occur and the motion is
defined by
Page 181
[ ( )
x(t) =
[ ( )
( )]
Theory of Machines
and looks like

x(t )
)
x(t
It can be shown that, if the amplitudes on any two successive peaks are measured, the ratio of
these amplitudes is constant. For any value of m, the log decrement will be
ln[x(
)] = 2
This equation can be rearranged to give,
or small values of ,
5.4.3 Forced vibration
A forced vibration is usually defined as being one that is kept going by an external excitation. We
now come to look at the vibration of a one degree of freedom system when there is an externally
applied force. The system will respond to the force. The response will depend on the particular
forcing function. We will look at a forcing function that illustrate most of the main effects
resulting from external forces.
It is a sinusoidally varying force that has a particular frequency which is popularly known as
harmonic excitation.
F sin t
x(t)
he equation of motion when the force input f(t) is sin t is

( )
( )
( )
. . . 5.4.3.1
Page 182
Theory of Machines
The mathematical solution of the equation of motion may be achieved in various ways. It will be
found that after an initial transient (depending on initial conditions and start up effects from
applying the sinusoidally varying force) the motion becomes a steady sinusoidal displacement.
This situation is known as the steady state.
The steady state solution for x(t) can be shown to be
x(t)
Where x = [(
X sin ( t
)
. . .5. 4.3.2
and tan = (
) ]
X is the displacement amplitude and is the phase angle between displacement and force.
It is common to non-dimensionalize these equations so that
5. 4.3.3
[[
+ ]
+ ]
and tan =
. . . 5.4.3.4
*
Where
and
The equation may be presented in graphical form,

5
= 0.1
4
3
2
1
0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
is known as magnification factor (MF)

M.F 1 as
M.F 0 as
Page 183
Theory of Machines
Notes:
The response curve has a resonance. The resonance is at a frequency
There is thus no resonance (i.e. no peak in the response) when
t resonance the response peak equals 2 for small . he value of may be determined from
the response curve for small . he phase varies from 0 to 180 degrees, i.e. the displacement
lags the force.
Resonance:
Resonance
5
4
3
= 0.1
2
1
0
0.5
1.5
1.0
2.0
3.0
2.5
Resonant frequency
Resonance occurs, i.e. X/
when
(
is a maximum, when (X/X ) /dt is zero. This can be shown to be
2 )
However note that there is no real solution for

when > 1/2, i.e the response continuously
falls with frequency. The final point of interest is the response amplitude at resonance, X/X
For small values of , X/X is equal to 1/(2 ).
Vibration Isolation: Vibration forces generated by machines and other causes are often
unavoidable; however, their effects on a dynamical system can be minimized by proper isolator
design. An isolation system reduces the excessive vibration transmission to the delicate objects
from its supporting structure.
The force to be isolated is transmitted through spring and damper. Its equation is
(c X) = kX
(kX)
. . . 5.4.3.5
The ratio of transmitted force to that of disturbing force is known as Transmissibility ratio (TR).
Mathematically, it is
| |
+ ]
. . . 5.4.3.6
*
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Machine Design
Part 6: Machine Design

Part 6.1: Theory of Failures
6.1.1 Theories of Failure under Static Load

The strength of machine members is based upon the mechanical properties of the materials
used. Since these properties are usually determined from simple tension or compression tests,
predicting failure in members subjected to uniaxial stress is both simple and straight-forward.
But the problem of predicting the failure stresses for members subjected to bi-axial or tri-axial
stresses is much more complicated, that a large number of different theories have been
formulated. The principle theories of failure for a member subjected to tri-axial stress are as
follows:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Maximum principle (or normal) stress theory (also known as Rankines theory).
Maximum shear stress theory (also known as Guests or Trescas theory).
Maximum principle (or normal) strain theory (also known as Saint Venant theory).
Maximum strain energy theory (also known as Haighs theory).
Maximum distortion energy theory (also known as Hencky and Von Mises theory).
Octahedral Shearing Stress theory.
Ductile materials have identifiable yield strength that is often same in compression as in tension
(Syt = Syc = Sy ).
Brittle materials, do not exhibit identifiable yield strength, and are typically classified by
ultimate tensile and compressive strengths, Sut and Suc, respectively (where Suc is given as a
positive quantity)
Maximum principle or Normal Stress Theory (Rankines Theory) for Brittle materials
The elastic failure or yielding occurs at a point in a member when the maximum principle or
normal stress reaches the limiting strength of the material in a simple tension test irrespective
of the value of other two principle stresses, i.e., when
Since the limiting strength for ductile materials is yield point stress and for brittle materials is
ultimate stress, the maximum principle or normal stress ( ) is given by
Where,
Yield stress in tension as determined from simple tension test
Ultimate stress
FOS = Factor of Safety
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Since this theory ignores the possibility of failure due to shearing stress, it is not used for ductile
materials.
However, for brittle materials which are relatively strong in shear but weak in tension or
compression, this theory is generally used.
Maximum Shear Stress Theory (Guests or Trescas Theory) for ductile materials.
The elastic failure occurs when the greatest shear stress reaches a value equal to the shear stress
at elastic limit in a simple tension test.
(
or
Maximum Principle Strain Theory (Saint Venants Theory)

The elastic failure occurs when the greatest principle (or normal) strain reaches the elastic limit
point (i.e. strain at yield point) as determined from a simple tensile test.
According to the above theory, the elastic failure will occur, when
,
)-
This theory over-estimates the elastic strength of ductile materials.

Maximum Strain Energy Theory (Beltramis or Haighs Theory) for ductile materials
The failure or yielding occurs when the strain energy per unit volume in a strained material
reaches the limiting strain energy (i.e. strain energy at the yield point ) per unit volume as
determined from simple tension test.
According to this theory, the maximum energy which a body can store without deforming
plastically is constant for that material irrespective of the manner of loading.
,
))-
This theory breaks down for a case when,

And in that case failure is predicted when
(
But in fact with this type of loading (i.e.,) when there is uniform pressure all round (hydrostatic
pressure), no failure occurs.
This theory may be used for ductile materials.
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Shear Strain energy or Maximum Distortion Energy Theory (Hencky and Von Mises Theory)
The failure or yielding occurs at a point in a member when the distortion strain energy (also
called shear strain energy) per unit volume in the stressed material reaches the limiting
distortion energy (i.e. distortion energy at yield point) per unit volume as determined from a
simple tension test. Mathematically, the maximum distortion energy theory for yielding is
expressed as
(
Fig. 6.1.1 The distortion-energy (DE) theory for plane stress states
This theory is mostly used for ductile materials in place of maximum strain energy theory.
Note: The maximum distortion energy is the difference between the total strain energy and the
strain energy due to uniform stress.
Octahedral Shearing Stress Theory
According to this theory, the critical quantity is the shearing stress on the octahedral plane. The
plane which is equally inclined to all the three principle axes is called the octahedral plane.
Fig. 6.1.2 Octahedral surfaces
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) -
Where,
Octahedral shearing stress
Failure is said to occur when
This theory is supported quite well by experimental evidences and is identical to Von Mises
theory.
6.1.2 Theories of failure for two dimensional stresses:
Taking
as zero, the above equations reduce to
1. Maximum principle stress theory
2. Maximum principle strain theory

(
)
3. Maximum shear stress theory
(a) For like tensile stresses
(b) For unlike stresses
4. Maximum strain energy theory
5. Maximum distortion energy theory
6.1.3 Significance of theories of failure

Mode of failure of a ductile material differs from that of brittle material. It depends on a large
number of factors like
Nature and Properties of the material

Type of loading
Shape of member
Temperature of member, etc.
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If the loading conditions are suitably altered, a brittle material may be made to yield before
failure. Hence, design of a member requires the determination of the mode of failure (yielding
or fracture), and the factor (such as stress, strain and energy) associated with it. Full scale tests
simulating all conditions would be ideal but not practicable.
In practice, in complex loading conditions, the factor associated with failure has to be identified
and precautions taken to ensure that this factor does not exceed maximum allowable value
determined on the basis of suitable tests (uniform tension or torsion) on the material in the
laboratory.
Results of many laboratory tests on ductile material shows shear stress from torsion tests varies
between 0.55 and 0.6 of the yield strength determined from tension tests. This result agrees
with shear strain energy theory and octahedral shear stress theory. The maximum shear stress
theory predicts that the shear yield value is 0.5 times the tensile yield value, which is about 15%
less than the value predicted by the other two theories.
The maximum shear stress theory gives design values on the safe side and is widely used in
design with ductile materials.
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Part 6.2: Fatigue

6.2.1 Stress concentration
Whenever a machine component changes the shape of its cross-section, the simple stress
distribution no longer holds good and the neighbourhood of the discontinuity is different. This
irregularity in the stress distribution caused by abrupt changes of form is called stress
concentration.
It occurs for all kinds of stresses in the presence of fillets, notches, holes, keyways, splines,
surface roughness or scratches etc.
Fig. 6.2.1
In the above member with different cross-section under a tensile load, the nominal stress in the
right and left hand sides will be uniform but in the region where the cross-section is changing, a
re-distribution of the force within the member must take place. The maximum stress occurs at
some point on the fillet and is directed parallel to the boundary at that point.
Theoretical or Form Stress Concentration Factor:
The theoretical or form stress concentration factor is defined as the ratio of the maximum stress
to the nominal stress at the same section based upon net area.
Maximum stress
Nominal stress
The value of Kt depends upon the material and geometry of the part.
In static loading, stress concentration in ductile materials is not so serious as in brittle

materials, because in ductile materials local deformation or yielding takes place which
reduces the concentration. In brittle materials, cracks may appear at these local
concentrations of stress which will increase the stress over the rest of the section.
In cyclic loading, stress concentration in ductile materials is always serious because the
ductility of the material is not effective in relieving the concentration of stress caused by
cracks, flaws, surface roughness, or any sharp discontinuity in the geometrical form of the
member. If the stress at any point in a member is above the endurance limit of the material, a
crack may develop under the action of repeated load and the crack will lead to failure of the
member.
Stress Concentration due to Holes and Notches:

Consider a plate with transverse elliptical hole and subjected to a tensile load as shown in the
figure.
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Fig. 6.2.2 Stress Concentration due to holes

From the stress-distribution, the stress at the point away from the hole is practically uniform
and the maximum stress is induced at the edge of the hole. The maximum stress is given by
(
and the theoretical stress concentration factor,

(
When a/b is large (a), the ellipse approaches a crack transverse to the load and the value of Kt
becomes very large. When a/b is small (b), the ellipse approaches a longitudinal slit and the
increase in stress is small. When the hole is circular (c), then a/b = 1 and the maximum stress is
three times the nominal value.
Fig. 6.2.3 Stress Concentration due to notches

The stress concentration in the notched tension member, is influenced by the depth a of the
notch and radius r at the bottom of the notch. The maximum stress, which applies to members
having notches that are small in comparison with the width of the plate, may be obtained by the
following equation,
(
Methods of Reducing Stress Concentration:

Maintain or improve the spacing of the stress flow lines that tend to bunch up and cut very
close to the sharp re-entrant corner, by providing
Fillets and
Notches ( when not possible to use large radius fillets as in case of ball and roller bearing
mountings)
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The stress concentration effects of a press fit may be reduced by making more gradual
transition from the rigid to the more flexible shaft
6.2.2 Dynamic loading
The stresses which vary from a minimum value to a maximum value of the same nature,
(i.e. tensile or compressive) are called fluctuating stresses.
Fig. 6.2.4
The stresses which vary from zero to a certain maximum value are called repeated
stresses.
Fig. 6.2.5
The stresses which vary from a minimum value to a maximum value of the opposite
nature (i.e. from a certain minimum compressive to a certain maximum tensile or from a
minimum tensile to a maximum compressive) are called alternating stresses.
Fig. 6.2.6
The variable stress, in general, may be considered as a combination of steady (or mean or
average) stress and a completely reversed stress component.
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1. Mean or average stress,
2. Reversed stress component or alternating or variable stress,
Note: For repeated loading, the stress varies from maximum to zero (i.e.
= 0) in each cycle.
3. Stress ratio,
For completely reversed stresses, R = 1

For repeated stresses, R = 0.
R cannot be greater than unity.
4. Relation between endurance limit and stress ratio
Where,
Endurance limit for any stress range represented by R.
Endurance limit for completely reversed stresses, and
Stress ratio.
6.2.3 Fatigue
When a material is subjected to repeated stresses, it fails at stresses below the yield point
stresses. Such type of failure of a material is known as fatigue.
The fatigue of material is effected by the size of the component, relative magnitude of static and
fluctuating loads and the number of load reversals.
Fatigue failure is due to crack formation and propagation. A fatigue crack will typically initiate at
a discontinuity in the material where the cyclic stress is a maximum.
Discontinuities can arise because of:
Design of rapid changes in cross section, keyways, holes, etc. where stress
concentrations occur
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Elements that roll and/or slide against each other (bearings, gears, cams, etc.) under
high contact pressure, developing concentrated subsurface contact stresses that can
cause surface pitting or spalling after many cycles of the load.
Carelessness in locations of stamp marks, tool marks, scratches, and burrs; poor joint
design; improper assembly; and other fabrication faults.
Composition of the material itself as processed by rolling, forging, casting, extrusion,
drawing, heat treatment, etc. Microscopic and submicroscopic surface and subsurface
discontinuities arise, such as inclusions of foreign material, alloy segregation, voids, hard
precipitated particles, and crystal discontinuities.
Conditions that accelerate crack initiation:
residual tensile stresses

elevated temperatures
temperature cycling
corrosive environment
high-frequency cycling
Fatigue-Life Methods
Stress-life method
Strain-life method
Linear-elastic fracture mechanics method
These methods attempt to predict the life in number of cycles to failure, N, for a specific level of
loading.
N 103
- low-cycle fatigue
N > 103
- high-cycle fatigue
Stress-life method:
Based on stress levels only

Least accurate approach, especially for low-cycle applications.
Easiest to implement for a wide range of design applications,
Has ample supporting data, and
Represents high-cycle applications adequately.
Strain-life method:
More detailed analysis of the plastic deformation at localized regions where the stresses
and strains are considered for life estimate
Good Method for low-cycle fatigue applications
In applying this method, several idealizations must be compounded, and so some
uncertainties will exist in the results.
Fracture mechanics method:
Assumes a crack is already present and detected. It is then employed to predict crack
growth with respect to stress intensity.
Most practical when applied to large structures in conjunction with computer codes and
a periodic inspection program.
Fatigue Strength and the Endurance Limit:
The strength-life (S-N) diagram provides the fatigue strength Sf versus cycle life N of a material.
The results are generated from tests using a simple loading (R. R.Moore high-speed rotatingTHE GATE ACADEMY PVT.LTD. H.O.: #74, Keshava Krupa (third Floor), 30th Cross, 10th Main, Jayanagar 4th Block, Bangalore-11
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beam machine) of standard laboratory controlled specimens. The loading often is that of
sinusoidally reversing pure bending. The laboratory-controlled specimens are polished without
geometric stress concentration at the region of minimum area.
Fig. 6.2.7 Test-specimen geometry for the R.R. Moore rotating beam machine.
Fig. 6.2.8 S-N diagram for steel, normalized; Sut = 116 kpsi; maximum Sut = 125 kpsi.
Fig. 6.2.9 S-N bands for representative aluminum alloys, excluding wrought alloys with Sut < 38
kpsi
For steel and iron, the S-N diagram becomes horizontal at some point. The strength at this point
is called the endurance limit [maximum value of the completely reversed bending stress which a
polished standard specimen can withstand without failure for infinite number of cycles (usually
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107 cycles)]. Se and occurs somewhere between 106 and 107 cycles. For non-ferrous materials
that do not exhibit an endurance limit, a fatigue strength at a specific number of cycles, Sf , may
be given. The strength data are based on many controlled conditions that will not be the same as
that for an actual machine part. What follows are practices used to account for the differences
between the loading and physical conditions of the specimen and the actual machine part.
The term endurance limit is used for reversed bending only while for other types of loading, the
term endurance strength may be used when referring the fatigue strength of the material. It may
be defined as the safe maximum stress which can be applied to the machine part working under
actual conditions.
Endurance Limit Modifying Factors:
Modifying factors are defined and used to account for differences between the specimen and the
actual machine part with regard to surface conditions, size, loading, temperature, reliability, and
miscellaneous factors.
Factor of Safety for Fatigue Loading:
When a component is subjected to fatigue loading, the endurance limit is the criterion for failure.
Therefore, the factor of safety should be based on endurance limit. Mathematically,
Factor of safety (FOS)
For Steel,
.
Where,
= Endurance limit stress for completely reversed stress cycle, and
= Yield point stress.
Factors to be Considered while Designing Machine Parts to Avoid Fatigue Failure:
The variation in the size of the component should be as gradual as possible.

The holes, notches and other stress raisers should be avoided.
The proper stress de-concentrators such as fillets and notches should be provided
wherever necessary.
The parts should be protected from corrosive atmosphere.
A smooth finish of outer surface of the component increases the fatigue life.
The material with high fatigue strength should be selected.
The residual compressive stresses over the parts surface increases its fatigue strength.
Fatigue Stress Concentration Factor:

When a machine member is subjected to cyclic or fatigue loading, the value of fatigue stress
concentration factor shall be applied instead of theoretical stress concentration factor. Since the
determination of fatigue stress concentration factor is not an easy task, therefore from
experimental tests it is defined as
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Fatigue stress concentration factor,
Notch Sensitivity Factor:

The notch sensitivity of a material is a measure of how sensitive a material is to notches or
geometric discontinuities. Mathematically, it is expressed as
Combination of Mean Stress and Fluctuating stress:

The mean stress can have a significant effect on the failure due to fatigue and must be
considered in combination with the alternating stress.. (Under normal fatigue loading conditions
the mean stress is small compared to the alternating stress.)
A number of interaction criteria are used to quantify the combined stress and the relevant
design factors of safety. These are plotted together below
Soderberg Line
Stress Amplitude
Gerber Line
Goodman Line
Modified Goodman Line
Mean Stress
The Mean Stress

on the vertical axis.
is plotted on the horizontal axis and the alternating stress
is plotted
Soderberg Line
If the point of the combined stress is below the Soderberg line then the component will not fail.
This is a very conservative criteria based on the material yield point S
To establish the factor of safety relative to the Soderberg Criteria
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Goodman Line/Modified Goodman Line

If the point of the combined stress is below the relevant Goodman line then the component will
not fail. This is a less conservative criteria based on the material Ultimate strength yield point
S
To establish the factor of safety relative to the Goodman Criteria
Gerber Line
If the point of the combined stress is below the Gerber line then the component will not fail. This
is a less conservative criteria based on the material Ultimate strength S
To establish the factor of safety relative to the Gerber Criteria
(
S
S
S
N
= The Modified fatigue strength

= The ultimate tensile strength
= The yield tensile strength
= The Factor of Safety applicable for Fatigue
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Part 6.3: Design of Machine Elements

6.3.1 Design of riveted joints
Types of riveted joints and joint efficiency:
Riveted joints are mainly of two types
1. Lap joints
2. Butt joints
Table 6.3.1.Efficiencies of riveted joints (in %)
Joints
Lap
Butt (double
strap)
Efficiencies (in %)
Single riveted
50-60
Double riveted
60-72
Triple riveted
72-80
Single riveted
55-60
Double riveted
76-84
Triple riveted
80-88
Few parameters, which are required to specify arrangement of rivets in a riveted joint are as
follows:
a. Pitch: This is the distance between two centers of the consecutive rivets in a single row.
(usual symbol p)
b. Back Pitch: This is the shortest distance between two successive rows in a multiple
riveted joint. (usual symbol p or p )
c. Diagonal pitch: This is the distance between the centers of rivets in adjacent rows of
zigzag riveted joint. (usual symbol d )
d. Margin or marginal pitch: This is the distance between the centre of the rivet hole to the
nearest edge of the plate. (usual symbol m)
These parameters are shown in figure 6.3.1.7.
Figure 6.3.1.7 Important design parameters of riveted joint

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Strength of riveted joint:

Strength of a riveted joint is evaluated taking all possible failure paths in the joint into account.
Since rivets are arranged in a periodic manner, the strength of joint is usually calculated
considering one pitch length of the plate. There are four possible ways a single rivet joint may
fail.
a) Tearing of the plate: If the force is too large, the plate may fail in tension along the row (see
figure 6.3.1.2). The maximum force allowed in this case is
P
s (p
d)t
where s = allowable tensile stress of the plate material

p = pitch
d = diameter of the rivet hole
t = thickness of the plate
Figure 6.3.1.2 Failure of plate in tension (tearing)

b) Shearing of the rivet: The rivet may shear as shown in Figure 6.3.1.3 . The maximum force
withstood by the joint to prevent this failure is
P
s . d /
for lap joint, single strap butt joint
s . d /
for double strap butt joint
where s = allowable shear stress of the rivet material.
Figure 6.3.1.3 Failure of a rivet by shearing
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c) Crushing of rivet: If the bearing stress on the rivet is too large the contact surface between
the rivet and the plate may get damaged. (see Figure 6.3.1.4). With a simple assumption of
uniform contact stress the maximum force allowed is
P
s dt
where s = allowable bearing stress between the rivet and plate material.
Figure 6.3.1.4 Failure of rivets by

d) Tearing of the plate at edge: If the margin is too small, the plate may fail as shown in figure
6.3.1.5. To prevent the failure a minimum margin of m = 1.5d is usually provided.
Figure 6.3.1.5 Tearing of the plate at the edge

Efficiency:
Efficiency of the single riveted joint can be obtained as ratio between the maximum of P , P and
P and the load carried by a solid plate which is
s pt. Thus
efficiency ()
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In a double or triple riveted joint the failure mechanisms may be more than those discussed
above. The failure of plate along the outer row may occur in the same way as above. However, in
addition the inner rows may fail. For example, in a double riveted joint, the plate may fail along
the second row. But in order to do that the rivets in the first row must fail either by shear or by
crushing. Thus the maximum allowable load such that the plate does not tear in the second row
is
P
s (p
d)t
min*P P +
Further, the joint may fail by

(i) shearing of rivets in both rows
(ii) crushing of rivets in both rows
(iii) shearing of rivet in one row and crushing in the other row.
The efficiency should be calculated taking all possible failure mechanism into consideration.
Design of rivet joints:
The design parameters in a riveted joints are, d, p, and m
Diameter of the hole (d): When thickness of the plate (t) is more than 8 mm Unwins formula is
used,
t mm.
Otherwise d is obtained by equating crushing strength to the shear strength of the joint. In a
double riveted zigzag joint, this implies
s t
d s (valid for t
However, d should not be less than t, in any case. The standard size of d is tabulated in code IS:
1928-1961.
Pitch (p): Pitch is designed by equating the tearing strength of the plate to the shear strength of
the rivets. In a double riveted lap joint, this takes the following form.
s (p
But p
d)t
. d /
d in order to accommodate heads of the rivets.
Margin (m): m = 1.5d

In order to design boiler joints, a designer must also comply with Indian Boiler Regulations
(I.B.R.).
(p : usually 0.33p + 0.67d mm)
6.3.2 Design of welded joints
1. Design of a butt joint: The main failure mechanism of welded butt joint is tensile failure.
Therefore the strength of a butt joint is
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where s = allowable tensile strength of the weld material.
t = thickness of the weld

l = length of the weld.
For a square butt joint t is equal to the thickness of the plates. In general, this need not be so
(see figure 6.3.2.1).
Figure 6.3.2.1 Design of a butt joint

2. Design of transverse fillet joint: Consider a single transverse joint as shown in figure 6.3.2.2.
The general stress distribution in the weld metal is very complicated. In design, a simple
procedure is used assuming that entire load P acts as shear force on the throat area, which is
the smallest area of the cross section in a fillet weld. If the fillet weld has equal base and
height, (h, say), then the cross section of the throat is easily seen to be
. With the above
consideration the permissible load carried by a transverse fillet weld is

P=s
where s = allowable shear stress
= throat area.
For a double transverse fillet joint the allowable load is twice that of the single fillet joint.
Figure 6.3.2.2 Design of a single transverse fillet

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3. Design of parallel fillet joint: Consider a parallel fillet weld as shown in figure 6.3.2.3. Each
weld carries a load P . It is easy to see from the strength of material approach that the
maximum shear occurs along the throat area (try to prove it). The allowable load carried by
each of the joint is s
where the throat area
. The total allowable load is
Figure 6.3.2.3 Design of a parallel fillet joint

In designing a weld joint the design variables are h and l. They can be selected based on the
above design criteria. When a combination of transverse and parallel fillet joint is required
(see figure-6.3.2.4) the allowable load is
P
where
= throat area along the longitudinal direction.

= throat area along the transverse direction.
Figure 6.3.2.4 Design of combined transverse and parallel fillet joint

4. Design of circular fillet weld subjected to torsion: Consider a circular shaft connected to a
plate by means of a fillet joint as shown in figure-6.3.2.5. If the shaft is subjected to a torque,
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Machine Design
shear stress develops in the weld in a similar way as in parallel fillet joint. Assuming that the
weld thickness is very small compared to the diameter of the shaft, the maximum shear
stress occurs in the throat area. Thus, for a given torque the maximum shear stress in the
weld is
(
where T = torque applied.

d = outer diameter of the shaft
t
= throat thickness
I = polar moment of area of the throat section.

=
When, t
,(d
d -
The throat dimension and hence weld dimension can be selected from the equation
s
Fig. 6.3.2.5 Design of a fillet weld for torsion

6.3.3 Design of Shafts
Shaft is a common and important machine element. It is a rotating member, in general, has a
circular cross-section and is used to transmit power. The shaft may be hollow or solid. The shaft
is supported on bearings and it rotates a set of gears or pulleys for the purpose of power
transmission. The shaft is generally acted upon by bending moment, torsion and axial force.
Design of shaft primarily involves in determining stresses at critical point in the shaft that is
arising due to mentioned loading.
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Design based on Strength

The stress at any point on the shaft depends on the nature of load acting on it. The stresses
which may be present are as follows.
Basic stress equations:
Bending stress
(
Where,
M: Bending moment at the point of interest
d : Outer diameter of the shaft
k: Ratio of inner to outer diameters of the shaft ( k = 0 for a solid shaft because inner
diameter is zero )
Axial Stress
(
Where,
F: Axial force (tensile or compressive)
: Column-action factor(= 1.0 for tensile load)
The term has been introduced in the equation. This is known as column action factor. What is a
column action factor? This arises due the phenomenon of buckling of long slender members
which are acted upon by axial compressive loads.
Here is defined as,
. /
for L/K < 115

for L/K > 115
Where,
n = 1.0 for hinged end
n = 2.25 for fixed end
n = 1.6 for ends partly restrained, as in bearing
K = least radius of gyration, L = shaft length
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= yield stress in compression

Stress due to torsion
(
Where,
T: Torque on the shaft
: Shear stress due to torsion
Combined Bending and Axial stress
Both bending and axial stresses are normal stresses, hence the net normal stress is given by,
0
The net normal stress can be either positive or negative. Normally, shear stress due to torsion is
only considered in a shaft and shear stress due to load on the shaft is neglected.
Maximum shear stress theory
Design of the shaft mostly uses maximum shear stress theory. It states that a machine member
fails when the maximum shear stress at a point exceeds the maximum allowable shear stress for
the shaft material. Therefore,
. /
Substituting the values of
and
in the above equation, the final form is,
2C
(C T)
Therefore, the shaft diameter can be calculated in terms of external loads and material
properties. However, the above equation is further standarized for steel shafting in terms of
allowable design stress and load factors in ASME design code for shaft.
6.3.4 Design of Bearings
Bearings are machine elements which are used to support a rotating member viz., a shaft. They
transmit the load from a rotating member to a stationary member known as frame or housing.
They permit relative motion of two members in one or two directions with minimum friction,
and also prevent the motion in the direction of the applied load.
The bearings are classified broadly into two categories based on the type of contact they have
between the rotating and the stationary member
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a. Sliding contact
b. Rolling contact
The sliding contact bearings have surface contact and come under lower kinematic pair.
Journal / sleeve bearings:
Among the sliding contact bearings radial bearings find wide applications in industries and
hence these bearings are dealt in more detail here.
The radial bearings are also called journal or sleeve bearings. The portion of the shaft inside the
bearing is called the journal and this portion needs better finish and specific property.
Depending on the extent to which the bearing envelops the journal, these bearings are classified
as full, partial and fitted bearings. As shown in Fig. 6.3.4.1
(a) Full
(b) Partial
(c) Fitted
Figure 6.3.4.1 Various types of journal bearings.

Petroffs Equation:
The relation between bearing friction and viscosity of the lubricant in a circular journal bearing
which is running truly concentric is given by,
f=
where f = coefficient of friction,

= viscosity,
N = rev/min or rev/sec,
p = pressure and
r, c = radius and radial clearance respectively.
In the above relation the parameter
is called the bearing characteristic or the bearing
modulus. This a very important dimensionless parameter.

is known as the clearance ratio.
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Hydrodynamic lubrication:
If a lubricant film is enclosed in a wedge or tapered gap between the stationary and moving
members, the oil film is drawn into the wedge shape generating a pressure that can support a
load.
It has been shown experimentally that the coefficient of friction varies as shown in Figure
6.3.4.2. In which a curve of f versus is plotted. It is found that the operation of a bearing to the
left of point B, the lubrication is not stable and is known as boundary lubrication.
A
C
f
B
N/P
Figure 6.3.4.2
However, if we are operating in the region BC, the lubrication is stable and is known as thick film
or hydrodynamic lubrication.
When a journal starts rotating in a bearing as shown in Figure 6.3.4.3, below the lubricant is
forced into a wedge shaped (strictly a curved wedge) space by a pumping type of action and the
pressure built up in the wedge supports the load on the journal.
Bearing
Line of centres
Journal
e
c = radial clearance
Figure 6.3.4.3
As a result of the lubricant pressure, a minimum film thickness h occurs, not at the bottom of
the journal, but displaced in the direction of rotation, as shown in the Figure 6.3.4.3. This is
because the lubricant pressure in converging gap reaches maximum at a point to the left of the
bearing centre.
In a journal bearing, the following nomenclature is used.
c is the radial clearance and is the difference in the radii of the bearing and the journal.
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Machine Design
e is the eccentricity and is the distance between the centers O and O of the journal and
bearing respectively.
h is the minimum film thickness and it occurs on the line of centres. (The film thickness
at any other point is normally designated as h)
is the eccentricity ratio = .also
/.
shown in Figure is the angular length of a partial bearing if it is not a full circle.
A bearing in which the radii of the bearing and the journal are equal, is known as a fitted bearing.
Rated life of a ball or roller bearings:

(a) Ball bearings
. /
(b) Roller bearings
. /
where
is the millions of revolutions that 90% of a group of bearings (which are apparently
identical) will complete before any of them develops evidence of fatigue.
When a bearing is installed there is no way of knowing whether it is one of the 90 per cent that
are good or one of the 10 per cent that will not attain the rating life. In other words, one can have
but 90 per cent confidence that the bearing will achieve or exceed its rating life, usually
designated
.
6.3.5 Brakes
A brake is a device by means of which artificial resistance is applied on to a moving machine
member in order to retard or stop the motion of the member or machine
Types of Brakes: Different types of brakes are used in different applications. Based on the
working principle used, brakes can be classified as mechanical brakes, hydraulic brakes,
electrical (eddy current) magnetic and electro-magnetic types.
Mechanical Brakes: Mechanical brakes are invariably used based on the frictional resistance
principles.
In mechanical brakes artificial resistances are created using frictional contact between the
moving member and a stationary member, to retard or stop the motion of the moving member.
Basic mechanism of braking: The illustration below explains the working of mechanical brakes.
An element dA of the stationary member is shown with the braked body moving past at velocity
v. When the brake is actuated contact is established between the stationary and moving member
and a normal pressure is developed in the contact region. The elemental normal force dN is
equal to the product of contact pressure p and area of contact dA. As one member is stationary
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Machine Design
and the other is in relative motion, a frictional force dF is developed between the members. The
magnitude of the frictional force is equal to the co-efficient of friction times the normal force dN
The moment of the frictional force relative to the point of motion contributes to the retardation
of motion and braking. The basic mechanism of braking is illustrated above.
Design and Analysis: To design, select or analyze the performance of these devices knowledge on
the following are required.
The braking torque

The actuating force needed
The energy loss and temperature rise
There are two major classes of brakes, namely drum brakes and disc brakes. Design and analysis
of drum brakes will be considered in detail in following sections, the discussion that follow on
disc or plate clutches will form the basis for design of disc type of brakes.
Drum brakes basically consists of a rotating body called drum whose motion is braked together
with a shoe mounted on a lever which can swing freely about a fixed hinge H. A lining is attached
to the shoe and contacts the braked body. The actuation force P applied to the shoe gives rise to
a normal contact pressure distributed over the contact area between the lining and the braked
body. A corresponding friction force is developed between the stationary shoe and the rotating
body which manifest as retarding torque about the axis of the braked body.
Brakes Classification: Various geometric configuration of drum brakes are illustrated below:
Figure 6.3.5.1
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Machine Design
Drum Brakes are classified based on the shoe geometry. Shoes are classified as being either
short or long. A short shoe is one whose lining dimension in the direction of motion is so small
that contact pressure variation is negligible, i.e. the pressure is uniform everywhere.
When the area of contact becomes larger, the contact may no longer be with a uniform pressure,
in which case the shoe is termed as long shoe. The shoes are either rigid or pivoted, pivoted
shoes are also some times known as hinged shoes. The shoe is termed rigid because the shoes
with attached linings are rigidly connected to the pivoted posts. In a hinged shoe brake the
shoes are not rigidly fixed by hinged or pivoted to the posts. The hinged shoe is connected to the
actuating post by the hinge, G, which introduces another degree of freedom.
Preliminary Analysis: The figure shows a brake shoe mounted on a lever, hinged at O, having an
actuating force F , applied at the end of the lever. On the application of an actuating force, a
normal force F is created when the shoe contacts the rotating drum. And a frictional force F of
magnitude f. F , f being the coefficient of friction, develops between the shoe and the drum.
Moment of this frictional force about the drum center constitutes the braking torque.
(a) Brake assembly
(b) Free-body diagram
Figure 6.3.5.2
Short Shoe Analysis:
For a short shoe we assume that the pressure is uniformly distributed over the contact area.
Consequently the equivalent normal force F
p. , where = p is the contact pressure and A is
the surface area of the shoe. Consequently the friction force Ff = f.Fn where f is the co-efficient of
friction between the shoe lining material and the drum material.
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Machine Design
The torque on the brake drum is then,

T = f Fn. r = f.p.A.r
A quasi static analysis is used to determine the other parameters of braking.
pplying the equilibrium condition by taking moment about the pivot O we can write
M
F a
F b
fF c
Substituting for F and solving for the actuating force, we get,

F
F (b
fc) a
The reaction forces on the hinged pin (pivot) are found from a summation of forces,
i.e.
F
fp
Self energizing:
The principle of self energizing and leading and trailing shoes
With the shown direction of the drum rotation (CCW), the moment of the frictional force f. F c
adds to the moment of the actuating force F . As a consequence, the required actuation force
needed to create a known contact pressure p is much smaller than that if this effect is not
present. This phenomenon of frictional force aiding the brake actuation is referred to as self
energization.
Leading and trailing shoe:
For a given direction of rotation the shoe in which self energization is present is known
as the leading shoe
When the direction of rotation is changed, the moment of frictional force now will be
opposing the actuation force and hence greater magnitude of force is needed to create
the same contact pressure. The shoe on which this is prevailing is known as a trailing
shoe
Self Locking: At certain critical value of f.c. the term (b-fc) becomes zero. i.e no actuation force
need to be applied for braking. This is the condition for self-locking. Self-locking will not occur
unless it is specifically desired.
Short and Long Shoe Analysis:

Foregoing analysis is based on a constant contact pressure p.
In reality, constant or uniform constant pressure may not prevail at all points of contact
on the shoe.
In such case the following general procedure of analysis can be adopted
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Machine Design
General Procedure of Analysis:
Estimate or determine the distribution of pressure on the frictional surfaces

Find the relation between the maximum pressure and the pressure at any point
For the given geometry, apply the condition of static equilibrium to find the actuating
force, torque and reactions on support pins etc.
6.3.6 Clutch
A Clutch is a machine member used to connect the driving shaft to a driven shaft, so that the
driven shaft may be started or stopped at will, without stopping the driving shaft. A clutch thus
provides an interruptible connection between two rotating shafts
To design analyze the performance of these devices, a knowledge on the following are required.
1.
2.
3.
4.
The torque transmitted

The actuating force.
The energy loss
The temperature rise
Friction Clutches: As in brakes a wide range of clutches are in use wherein they vary in their are
in use their working principle as well the method of actuation and application of normal forces.
The discussion here will be limited to mechanical type friction clutches or more specifically to
the plate or disc clutches also known as axial clutches.
Frictional Contact axial or Disc Clutches: An axial clutch is one in which the mating frictional
members are moved in a direction parallel to the shaft. A typical clutch is illustrated in the figure
below. It consist of a driving disc connected to the drive shaft and a driven disc connected to the
driven shaft. A friction plate is attached to one of the members. Actuating spring keeps both the
members in contact and power/motion is transmitted from one member to the other. When the
power of motion is to be interrupted the driven disc is moved axially creating a gap between the
members as shown in the figure.
Figure 6.3.6.2
The applied force can keep the members together with a uniform pressure all over its contact
area and the consequent analysis is based on uniform pressure condition. However as the time
progresses some wear takes place between the contacting members and this may alter or vary
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Machine Design
the contact pressure appropriately and uniform pressure condition may no longer prevail.
Hence the analysis here is based on uniform wear condition
Uniform pressure condition: Assuming uniform pressure and considering an elemental area dA
d
.r dr
The normal force on this elemental area is

dN
.r.dr.p
The frictional force dF on this area is therefore

dF
f.
.r.dr.p
Figure 6.3.6.3 A single-Surface Axial Disk Clutch

Now the torque that can be transmitted by this elemental area is equal to the frictional force
times the moment arm about the axis that is the radius r
i.e. T
dF. r
f. dN. r
f. p. . r
f. p. . . r. dr . r
The total torque that could be transmitted is obtained by integrating this equation between the
limits of inner radius r to the outer radius r
pfr dr
pf(r
r )
Integrating the normal force between the same limits we get the actuating force that need to be
applied to transmit this torque.
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Machine Design
prdr
r ). p
(r
Equation 1 and 2 can be combined together to give equation for the torque
T
r )
r )
(r
(r
fF .
Uniform Wear Condition:

According to some established theories the wear in a mechanical system is proportional to the
PV factor where P refers to the contact pressure and V to the sliding velocity. Based on this for
the case of a plate clutch we can state
The constant-wear rate R
velocity V.
R
pV
is assumed to be proportional to the product of pressure p and

constant
And the velocity at any point on the face of the clutch is V
r.
Combining these equation assuming a constant angular velocity

pr = constant = K
The largest pressure p
p
must then occur at the smallest radius r ,

r
Hence pressure at any point in the contact region

p
In the previous equations substituting this value for the pressure term p and integrating
between the limits as done earlier we get the equation for the torque transmitted and the
actuating force to be applied.
i.e The axial force F is found by substituting p
and integrating equation dN
prdr
for p.
r
/ rdr
r
prdr
.p
r (r
r)
Similarly the Torque

Page 216
r rdr
f p
r (r
Machine Design
r )
Substituting the values of actuating force F

The equation can be given as
T
fF .
(r
r)
Single Clutch and Multiple Disk Clutch
Basically, the clutch needs three parts. These are the engine flywheel, a friction disc called the
clutch plate and a pressure plate. When the engine is running and the flywheel is rotating, the
pressure plate also rotates as the pressure plate is attached to the flywheel. The friction disc is
located between the two. When the driver has pushed down the clutch pedal the clutch is
released. This action forces the pressure plate to move away from the friction disc. There are
now air gaps between the flywheel and the friction disc, and between the friction disc and the
pressure plate. No power can be transmitted through the clutch.
Operation of Clutch: When the driver releases the clutch pedal, power can flow through the
clutch. Springs in the clutch force the pressure plate against the friction disc. This action clamps
the friction disc tightly between the flywheel and the pressure plate. Now, the pressure plate and
friction disc rotate with the flywheel.
As both side surfaces of the clutch plate is used for transmitting the torque a term N is added to
include the number of surfaces used for transmitting the torque
By rearranging the terms the equations can be modified and a less general form of the equation
can be written as
T
N. f. F . R
T is the torque (Nm).

N is the number of frictional discs in contact.
f is the coefficient of friction
F is the actuating force (N).
R is the mean or equivalent radius (m).
Note that N = n1 + n2 1
Where n1 = number of driving discs
n2 = number of driven discs
6.3.7 Flywheel
A flywheel is an inertial energy-storage device. It absorbs mechanical energy and serves as a
reservoir, storing energy during the period when the supply of energy is more than the
requirement and releases it during the period when the requirement of energy is less than the
supply.
Geometry of Flywheel
The geometry of a flywheel may be as simple as a cylindrical disc of solid material, or may be of
spoked construction like conventional wheels with a hub and rim connected by spokes or arms
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Machine Design
Small fly wheels are solid discs of hollow circular cross section. As the energy requirements and
size of the flywheel increases the geometry changes to disc of central hub and peripheral rim
connected by webs and to hollow wheels with multiple arms.
Figure 6.3.7.1
Figure 6.3.7.2 Arm Type Flywheel

The latter arrangement is a more efficient of material especially for large flywheels, as it
concentrates the bulk of its mass in the rim which is at the largest radius. Mass at largest radius
contributes much more since the mass moment of inertia is proportional to mr
For a solid disc geometry with inside radius r and outside radius r , the mass moment of inertia
I is
m
I
mk
r )
(r
The mass of a hollow circular disc of constant thickness t is
W
g
(r
r )t
Combing the two equations we can write

I
(r
r )t
Where is materials weight density

The equation is better solved by geometric proportions i.e by assuming inside to outside radius
ratio and radius to thickness ratio.
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Machine Design
Stresses in Flywheel
Flywheel being a rotating disc, centrifugal stresses acts upon its distributed mass and attempts
to pull it apart. Its effect is similar to those caused by an internally pressurized cylinder
g
g
(
(
8
8
v
) (r
v
) 4r
v
r )
v
r r
r
r 5
material weight density angular velocity in rad sec. v Poissons ratio is the radius to
a point of interest, r and r are inside and outside radii of the solid disc flywheel.
Figure 6.3.7.3
The point of most interest is the inside radius where the stress is a maximum. What causes
failure in a flywheel is typically the tangential stress at that point from where fracture originated
and upon fracture fragments can explode resulting extremely dangerous consequences, Since
the forces causing the stresses are a function of the rotational speed also, instead of checking for
stresses, the maximum speed at which the stresses reach the critical value can be determined
and safe operating speed can be calculated or specified based on a safety factor. Consequently
F. O. S (N) N
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Fluid Mechanics
Part 7: Fluid Mechanics

Part 7.1: Fluid Properties
7.1.1 Fluids
It is defined as a substance which deforms continuously even with a small amount of shear force
exerts on it, whereas a solid offers resistance to the force because very strong intermolecular
attraction exists in it.
Both liquids and Gases come under the fluids.
i) Liquid: has definite volume but no shape for all practical purposes incompressible
ii) Gas: has no shape and volume highly compressible
iii) Vapour: A gas whose temperature and pressure are such that it is very near to the liquid
phase e.g.: Steam
7.1.2 Properties of fluids:
Mass Density
: It is defined as mass per unit volume. Unit: kg / m3, Dimension: M / L3
Absolute quantity i.e., does not change with location

As pressure increases mass density increases. (As large number of molecules are forced into a
given volume)
Specific Weight
: Weight of the substance per unit volume.
Also represents force exerted by gravity on a unit volume fluid.

Mass density and specific weight of a fluid are related as:
where g = acceleration due to gravity

Units: N/m3, Dimensions: ML2T2 or FL3
Specific Volume
: Volume occupied by a unit mass of fluid,
(reciprocal of density)
Units: m3/kg
Specific gravity (G):
Specific gravity, G =
For liquids, standard fluid is water at 40C
For gases, standard fluid is hydrogen or air.
Units: No units (ratio)
Page 220
Fluid Mechanics
Specific gravity of water = 1.0, Mercury = 13.6

Since the density of fluid varies with temperature, specific gravity must be determined and
specified at a particular temperature.
Viscosity: A measure of its resistance to shear or angular deformation. A property by virtue of
which it offers resistance to the movement of one layer of fluid over the adjacent layer. It is due
to Intermolecular cohesion and Transfer of molecular momentum between layers.
Dynamic Viscosity
Units: SI: Pa.sec or N.sec/m2 MKS: kg/m.sec

CGS: Poise = dyne.sec/cm2
Conversion: 1 poise = 0.1 Pa.sec.
Dimensions: M
or F
It is independent of pressure. For Liquids dynamic viscosity decreases with temperature

because molecular momentum increases and cohesion is negligible in gases.
Kinematic Viscosity
Units: S I: m2/sec CGS: cm2/sec or stokes
Dimensions:
L2T
Kinematic viscosity depends on both pressure and Temperature

Cavitation: Occurs in a flow system, dissolved gases (vapour bubbles) carried into a region of
high pressure and their subsequent collapse gives rise to high pressure, which leads to noise,
vibrations and erosion. Cavitation occurs in
1. Turbine runners
3. Hydraulic structures like spillways and sluice gates
2. Pump impellers
4. Ship propellers.
Compressibility: Change in volume (or density) due to change in pressure. Compressibility is

inversely proportional to Bulk Modulus K.
(negative sign indicates a decrease in volume with increase in pressure)
Coefficient of compressibility
Surface tension:
Cohesion: Force of attraction between the molecules of the same liquid.
Adhesion: force of attraction between the molecules of different liquids (or) between the liquid
molecules and solid boundary containing the liquid.
A liquid forms an interface with a second liquid or gas. This liquid air interface behaves like a
membrane under tension. The surface energy per unit area of interface is called Surface Tension.
It can also be expressed as a line surface: Force per unit length.
Page 221
Fluid Mechanics
Units: N/m Dimensions: FL-1 or MT-2.

Surface tension is due to cohesion between liquid molecules. As temperature increases
surface tension decreases (because cohesion decreases)
Due to cohesion, surface tension pressure changes occur across a curved surface of
(i) Liquid jet (ii) droplet
(iii) soap bubble.
A) Liquid jet: Increase in Pressure inside and outside of liquid jet
where d = dia of jet
B)
Liquid drop:
where d = dia of drop let
C)
Soap bubble:
where d = dia of bubble.
Capillarity: The phenomenon of rise or fall of a liquid surface relative to the adjacent general
level of liquid in small diameter tubes. The rise of liquid surface is designated as capillary rise
and lowering is called capillary depression. It happens due to both cohesion and adhesion.
Water
Figure. 7.1.2
Units: cm or mm of liquids
Capillary rise: If the adhesion > cohesion
For e.g., Mercury depressive with convex upwards is capillary rise or fall
. . . (7.1.1)
mercury
Figure. 7.1.3
surface tension
Page 222
angle of contact between liquid and boundary
d = dia. of tube
Fluid Mechanics
00 Water and glass
300 Mercury and gases
For tube dia. > 12mm capillary effects are negligible. Hence the dia. of glass tubes used for
measuring pressure (manometers, piezometer etc.) should be large enough.
7. .3 Newtons aw of Viscosity:
moving plate
U
F
Gap filled
with fluid
d
Stationary plate
Figure. 7.1.4
Shear stress time rate of deformation angular deformation
Where F is the Force required to move the surface Area A
or
u y
Differential form:
where
( )
Shear stress; du dy
. . . (7.1.2)
Velocity gradient;
Dynamic viscosity
According to Newtons law of viscosity for a given shear stress acting on fluid
which fluid deforms (u / y) is inversely proportional to viscosity
.
, the rate at
7.1.4 Types of fluids:

Ideal Fluid or Perfect Fluid:
Non viscous (frictionless) and incompressible

Used in the mathematical analysis of flow problems
Does not exist in reality
Does not offer shear resistance when fluid is in motion.
Real Fluid:
Possess the properties such as viscosity, surface tension and compressibility.

Resistance is offered when they are set in motion.
Page 223
Fluid Mechanics
Newtonian Fluids:
Which obeys Newtons aw of Viscosity

Newtonian fluids have constant viscosity (Viscosity is independent of shear stress)
There will be linear relationship between shear stress and resulting rate of deformation. e.g.:
air, water, light oils and gasoline
Q
Thixotropic
Bingham plastic
D
E
P
Newtonian
G
Dilatant
C Pseudoplastic
B
Ideal fluid
Figure. 7.1.5
du / dy
Non Newtonian Fluids:
Do not follow the Newtons law of viscosity
Relationship between shear stress and

velocity gradient is
( )
Where A and B are constants depend upon the type of fluid and conditions imposed on
flow. Based on power index n and constant B Non Newtonian fluids are
i) B = 0 and n > 1
(represented by OE in Figure 7.1.5)
Dilatant Fluids, e.g.: Butter, quick sand
ii) B = 0 and n < 1
(represented by OC in Figure 7.1.5) Pseudoplastic
e.g.: Blood, Paper Pulp, Polymeric solutions such as rubber, suspension paints.
iii)
(represented by PD in the Figure 7.1.5)
Bingham plastic Eg: Sewage sludge drilling mud require minimum shear stress known as
yield stress before they start flowing.
iv) Thixotropic Fluids: Printers ink, lipstick
Time dependent fluid i.e., viscosity depends upon both shear stress and duration of
application.
Viscosity increases or decreases with time.
e.g.: Paints and enamels, when subjected to high shear by the brush during application of
paints, the apparent viscosity is reduced the paint covers the surface smoothly and brush
marks disappears subsequently.
Page 224
Fluid Mechanics
Part 7.2: Fluid Statics

7.2.1 Fluid Pressure
The normal force exerted by a fluid per unit area of the surface
Units: N/m2 (Pascal)
1 bar = 105 N/m2 = 100kPa
Dimensional Formula: ML-TT-2 (or) FL-2
1 MPa = 10 bar
Absolute pressure = Atmospheric Pressure + Positive Gauge Pressure.

Absolute Pressure = Atmospheric Pressure Vacuum Pressure.
Pascals aw: Intensity of pressure at any point in a fluid at rest is same in all the directions.
i) Viscosity of fluid has no effect on fluids at rest, therefore ideal and real fluids behave in a
similar manner.
ii) If the fluid is in motion, shear stresses occur and normal stresses are no longer same in all
directions at a point of a real fluid.
iii) If the fluid is in motion and fluids is ideal (frictionless) then no shear stresses, hence the
pressure at any point is same in all the directions.
W
piston
P
P
Figure 7.2.1
iv Application of Pascals aw-Hydraulic Press:
Assumption: Pressure variation due to height neglected and friction force is neglected.
A = area of plunger
Wt. W lifted
W = (F/a) A
Where A = Area of piston.
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Fluid Mechanics
Intensity of Pressure (Variation of pressure in a static fluid):
Where
specific weight of the fluid

vertical distance measured from a datum (positive upward)
The linear variation of pressure with depth below the free surface is known as hydrostatic
pressure distribution.
Measurement of Fluid Pressure:

a) Piezometer: It consists of a glass tube, open at one end to the atmosphere and another end
inserted in the wall of a pipe or a vessel. The height upto which the liquid rises in the tube is
called pressure head and the pressure
Suitable for measuring moderate gauge pressures of liquids. Not suitable for high pressures,
suction pressures and pressures of gases.
b) Manometer: Pressure measuring device based on the principle of balancing the column of a
liquid (whose pressure is to be found) by the same or another column of liquid.
i) U Tube Manometer: Consists of a U shaped bend unit whose one end is attached to
the gauge point and other is open to the atmosphere. Can measure both positive as well
as negative pressures. Contains liquid of specific gravity greater than that of the fluid of
which the pressure is to be measured.
ii) Inverted U Tube Manometer: Consists of an inverted U Tube containing a light liquid.
- This is used only to measure the difference of low pressures between two points
where better accuracy is required. It generally consists of an air cock at top.
iii) Differential Manometer: A U Tube manometric liquid heavier than the liquid for which
the pressure difference is to be measured, and is not immiscible with it (generally
mercury).
iv) Micro Manometer: Modified form of a simple manometer whose one limb is made of
large cross sectional area.
- Measurement of very small pr. differences with very high precision is made possible.
c) Mechanical Gauges: Generally used for measuring high pressures where high precision is not
required. Eg. Bourdon pressure gauge measures gauge pressures.
d) Aneroid Barometer: used to measure local atmospheric pressure. (Absolute pressure)
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Fluid Mechanics
7.2.2 Forces on Submerged Bodies:

Forces on Plane Surface:
a) Horizontal Plane
b) Vertical Plane
c) Inclined Plane
F
M
F = .A.
MN Plane surface to paper
F = .A.
F = .A.
Figure 7.2.2
Note:
i) Force F always acts normal to the plane surface.
ii) The value of F is independent of the angle of inclination of the plane as long as the depth of
centroid
is unchanged.
iii) Total Force F = Area Pressure at the centroid = .
iv) Pressure Prism Concept:
i) Total force F = volume of pressure prism
= area of pressure diagram X width of plane
ii) Force F acts at the C.G. of the pressure prism.
v) Centre of pressure (C.P): The point of application of resultant force (F).
= M.I. of the section about an axis parallel o X passing through C.G. of the area.
v) C.P is always below the C.G as the depth of immersion is increased, the C.P. approaches the
C.G
Centre of Pressure (CP) on Inclined Plane:
Figure 7.2.3
NOTE:
i) CP always lies below CG.
ii) As the depth of immersion is more, CP comes closer to CG.
iii) From eq. it is evident that the position of CP is independent of i.e. may be varied by
rotating the surface provided h remains unchanged.
Page 227
Fluid Mechanics
Forces on plane surface (Applications):

i) Dam: Pressure prism concept is easier for plane rectangular surfaces.
(1m length of dam)
F acts at h = 2/3 h from top
ii) Lock Gates: (*) Lock Gates are used in docks and at the tail end of a river for navigational
purposes.
F = Hydrostatic Force = F
F
R = Resultant Reaction
Forces on Curved Surfaces:
D
Total Force = F =
h
= Horizontal component
C
Force on vertical Projection of the given area
= vertical component
L
F
B
= wt. of liquid prism vertically above it.

= wt. of liquid prism represented by ABCDE
Figure 7.2.5
7.2.3 Buoyancy
The resultant force exerted on a submerged or floating body in a static liquid is called Buoyancy
Force F .
(i) The Buoyancy force is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the body.
ii The Buoyancy force acts through the CG of the displaced volume called Centre of Buoyancy
(C .
CB
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Fluid Mechanics
(iii) A floating body displaces a volume of fluid whose weight is equal to the weight of the body.
Stability of Submerged Bodies:
G = center of gravity
B = center of buoyancy
Submerged body is in stable equilibrium when

(i) Buoyancy Force F
W
Here W = Weight of body
(ii) CB lies above CG
Stable Equilibrium:
A slight rotational displacement generates forces which oppose the change of position and tend
to bring the body to its original position.

Unstable Equilibrium:
(i) When CG lies above CB.
(ii) The over turning couple produced due to a slight disturbance will cause the body to move
away from its original position.
M
BM > BG
G
B
Neutral Equilibrium:
(i)
When CG coincides with CB.
Page 229
Fluid Mechanics
7.2.4. Floating Bodies: Stability

(ii)
Buoyancy Force (F ) is equal to the weight of the liquid displaced by the body and acts
through the CG of the displaced liquid.
(iii) The body is in stable equilibrium if the meta centre lies above its CG. *i.e., BM > BG)
(iv) Meta Centre
c
a
M
W
Figure 7.2.6
B = Centre of Buoyancy (CB)

B is the shift in CB due a tilt through small angle .
The new CB (B cuts the vertical axis of the body (line cd) vertically at a point M Meta
centre).
(v)
Meta Centric Height (

)
(a) The distance between the centre of gravity G and the meta centre M of the floating
body i.e., GM as 0 is known as Meta Centric Height.
(b) The Meta Centric Height is independent of magnitude of angular rotation as long as
it is small) and is given by
GM = (I / V) BG if M is above G stable
GM = BG I V if M is below G unstable
Y
X
dA
Y
Figure 7.2.7
Where I = second moment of area of water plane (m4) about an axis passing through centre
of area and perpendicular to the axis of tilted longitudinal axis =
V = volume of liquid displaced by the body (m3).
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Fluid Mechanics
(c) The distance

is called Meta Centric radius.
It depends upon the geometry of vessel and draft (depth of submergence).
For e.g: For a vessel M.I. does not change but V displaced vol. becomes less when load
is removed.
(vi) Period of Rolling:
Time Period
.
k radius of gyration m.
meta centric height in m.
If GM is large the Time Period of roll will reduce i.e., more stable vessel will have less period
of roll.
Period of Rolling (T) is inversely proportional to stability and directly proportional to radius
of gyration (k).
The meta centric height of ocean-going vessel is usually 30 cm to 1.2 m. for war ships it
ranges from 1 m to 1.5 m.
As meta centric height increases less comfort to passenger (because less period of roll) but
more stability.
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Fluid Mechanics
Part 7.3: Fluid Kinematics

7.3.1 Velocity of a Fluid Flow:
lim
V = f(x, y, z, t)
In x-direction,
Classification of Flow:
(a) (i) Steady Flow: At any point of the flowing fluid, various characteristics such as velocity,
pressure density temperature etc., do not change with time.
Mathematically, ( ) 0 . . ( ) ( ) 0
( )
0( )
0( )
e.g.: Flow of fluid through a pipe at constant rate of discharge.

(ii) Unsteady Flow: Flow parameters at any point change with time.
i.e., ( )
( ) 0( ) 0
0
e.g.: Flow in which the quantity of liquid per second is not constant.
(b) (i) Uniform Flow: When the velocity of flow of fluid does not change both in magnitude and
direction from point to point in the flowing fluid, at any given instant of
time.
i.e., (
0
e.g.: Flow of liquids under pressure through long pipe lines of constant diameter.
(ii) Non Uniform Flow: If the velocity of flow of fluid changes from point to point in the flowing
fluid at any instant of time.
Table: 1, 2 and 3 dimensional flows:
Type of Flow
Eg:
Unsteady
Steady
3 dimensional
Flood flows
V = f (x, y, z, t)
V = f (x, y, z)
2 dimensional
flow between plates
V = f (x, y, t)
V = f (x, y)
1 dimensional
shooting flows
V = f (x, t)
V = f (x)
Flow Pattern:
(a) Stream Line: An imaginary curve drawn through a flowing fluid in such away that the tangent
to it at any point gives the direction of the velocity of flow at that point. Also called as flow
line, since flow is along the stream lines.
Type of Flow
3 dimensional
2 dimensional
Differential Equation of Stream Line

dx / u = dy / v = dz / w
dx / u = dy / v (or) u dy V dx = 0
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Fluid Mechanics
Y
V
V
0
Figure 7.3.1
Stream lines indicate tracing of motion of a group of particles.

There can be no fluid flow across a stream line.
For steady flow, stream line pattern remains same at different times. For unsteady flow it
varies from time to time and hence instantaneous.
(b) Stream Tube: An imaginary tube formed by a group of stream lines passing through a small
closed curve.
There can be no flow across a stream tube.
Only in a steady flow, a stream tube is fixed in space.
(c) Path Line: The line traced by a single fluid particles as it moves over a period of time.
(d) Streak Line: A line traced by a fluid particle passing through a fixed point in a flow field.
e.g.: The trail of a colour dye injected at a point.
In steady flow a streak line, stream line and a path line are all identical.
Acceleration of a fluid particle (a)
(a) Cartesian Co-ordinates:
v=i.u+j.v+k.w
a
( )
.( )
.
a
( )
.( )
.(
.( )
.(
.( )
.( )
.(
(b) Local Acceleration or Temporal Acceleration:

Expressions that represent rate of increase of velocity with respect to time.
e.g:
,
.
(c) Convective Acceleration: Terms that represent the rate of increase of velocity due to
particles change of position.
In uniform flow convective acceleration is zero.
Note: In steady flow the local acceleration is zero, but the convective acceleration is not
necessarily zero and hence total or substantial acceleration is not necessarily zero. However if
flow is uniform also, convective acceleration is zero and therefore total acceleration is zero.
(d) Tangential and Normal Acceleration:
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Fluid Mechanics
Unlike velocity vector, the acceleration vector has no specific orientation with respect to
stream line i.e., it need not always be tangential to stream line. Therefore, at any point it may
have acceleration components both tangential and normal.
Tangential Acceleration is developed when the magnitude of velocity changes with respect to
space and time.
Normal Acceleration is developed when a fluid particle moves in a curved path i.e., simply due to
change in direction of velocity of fluid particle, regardless of whether the magnitude of the
velocity is changing (or) not. For steady flow .A. zero O a
V.
Tangential Acceleration,
a
( )
.
Normal Acceleration,
a
( )
Where
r = radius of curvature of stream line
V = tangential component of velocity
V = normal component of velocity
= local tangential acceleration
= local normal acceleration
.
= convective tangential acceleration
.
= convective normal acceleration
For steady flow, a
V.
a
V r
Note: If the stream lines are
(i) Equidistant, Tangential convective acceleration is zero.
(ii) Straight (not curves), Normal convective acceleration is zero.
If the stream lines are straight and parallel to each other, there is no acceleration.
If the stream lines are curved and equidistant there will be only normal convective acceleration.
If the stream lines are curved and converging, then both normal and tangential convective
accelerations.
If stream lines are diverging, instead of acceleration will be corresponding retardation.
7.3.2 Continuity Equation:
Basis: Principle of conservation of mass mass can neither be created nor destroyed
(a) Differential form (in Cartesian co ordinates):
(i) For compressible fluids, (
0,
(ii) For incompressible fluids, ( u/
( ) ( ) 0 vertically the divergence of
velocity vector .V=0
Assumptions:
(1) Flow is steady. (2) Flow is incompressible. (3) Velocity is uniform over a cross section.
(b) In one dimensional analysis (Flow through a stream tube):
For compressible fluids, p A V
p A V.
Page 234
For incompressible fluids, A V
Fluid Mechanics
A V.
Assumptions for equation

.
(i) Flow is steady (ii) Flow is incompressible (iii) Flow is one dimensional over the cross
section (iv) Velocity is uniform at the across section (v) No branching of steam tube.
When there is variation of velocity across the cross section of a tube, for an incompressible
fluid discharge,
Q=
Rotational and Irrotational Motions:

(a) Rotational Flow: If the fluid particles while moving in the direction of flow rotate about their
mass centers.
e.g: Liquid in rotating tanks where the velocity of each particle varies directly as the distance
from the centre of rotation.
(b) Irrotational Flow: If the liquid particles while moving in the direction of flow do not rotate
about their centers.
Mathematically in irrotational flow curl of velocity vector V 0.
True irrotational flow exists only in ideal fluids.
If at every point in the flowing fluid, the rotation components ,
and
are equal to
zero, then the flow is known as irrotational.
For
0
[ w dy
v z ] 0 w y
y z
For
0
[ u dx
w x ] 0 u z
w x
For 2-dimension irrotational flow
w
0 ( ) *( ) ( )+ 0 ( ) ( )
For fluids or flows of large viscosity, flow is invariably rotational.
For fluids such as air and water having small viscosity, the flow in the region away from
boundary may be treated as irrotational.
In the case of rapidly converging or accelerating flows, flow may be treated as irrotational.
Circulation and Vorticity:
(a) Circulation : Flow along a closed curve (i.e., the flow in eddies in vertices) It is the line
integral of the tangential component of the velocity taken round a closed contour.
[ v x
Capital Gamma Greek
u y ] .
(b) Vorticity : The limiting value of circulation divided by the area of closed contour, as the
area tends to zero.
Vorticity = circulation / area
[ v x
u y ]
Note: Vorticity = 2 rotation component W . i.e.
. (zeta)
Stream Function (): It is a scalar function of space and time such that its partial derivative with
respect to any direction gives the velocity component at right angles (in counter clockwise
direction) to this direction.
i.e. x v and y =
Laplace Equation for :
For an irrotational flow, x
y
0
Page 235
Also (
y)
Fluid Mechanics
x) This will be true if is a continuous function and its second
derivative exists)
Any function which is continuous is a possible case of fluid flow.
It is constant along a stream line.
The difference of stream functions for two stream lines is equal to the flow rate between them.
Potential Function (): A scalar function of space and time such that its negative derivative with
respect to any direction gives the fluid velocity in that direction.
( ) v
( ) w
( ).
aplace Equation for :
z
0
Any function that satisfies the aplace equation is a possible irrotational flow.
Velocity potential exists only for irrotational flows.
Lines of constant are called equipotential lines and these lines will form orthogonal grids
with constant lines.
Stream Lines, Equipotential Lines and Flow Net:
Stream line is given by constant.
Equipotential line is given by
constant.
Stream lines and equipotential lines intersect each other orthogonally at all points of
intersection. (Reason: The product of slopes of tangents of these two lines is 1.)
A grid obtained by drawing a series of stream lines and equipotential lines is known as Flow
Net
Flow Net can be drawn for
(i) Steady Flow (ii) Irrotational flow and (iii) When the flow is not governed by gravity force.
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Fluid Mechanics
Part 7.4: Fluid Dynamics

Dynamics of fluid flow is defined as that branch of science which deals with the study of fluids in
motion considering the forces which cause the flow.
7.4.1 Equations of Motion
A fluid in motion is broadly subjected to various forces as detailed below.
a) Body or Volume forces: These are proportional to the volume of body. Ex: weight,
centrifugal force etc.
b) Surface forces: These are proportional to the surface area. Ex: Pressure force, shear or
tangential force, turbulence force, force of compressibility etc.
c) Linear Forces: Proportional to length. Ex: surface tension
Forces acting on a fluid in motion: The various forces that may influence are due to gravity,
pressure, viscosity, turbulence, surface tension and compressibility.
a) According to Newtons Second aw of motion F Ma
Ma F
F
F
F
F
F
b) Reynolds equations of motion: For laminar or viscous flows, turbulence forces are also
neglected.
Ma F
F
F
F
c) Navier Stokes equations: For laminar or viscous flows, turbulence forces are also
neglected.
Ma F
F
F
d) Eulers equations of motion: If the fluid is ideal viscous forces are also insignificant.
Ma F
F
7.4. Eulers equations of motion
Only pressure and gravity forces (self weight which is a body force) are considered. The
equations are,
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
X, Y, Z are components of body force per unit mass at a point.

Note: In derivation of above equations, no assumption has been made that the mass density
is
constant. Hence these equations are applicable to compressible or incompressible, non-viscous
fluids in steady or unsteady state of flow.
Integration of Eulers equation of motion: Integration of Eulers equation yields the Energy
equation under the following assumptions.
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Fluid Mechanics
a) There exists a force potential () which is defined as that whose negative derivative with
respect to any direction gives the component of body force per unit mass in that
direction.
X
x
Y
y
Z
z
b) The flow is irrotational, i.e., the velocity potential exists (or) the flow may be rotational,
but is steady.
7.4.3 Bernoullis Equation:

a) Integration of Eulers equation for steady incompressible and frictionless flow yields the
Bernoullis equation.
constant This is for ideal fluids.
i.e., total energy of a particle remains constant.
Note: It is applicable to all points in the flow field i.e., for all the stream lines, the value of
constant is same.
Assumption made are:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Flow is steady
Flow is irrotational
Flow is incompressible
Flow is non-viscous i.e., density is constant
Flow is continuous
Velocity is uniform over a cross section
Fluid is ideal.
b) For real fluids there will be some loss of energy between two points.
( )
( )
( )
( )
(energy equation)
Here h = energy loss

In the above equation each term represents Energy per unit weight.
c) When the flow is steady but may not be irrotational i.e., rotational flow: In this case,
Bernoullis equation is applicable only to particular stream line that is the value of constant
is different for different stream lines.
d) Basis for Bernoullis equation is aw of conservation of Energy. Therefore it is also called
Energy equation.
Energies in fluid motion:
a) Datum head: A liquid particle Z metres above a reference datum is same said to possess
a potential head or datum head Z.
b) Pressure head: P/W in metres. (It is due to energy possessed by a body).
c) Velocity head: V /2g (It is due to kinetic energy).
d) Piezometric head: (P/W) + Z.
Kinetic energy correction factor : In one dimensional method of analysis, the average velocity
V is used to represent the velocity at a cross section. The actual velocity distribution in the
cross section may be non-uniform. Hence the kinetic energy calculated by using V must be
multiplied by a correction factor, to obtain kinetic energy at the cross section due to nonuniform velocity distribution.
( ) .
Here U = Velocity at point.
Page 238
For uniform velocity distribution
= 1.0
For laminar flow through a pipe
= 2.0
For turbulent flow through a pipe
= 1.01 to 1.20
Fluid Mechanics
7.4.4 Practical applications of Bernoullis theorem:

The application of Bernoullis Equation includes:
1. Flow measurement:
a) Pitot Tube: Pitot tube consists of a glass tube bent through 90 . The lower end of the tube
faces the direction of flow. The liquid rises up in the tube due to pressure exerted by the
liquid flow.
It is used to measure velocity of flow at any section of a pipe or channel.
The basic principle: If the velocity of flow at a particular point is reduced to zero, known as
stagnation point, the pressure there is increased due to conversion of kinetic energy into
pressure energy and level of water rises.
In the Figure 7.4.1 A is the
stagnation point. The pressure at
stagnation point is called Stagnation
pressure.
Static pr. head
h
(h
)
Stagnation head
A
Dynamic head (h)
Figure 7.4.1
Stagnation pressure head Static pressure head h Dynamic pressure head h

= h + h (h = difference between stagnation pressure and static pressure)
We have, h = V
g. V =
Actual velocity V = c
, Where c = pitot tube constant
]
With U tube manometer reading x h x [ S s
Note:
1. A pitot measures stagnation pressure head (or the total head) at dipped end.
2. A pitot tube measures both static pressure and stagnation pressures.
b) Venturimeter: It consists essentially of the following parts:
Page 239
Fluid Mechanics
Converging cone
Diverging cone
Inlet
Taper angle20
Taper Angle 5
Throat
Figure 7.4.2
i) An inlet section (U tube)

ii) Converging cone
iii) Throat
iv) Divergent cone
Pressure taps are provided at the inlet section and throat.
Use: For determining discharge in pipes i.e., rate of flow of liquid.
Q
(a a gh)
Where Q = theoretical discharge, a = area of cross section at inlet,

a = area of cross section at throat, h = venturi head.
P W
P W , i.e., h = pressure head at inlet pressure head of throat.
Actual discharge = coefficient of discharge C
Q .
C for venturi metre = 0.98 (generally)
C is a function of Reynolds number diameter ratio roughness of surface velocity
distributions at inlet and outlet.
h = X (Sm/S 1), if U tube manometer used.
h = X (1 Sm/S), if inverted U tube manometer is used.
X = difference in levels of manometric liquid.
S = specific gravity of manometric liquid.
S = specific gravity of liquid in pipe.
h = head in terms of flowing fluid.
c) Orifice meter: It consists of a plate having a sharp edged circular hole known as orifice which
is fixed inside the pipe whose discharge is required.
area a0
area a
Figure 7.4.3
Page 240
Fluid Mechanics
Use: For measuring discharge through pipes.

(a a gh)
Discharge Q =
a
a
d) Nozzle meter: Used for measuring discharge.
When compared to venturimeter diverged part is omitted, and therefore a greater
dissipation of energy.
Stream lined
Convergent nozzle
Figure
7.4.4
Basic equations are same as those for venturimeter.

Coefficient of discharge is almost same as that for a venturimeter.
e) Other flow measurement devices are:
i)
Rota meter ii) Elbo meter (or) pipe bend meter
2. Analysis of fluid flow
a) Free Liquid Jet: It is a steady curvilinear flow of liquid with a free surface in which at all
points the pressure is atmospheric. Under the action of gravity the liquid jet traverses a
parabolic path known as trajectory.
L
Figure 7.4.5
Bernoullis equation is used for analysis.

Since the pressure head is zero at every point, the sum of velocity and datum head is
constant.
a) Maximum vertical elevation of jet profile, H = V sin
b) Range (L) =
for maximum range
45 )
b) Vortex Motion: A rotating of fluid is known as Vortex and the motion of rotating mass of
fluid is known as Vortex motion. Different types of Vortex motion are described below :
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Fluid Mechanics
i) Free Vortex motion: Is that in which the fluid mass rotates without any external force
being impressed and the expenditure of energy from any external source takes place.
Ex: 1) A whirl pool in a river.
2) A wash basin (or) bath tub draining water through an outlet at a bottom.
3) Flow of liquid in a centrifugal pump casing after it has left the impeller.
4) Flow of water in a turbine casing before it enters the guide vanes.
No external torque is required to be exerted on the fluid mass. Therefore, the rate of change
of angular momentum of the flow must be zero.
i.e.,
0 i.e., v.r = constant
(i.e., the velocity of flow in a free vortex motion varies inversely with the radial distance
from center of vortex motion).
As r 0 v the point where the velocity V becomes infinity is called singular point.
Flow field of a vortex motion is everywhere irrotational except at the axis and therefore it is
also called irrotational vortex motion or potential vortex motion.
The equation v.r = constant, is applicable only to the region farther away from the central
region of free vortex motion which occurs frequently is known as Rankine Vortex motion.
Ex: Motion of air mass in tornado.
ii) Forced Vortex motion: Forced vortex motion occurs when a constant torque is applied to
a fluid mass. Ex: Cylinder rotated about its vertical axis at a constant angular velocity
Relation: V =r w, w = angular velocity i.e., velocity of flow is directly proportional to its
radial distance from the axis of rotation.
Equation of pressure variation: p r
rw
Important points:
a) On any horizontal plane the fluid pressure increases with the square of the radial
distance from center of vortex motion.
b) Surfaces of constant pressure are paraboloids of revolution.
c) The free surface is a special surface of constant pressure and is also a paraboloid of
revolution.
d) Forced vortex is basically a rotational motion.
iii) Spiral Vortex motion:
A combination of cylindrical vortex motion and radial flow.
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Fluid Mechanics
Part 7.5: Boundary Layer

7.5.1 Boundary Layer
When a solid body is immersed in a fluid, there is a narrow region of the fluid in the
neighborhood of the solid body, where the velocity of fluid varies from zero to free stream
velocity. This narrow region of fluid is called Boundary ayer.
In this region velocity gradient du dy exists and hence the fluid exerts a shear stress on the wall
in the direction of motion given by
.
Note: Outside the boundary layer velocity is constant and therefore velocity gradient and shear
stress are zero.
Laminar Boundary Layer: The boundary layer is called laminar boundary layer if the flow in the
boundary layer exhibits all the characteristics of a laminar flow, irrespective of whether the
incoming flow is laminar or turbulent.
Reynolds number is less than 5
for flow over flat plate.
Reynolds number is less than 2
for flow over sphere.
For flow over flat plates Re = Vx /

Where V = free stream velocity
x = distance from leading edge.
= kinematic viscosity of fluid.
Turbulent Boundary Layer:
Reynolds number is more than 5
for flat plates
Reynolds number is more than 2
for sphere
Factors affecting boundary layer thickness along a smooth plate:

a) It increases as the distance from leading edge increases.
b) It decreases with the increase in the velocity in the direction of flow of the approaching
stream of fluid.
c) Greater is the kinematic viscosity of fluid, greater is the Boundary Layer thickness.
d) Boundary layer thickness is affected by pressure gradient in the direction of flow. If the
pressure gradient is negative (converging flow), it accelerates the retarded fluid in the
Boundary Layer and hence its growth is retarded. If pressure gradient is positive
(divergent flow), the fluid in the Boundary Layer is further decelerated and hence assists
in thickening of boundary layer. In the later case back flow and separation may be
caused.
Laminar Sub-layer ( ): If the plate is very smooth, even in the region of turbulent boundary
layer, there is a very thin layer adjacent to the boundary, in which flow is laminar. This layer is
known as aminar Sub-layer.
.6 v V.
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Fluid Mechanics
Thickness of Boundary Layer:

Nominal Thickness ( ): The distance y from the boundary surface at which velocity of fluid is
approximately equal to 0.99 times free stream velocity.
Displacement Thickness
: The distance by which the boundary surface would have to be
displaced outwards so that the total actual discharge would be same as that of an ideal fluid past
the displaced boundary
Momentum Thickness : The distance from the actual boundary such that the momentum flux
corresponding to the main stream velocity V through this distance is equal to the deficiency
or loss
Energy Thickness
: The distance from the actual boundary such that the energy flux
corresponding to the main stream velocity V through this distance
is equal to the deficiency
or loss in energy due to the boundary layer formation.
Note: Shape factor of Boundary Layer =
U
U=0.99 y
U
0.99 u
u
y
Nominal & displacement

thickness
Relative magnitudes of
, ,
Von Karman momentum Integral equation of Boundary Layer:

Here
shear stress at surface.
This is applied to
(i) Laminar Boundary
(ii) Transition boundary layer and
(iii)
Turbulent boundary layer flows.
Assumptions:
1) steady flow
2) Two dimensional flow
3) Incompressible
Page 244
Fluid Mechanics
Laminar Boundary Layer thickness:

K is a constant x
(i)
distance from leading edge

(or)
Kx v V
As per Blasius K
Further,
(
(ii)
5
( .
),C
local or shear stress coefficient.
Total horizontal force (skin friction drag) on one side of plate

F
B ( )
B dx = C
Where B = width of plate
L = length of plate
Average drag coefficient (or) Total frictional drag coefficient C
Where R
(iii)
The velocity Distribution is infact parabolic for laminar boundary layer. Being smaller
in thickness it can be assumed as linear distribution.
Relation between and for Laminar Boundary Layer
,
,
3 for linear distribution velocity
Transition from Laminar Boundary Layer between R
Critical R
5
0
.3
0 to 4
Transition from laminar Boundary Layer

If R lies between .3
0 to 4
Turbulent Boundary Layer:

Usually thicker than laminar ones.
R = 5 0 to 0 . Velocity distribution is logarithmic or
(i)
.
.
(ii) Local drag coefficient C
Average drag coefficient C

As per schlitching, C
if 5 0 < Re < 0
.
.
if 0
Separation of Boundary Layer: Boundary Layer separation takes place due to adverse or positive
pressure gradient. i.e., when dp/dx > 0 and
0. In fact separation starts when
0
Thus,
(i) ( )
(ii) ( )
0 condition for separation.

ve condition for attached flow.
Page 245
(iii) ( )
Fluid Mechanics
ve condition for detached flow.
At the separation point shear stress is zero and velocity gradient v y
P min
Effective pressure gradient on
boundary layer separation
7.5.2 Dimensional Analysis
Dimensional analysis is a method to describe a physical phenomenon by a dimensionally correct
equation among certain variables which affect the phenomenon. It reduces the number of
variables and arranges them into dimensionless groups useful for phenomenon which defy
analytical solution and must be solved experimentally.
Fundamental dimensions: Mass (M), Length (L), time (T) and temperature (Q). In place of mass,
the force is also considered as a fundamental quantity.
Dimensional Homogeneity: Dimensional analysis is based on Fouriers Principle of Dimensional
Homogeneity. An equation is said to be dimensionally homogeneous if the form of the equation
does not depend upon the units of measurement. To satisfy this condition, the dimensions of
each side of equation must be same.
The empirical equations involving numerical coefficients are dimensionally non homogeneous
Methods of Dimensional analysis:
Total number of variables = number of Independent variables + one dependent variable.
Rayleighs Method: Gives a special form of relationship among the dimensionless groups.
Drawbacks:
1. It does not provide any information regarding the number of dimensionless groups to be
obtained as a result of dimensional analysis.
2. The method becomes rather cumbersome when a large number of parameters are
involved.
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Fluid Mechanics
Buckingham Theory (or method of repeating variables): It offers an advantage over

Rayleighs method in letting us know in advance of the analysis as to how many dimensionless
groups are to be expected.
The method expresses the equation in terms of dimension less groups terms
Number of terms
variables
n-m) where n = total number of variables, m = number of repeating
Selection of repeating variables:

1. A variable describing geometry of flow such as diameter, length,
2. A fluid property ex: Viscosity, density, surface tension, elasticity and vapour pressure.
3. A variable characterizing the fluid motion. Eg. Velocity, acceleration, discharge.
Note: The nature or form of the dimensionless
selection of repeating variables.
terms would entirely depend upon the
Matrix approach Number of dimensionless groups:

The number of dimensionless groups n r where r Rank of dimensional matrix. It is the order
of the determinant whose value is not equal to zero.
As per Buckingham theorem m is the number of repeating or Fundamental variables but the
number of fundamental variables depend on the system used. If for a phenomenon F and are
chosen fundamental dimensions m = 2. But F = M T . Hence if M-L-T system is chosen, m = 3.
The dimensional matrix method avoids the confusion over value of m depending on system.
Model and prototype: Prototype is the full size machine. Model is the tool for studying the
behavior of a prototype. It may be larger, smaller or even of the same size as the prototype.
Types of similarity: For complete similarity to exist between the model and its prototype. It is
necessary that it must be geometrically, kinematically and dynamically similar.
a) Geometric similarity:
Similarity of shape, to satisfy this condition the ratios of the corresponding lengths in the
model and its prototype must be same.
This ratio is also known as scale factor
b) Kinematic similarity: Similarity of motion. Streamline pattern in model must be same as
that in its prototype. The ratios of kinematic quantities flow characterizing such as time,
velocity, acceleration and discharge must be same at all corresponding points.
i.e., t
c) Dynamic similarity: Corresponding forces have the same ratio throughout the flow field
i.e., similarity of forces.
Note:
i) For either dynamic or kinematic similarity to exist geometric similarity is a prerequisite.
ii) If two flow fields are dynamically similar, they are necessarily, kinamatically and
geometrically similar
Various force ratios:
Page 247
Fluid Mechanics
a) Reynolds number (Re): Inertia force/viscous force =

significance:
i) completely submerged flow (air planes, torpedo etc)
ii) completely submerged flow (air planes, for flow through pipes and plates)
iii) viscous flow (settling of particles fluids) flow in flow meters in pipes (venturimeter,
orifice meter etc).
b) Froude Number
: Inertia force/gravity force = V/g
Significance: For open channel flow where free surface is present, wave action as in
breakwaters and ships, hydraulic structures such as spillways, stilling basins, weirs and
notches, forces on Bridge piers and off shore structures.
c) Euler number (R): V / .
. It is derived from ratio of Inertia and pressure forces.
Reciprocal of Euler number is called Newton number.

Significance: In cavitation studies, the pressure force is important in addition to the
viscous force, and the dynamic similarity will be obtained when the Reynolds and Euler
numbers are kept the same for model and prototype.
d) Cauchy number: Inertia force/Elastic force =
e) Mach number (M): Stream velocity / Acoustic velocity in the fluid
medium =
Significance: For compressible flows, high speed flows, motion of objects like aeroplane
and projectiles through air at super sonic speeds.
f) Weber Number (W): Inertia force/surface tension force =
Significance: In formation of water droplet or bubbles, flows of shallow depth over
spillways, dams etc., for dynamic similarity to exist between a model and a prototype,
R
R m F
F m E p
E m M p
M m and W
W m, depending on
the significance of various forces.
7.5.3 Lift & Drag
A fluid moving relative to a rigid boundary exerts force on the boundary. Shear stresses acting
on surface and pressure acting normal to the boundary give rise to forces which would add up
vectorially to give a resultant force on the body. The component of the resultant force in the
direction of relative velocity V of the flow past the body is called Drag. The component of the
resultant normal to the relative velocity is known as ift.
Page 248
Fluid Mechanics
Lift force occurs only when the axis of body is inclined to the direction of flow. If the axis of body
is parallel to the direction of flow, lift force is zero, only drag force acts. If fluid is assumed ideal
and body is symmetrical such as sphere or cylinder, both the drag and lift are zero.
Vo
Lift
P
Resultant
Drag
(a) Streamlined body: A body whose surface coincides with streamlines.

(b) Bluff body: If the surface of body does not coincide with stream lines.
Drag: Total drag is made of two parts. Frictional drag (Due to-shear stresses) + Pressure drag
(due to pressure difference).
Total drag F
Where C
total drag coefficient
A = characteristic area of the body
Fn (geometry, Re, F , M) In general
= Fn (geometry, Re) for incompressible and non free surface flows

A = Frontal or projected area for blunt shaped objects such as spheres, cylinders, cars,
projectiles, Missiles etc., = Plan area used for thin flat surfaces (frictional forces are
predominant e.g. vanes and hydrofoils). = Wetted area. E.g. for boats, barges and ships
Note: A new cricket ball is roughened to convert approaching flow laminar boundary layer to
turbulent one. Due to this C reduces and the drag resistance and hence the ball can be bowled
at greater speeds.
Comparison of drag force on vertical disc, sphere and streamlined body:
i.
A vertical disc normal to the flow is mainly subjected to pressure drag since the wake
size is very large.
ii. Streamlined body is predominantly subjected to shear drag and pressure drag is very
less due to very small wake.
iii. The total drag in sphere is approximately 1/3 of that of vertical disc.
iv. The total drag on streamlined body is approximately about 1/40th of that of vertical disc.
Lift: Lift force occurs normal to the direction of relative motion V .
F
C . A.
where C
lift coefficient
A = Characteristic area
For an airfoil or hydro foil vane, characteristic area is plain area

C
For incompressible flow,
C or C
where R
Page 249
Fluid Mechanics
Part 7.6: Flow through pipes

7.6.1 Losses in pipes
The flow in pipes will generally be under a pressure greater than atmospheric, whether a flow is
Laminar or Turbulent generally depends upon the Reynolds number, that is ratio of inertia force
to viscous force.
Inertia force = Mass Acceleration =
Viscous force =
( )
R
In case of pipes is replaced by diameter D.
R
or R
As fluid flows through a pipe certain resistance is offered to the flowing fluid, resulting in a loss
of energy. Broadly these are of two types.
a) Major Losses due to friction.
b) Minor Losses due to various fittings, transitions, changes in velocity to change in crosssections.
The frictional resistance in the laminar flow is:
i)
ii)
iii)
iv)
v)
Proportional to the velocity of flow

independent of the pressure,
proportional to the area of surface in contact,
independent of the nature of the surface in contact,
greatly affected by the variation of the temperature of the flowing fluid.
The reason for the frictional resistance in the case of laminar flow being independent of the
nature of the surface in contact, is that when a fluid flows past a surface with velocity less than
critical velocity, a film of almost stationary fluid is formed over the surface, which prevents the
flowing fluid to come in contact with the boundary surface. Similarly in the case of laminar flow
the resistance is due to viscosity only and the viscosity of a fluid depends on its temperature.
The frictional resistance in the case of turbulent flow is:
i) proportional to velocity . Where the index n varies from 1.72 to 2.0,
ii) independent of the pressure,
iii) proportional to the density of the flowing fluid,
iv) slightly affected by the variation of the temperature of the flowing fluid,
v) proportional to area of surface in contact,
vi) dependent on the nature of the surface in contact.
Page 250
Major Loss of Head

h
Fluid Mechanics
: The basic equation used is Darcy Weis Bach Equation.
where
ength of pipe of diameter D

V = mean velocity in pipe
f = friction factor, which is a function of R and relative roughness.
The ratio
S represents the energy slope which is equal to the hydraulic gradient in
uniform flow. In long pipe lines h forms a major part of the total loss.
The above equation is derived based on experiment of Froude, which revealed that
a) The frictional resistance varies approximately with the square of velocity
b) The frictional resistance varies with the nature of the surface.
Minor Losses in Pipes:
Situation
Head Loss =
Explanation
Sudden expansion
Expansion from section 1 to 2
=
=
Sudden Contraction
Velocity in contracted section

V
Velocity at vena contracta
=
0.5
vena contracta
Entrance to a pipe from a

reservoir
0. 5
V = Velocity in pipe
Page 251
Fluid Mechanics
At exit of a pipe
V = Velocity in pipe
Conical expansion
K is a constant
.
Bends, pipe fittings

An obstruction to flow
K is a constant
[
C lies between 0.6 to

0.666
V
A
Pipes In Series Or Compound Pipe: If a pipe line connecting two reservoirs is made up of several
pipes of different diameters D , D and D etc., and lengths ,
and
etc all connected end
to end, then the system is called pipes in series, in such a case.
i) The difference in liquid surface levels in the two reservoirs is equal to sum of the head
losses in all the sections.
i.e., H =
(neglecting minor losses)
ii) Discharge through each pipe will be same,

Q=
Figure 7.6.1
Equivalent Pipe: Often a compound pipe consisting of several pipes of varying diameters and
lengths is to be replaced by a pipe of uniform diameter, known as equivalent pipe. The uniform
diameter of equivalent pipe is known as equivalent diameter.
Pipes in Parallel: When a main pipe line divides into two or more parallel pipes which again join
together downstream side and continue as a main line, the pipes are said to be parallel.
Page 252
Fluid Mechanics
Note: The pipes are connected in parallel in order to increase the discharge passing through the
main.
a) Rate of discharge in main line is equal to sum of discharge in each of parallel pipes.
Q=Q
Q
b) Head loss is constant

i.e., h
Note: If there are n pipes of same diameter laid in parallel in place of a single pipe then
diameter of each parallel pipe.
d
d = diameter of each parallel pipe
D = diameter of single main pipe line
n = No. of parallel pipes
Hydraulic transmission of power: The pipes carrying water under pressure from one point to
other may be used to transmit hydraulic power.
H = total head at the entrance to pipe
= head loss in pipe
Q = discharge through pipe
The condition for maximum power transmitted through pipe:
0 H
3h
i.e., loss of head should be 1/3 of total head to have maximum power transmitted.
Efficiency of power transmission
Corresponding to the maximum power transmitted the efficiency of power transmission is
2/3 or 66.7 %
Note: The efficiency corresponding to maximum transmission of power is not maximum.
7.6.2 Viscous flow
The laminar flow of a fluid is one in which the fluid moves in layers (laminae), each layer sliding
over the adjacent one. The viscosity plays a dominant role on the fluid motion.
Critical Reynolds number: The Reynolds value below which the flow can be certainly considered
to be laminar is known as critical Reynolds number
It is a function of flow conditions and geometry of flow
CASE
LOWER
1
Pipe flow
2000
2
Flow through parallel plates
1000
3
Open Channel flow
500
4
Flow around a sphere
1
Page 253
Fluid Mechanics
The basic equations which govern the motion of incompressible viscous fluid in laminar flow are
Navier stokes equation
For a two dimensional, steady uniform flow relation between shear and pressure gradients is:
P X
i.e., pressure gradient in the direction of flow is equal to the shear stress gradient in the normal
direction.
Laminar flow through circular pipes:
0.707R
Linear
D
R
Velocity
Shear Stress
Figure 7.6.2
Velocity distribution is parabolic variation

Mean velocity (V) occurs at a distance of 0.707 R from centre of pipe and is equal to half of
maximum velocity which occurs at centre.
.e., V =
General equation for velocity distribution is:
*
Shear stress distribution is linear variation:

Linear variation zero at centre and maximum at boundary:
i.e.
Shear stress at boundary

i.e.,
Page 254
Fluid Mechanics
( ) (it has unit of velocity)
Shear velocity = V = ( )
Head loss
: The variation of head loss h due to uniform laminar flow in a length of a pipe
of diameter D is given by Hagen Poiseuille equation
i.e.,
*because V
D )+
Power (P): In laminar flow the power required to overcome frictional resistance i.e., h in a
pipe of length and diameter D carrying a discharge A of a fluid of specific weight r and
viscosity is
P = Qh =
=Q P
P and P are pressure between two points.

Friction factor for laminar flow, f = 64 / R
i.e. friction factor in laminar flow is a function of Reynolds number only.
Flow between two stationary parallel plates:
B
Shear
Velocity
Distribution
Shear
Distribution
Figure 7.6.3
Velocity distribution is parabolic variation

Average velocity V = (2/3) V
Shear stress at boundary
Head loss hf
V = *(
) ( )+ [B
6 V B
B
]
Page 255
Fluid Mechanics
Laminar flow around a sphere Stokes Law:

The force resisting the motion of sphere (i.e., the drag on the sphere) was then obtained by
Stokes as
F
3 Vd
Where V = velocity of the sphere relative to the undisturbed fluid,
dynamic viscosity of fluid d = diameter of sphere.
It has been experimentally found that the Stokes law expressed by Eq. is valid only if the
Reynolds number is less than 0.1. It is used to determine the fall of relatively small bodies
through fluids of relatively high viscosity such as the fall of dust particles, mist droplets in the
atmosphere and the settlement of silt in reservoirs.
A small solid particle falling through a fluid under its own weight will accelerate until the net
downward force on it is zero. In other words, when the submerged weight of the particle is equal
to force given by Eq. it will have reached the steady state of its motion. No further acceleration is
then possible and the particle is said to have reached its terminal velocity.
Thus, the submerged weight (weight of particle minus the buoyant force) = Resisting force
3Vd and the terminal velocity,
where and are the specific weights of the solid and the fluid respectively. The Eq. expresses
the Stokes law. Its validity lies within the Reynolds number
0. .
Page 256
Fluid Mechanics
Part 7.7: Hydraulic Machines

7.7.1 Dynamic Force on a Curve Blade Moving In Translation
Figure 7.7.1
Jet Striking a Moving Vane Tangentially at One Tip
In order to obtain a higher efficiency it is always desirable that the relative velocity vector V
strike the vane tangentially.
U = Velocity of curved vane
V = Absolute velocity of jet at inlet (A C )
u = Vane velocity at inlet (A B )
V = Relative velocity at inlet (B C )
V = Velocity of whirl at inlet (A D )
Component of V in the direction of blade motion i.e. along u
V = Velocity of flow at inlet (D C )
Normal component of V to the blade motion.
= Angle made by jet with direction of vane or blade motion C A D
= Angle made by relative velocity vector at inlet in the direction of motion of vane at inlet.
C B D
The direction of fluid jet changes as if flows over the smooth surface of the vane, and at the
outlet tip it emerges with a relative velocity V inclined at angle as shown in Fig. 7. .
Blade or vane angle at outlet. A B C )
If vane surface is very smooth, V
V
If friction of blade surface is considered, V
factor K
KV . The effect of blade friction is expressed by a
blade velocity coefficient. K
Page 257
Fluid Mechanics
Note: If is the change in the whirl velocity V between inlet and outlet sections that produces
the force on the vane and is responsible for doing work.
Force on vane: V denotes the fate of flow passing through control volume.
Forces on Vanes:
Case (a): If < 90
Force on the vane Q [V
V ] Q [V
V ]
Q g [V
V ] W/g [V
V ]
W Wt of fluid striking the vane sec Q sp. weight of fluid
Case (b): If > 90,
Force on the vane Q [V
V ]
= W/g [V
V ]
Workdone per second = Power (on the vane)
Workdone / second = Power = F.u
= W/g (V
V ). u if < 90
= W/g (V
V ). u if > 90
W Q
Vane Efficiency:
Note:- If blade friction is negligible, then the workdone by the jet = Change in kinetic energy.
Vane Efficiency
(
( )
Curved Vanes Mounted on a Wheel: For rotation of the wheel at constant angular speed the
blade tip velocity will be
u
w u
w
r and r being the radii at the inlet and outlet respectively.
7.7.2 Theory of turbo machines
When a fluid flows through the runner of a turbo machine, its radius usually varies along its
path. Hence it is desirable to compute torque rather than the force.
Consider the flow through the runner of a turbo machine. Let the flow enter the runner blade
with an absolute velocity V at an angle and leave it with absolute velocity V at an angle
.
It is preferred to draw velocity triangle on the blade tips. As shown in Fig. 7.7.2
Page 258
Fluid Mechanics
Vw1
Vw
U1
V1
Vr1
Inlet
Vr1
INLET VELOCITY
TRIANGLE
Vf1
outlet
U2
r1
Vr2
Vw2
V2
Vf2
Figure 7.7.2 Outlet Velocity Triangle

The rate of flow passing through the control volume depends upon only the radial component of
the absolute velocity V (or) V .
i.e., on velocity of flows V and V .
Q=A.V
= (2 r . b ) V
= (2 r . b ) V
r , r are radii at inlet and outlet.
b and b are width of flow passages with in the runner at inlet and outlet.
The torque exerted on the axis of rotation by the fluid depends upon only the tangential
components of the absolute velocity V and V i.e., on velocity of whirl.
From moment of momentum (or) angular momentum equations.
[V r
V r ]
Eulers equation for turbo machines.
(This is the torque exerted by the fluid upon the runner of the turbo machine).
Power delivered to the runner,
P T
Q V r
V r .
Q [V u
V u ]
ii
Further
QH
(iii)
Where H = Head utilized by the turbine comparing (ii) and (iii)

Total operating head H
The heat produced, H
H
H
h for a turbine
h for a centrifugal pump.
Efficiency of turbine
Efficiency of pump
Page 259
Fluid Mechanics
7.7.3 Pelton Wheel

It is a tangential flow impulse turbine used for high heads. Whole of the pressure energy in this
turbine is converted to kinetic energy. The wheel revolved in open air at atmospheric pressure
when water strikes on the series of buckets, i.e., there is no difference of pressure at the inlet and
outlet of runner.
Velocity Triangle: (i) The following figure shows the velocity triangles at the tips of buckets.
Figure 7.7.4
Notations:
V = Velocity of jet at inlet = C
(C = Co. eff. of velocity = 0.97 to 0.99 takes care of loss in nozzle)
V = Absolute velocity of jet leaving the bucket.
U = Absolute velocity of bucket considered along the direction tangential to the pitch circle.
V = (V
U ) = Velocity of incoming jet relative to the bucket.
V = Velocity of jet leaving the bucket relative to the bucket.
V = K. V , K = blade friction coeff.
V = Velocity of whirl at the inlet tip of bucket.
V = Velocity of whirl at the outlet tip of bucket. = (V Cos
u
Angle of blade at outlet tip
Angle made by absolute velocity with peripheral velocity at outlet
U = U = U DN 60 D dia of wheel N speed of wheel in r.p.m.
Since the inlet and outlet tips of the bucket are at the same radial distance from the center of
shaft.
Inlet Velocity Triangle: It is a straight line.
Where V
V
U
V
UV
V
Outlet Velocity Triangles: At the outlet tip any of the three velocity triangle are possible
depending upon the magnitude of U corresponding to which it is a slow medium or fast
runner.
Page 260
Vr1
V2
V2 = Vf2
Vf2
V2
Fluid Mechanics
Vr2
Vf2
Vw2
U2 = U
Vw2
U2 = U
U2 = U
Figure 7.7.5
;
90 V negative
90 V
0
Torque = F.r., Power = F.r.w. = (Tw) = F.u.
> 90, V
is positive)
Power F.u. Q V
u
KCos u
The transfer of energy from the water to the buckets takes place according to the momentum
principle. The dynamic force exerted by water on the buckets in a direction tangential to the
pitch circle is the force which produced a torque and causes the rotation of the runner.
The change of momentum in a direction tangential to the periphery of the runner shall be
computed.
1. Work done and efficiencies of Pelton Wheel:
A. Velocity of Whirl (V ):- The components of absolute velocities V
V Cos and
V
V Cos are velocity of whirls. These are responsible for force exerted and Work
done.
B. Force exerted by the fluid on the buckets:[V
V ]
If 90
[V
V ]
[V
V Cos
u]
[V
u
V Cos ]
[V
K. V Cos ]
V [
KCos ]
[V
][
]
Similarly if 90 V
0.
F Q [V
u]
if > 90 F Q [V
V ]
C. Work done Sec or Power developed by buckets runner : For
90 :i) Power developed P Q V
V u
Q [V - u] [
K cos ] u
ii) Power developed per unit mass/sec = (V
u
K Cos u
iii) Power developed/unit weight of water per sec
iv) Hydraulic Efficiency w. r. t unit mass of water/sec
. .
Kinetic Energy/unit mass
Page 261
Fluid Mechanics
Hydraulic Efficiency
(Hydraulic Efficiency represents the effectiveness of wheel in converting the Kinetic
Energy of the jet into mechanical energy of rotation).
v) Conditions for Maximum Efficiency:outlet blade angle
Maximum Hydraulic Efficiency
vi) Hydraulic Efficiency w. r. t unit wt.
vii) Mechanical Efficiency:- ( )
. .
. .
. .
The mechanical losses are
i) Friction in bearings
ii) Windage loss i.e. the friction between the wheel and atmosphere in which it
rotates..
viii) Overall Efficiency:Shaft horse power
energy svailable at the entrance to the turbine

For Pelton Wheel it lies between 85 to 90%
2. Working Proportions of Pelton Wheel:A) Spouting Velocity or Ideal Velocity of Jet = gH
Where H = Net head at base of Nozzle.
B) Actual Velocity of Jet (V) at inlet = V = Cv gH
Where C = (Coeff. Of velocity = 0.98 (or) 0.99 for nozzle.
C) The velocity of wheel for maximum efficiency
U
0.5 V (Theoretical)
However in actual practice U
Where Speed Ratio 0.43 to 0.47
D) Angle through which the jet of water gets deflected in buckets
= 165 (unless otherwise specified).
E) The mean diameter or the pitch diameter D of the Pelton Wheel is given by
F) Least dia of jet given by
G)
H)
I)
J)
0.54 * + metres.
Jet Ratio (m):- The ratio of pitch diameter D of the Pelton Wheel to the diameter of the
jet (d).
i.e. m = (D/d). It is an important parameter in the design of Pelton Wheel. For maximum
efficiency jet ratio varies from 11 to 14 and is 12 for most cases.
Number of buckets for a Pelton Wheel Runner
5
5 0.5 m = jet ratio.
Number of Jets:- It is obtained by dividing the total rate of flow through the turbine by
the rate of flow of water through a single jet.
Important dimensions of a Pelton Wheel in terms of jet diameter d:
Axial Width B = 3d to 5d, radial length L = 2d to 3d
M
. to . 5d
0 to 0
Page 262
Fluid Mechanics
Depth D = 0.8d to 1.2d.

Multiple Jet Pelton Wheel:- A Pelton Wheel having more than one jet spaced around its
runner.
7.7.4 Reaction Turbines
Reaction turbine means that the water at the inlet of the turbine possesses kinetic energy as well
as pressure energy. As the water flows through the runner, a part of pressure energy goes on
changing into kinetic energy. Thus runner is completely enclosed in an air tight casing and the
runner is always full of water.
The hydraulic elements of a reaction turbine are as follows:
i)
ii)
iii)
iv)
Spiral casing
Stay Ring
Guide Mechanism
Runner
Types of draft tube:

(A) Straight divergent tube
(B) Moody spreading tube
(C) Simple Elbow tube
(D) Elbow Tube having circular cross section at inlet and rectangular at outlet.
A and B above are most efficient C and D have an advantage that they require lesser
excavation for their installation
Francis Turbine: It is a mixed flow type of reaction turbine. Water enters the runner radially at
its outer periphery and leaves axially at its centre.
Work done and efficiencies of Francis turbine:
Vf = V
Vr
U
Figure 7.7.6
work done aV Vw U
Vw U )
aV mass of water striking per second
= Maximum output under specified conditions is obtained by Vw equal to zero.
Now work done aV Vw U )
work per unit weight of water = (Vw U ) / g
Hydraulic efficiency of Francis Turbine
Page 263
Fluid Mechanics
Vw U / Gh
Note: If Vw is not equal to zero h

Vw U
Vw U ) / gH
The value of h varies from 85 to 95%.
Mechanical Efficiency : If P is the horse power developed by runner shaft mechanical
efficiency.
*
aV W g
W = Wt. of water striking per second.
Over all efficiency
S.H.P WQH in SI system S.H.P in W
S.H.P / (WQH/75 S.H.P in H.P
power P developed by runner
Note: HP 746 W
P o. W.Q.H
W Sp. wt. of water
The overall efficiency of Francis Turbine ranges from 80 to 90%
Working Proportions of Francis Turbine:
i) The ratio of width B of the wheel to the diameter D of the runner is represented by
n that is n B D. It varies from 0. to 0.45.
ii) Flow Ratio : The ratio of Velocity of flow V at inlet tip of the vane to the spouting
velocity
is known as flow ratio .
Flow ratio V / gH. It varies form 0.15 to 0.30.
iii) Speed ratio U gH, varies from 0.60 to 0.90.
A) Design of a Francis Turbine Runner:
i) Determine required discharge from the relation
P o W.Q.H 75
P = power in kW
W = Sp. Wt. of water in kN/m
ii) If B = Width of wheel at inlet, D = dia of runner,
discharge Q = K D B
V
k = vane thickness coefficient.
iii) Tangential velocity of runner at inlet U
iv) Velocity of whirl Vw at inlet can be determined from relation h = (
).
v) The runner dia at outlet (D ) varies from D/3 to 2D/3. usually taken as D/2.
Tangential velocity at outlet.
U V
D N 60
vi) Normally width of wheel at outlet B
B .
vii) Generally runner is designed to have the velocity of whirl Vw at outlet equal to zero.
i.e., Vw
0. and
90. Then runner vane angle at outlet is given by tan
viii) The number of runner vanes should be either one more or one less than the
number of guide vanes, in order to avoid setting up of periodic impulse.
Kaplan Turbine: Kaplan is also a reaction type of turbine and hence it operates in an entirely
closed conduct from the head race to the tail race. It is a type of propeller turbine. It is an axial
flow turbine, suitable for low heads and hence required a large quantity of water to develop
large amount of power.
Between the guide vanes and the runner the water in a Kaplan turbine runs through a right
angle into the axial direction and then passes through the runner. The runner consists of four or
Page 264
Fluid Mechanics
six blades. Servometer is used for adjustment of runner blades. Eddy losses, which are inevitable
in Francis and Propeller turbines are almost eliminated in a Kaplan Turbine.
Working Proportions of a Kaplan turbine:
i) Ratio n = d / D
where d Hub or Boss diameter D runner outside dia. It varies from 0.35 to 0.60.
ii) Discharge Q through the runner is given by
[ (
] 4
Where flow ratio 0.70 for Kaplan Turbine.

iii) Velocity flow at inlet and outlet are equal i.e. Vf
Vf .
iv) Area of flow at inlet Area of flow at outlet D
d )/4
[
7.7.5 Specific Speed and Performance of Turbines

Specific Speed: The speed of a homologous turbine developing unit power under unit head.
Where N = original speed of rotation of turbine runner

P = shaft horse power
H = net head
Note:
(i) In SI system if P power in KW N speed of rotation in r.p.m H in m Ns has the
dimensional formula of M1/2 L-1/4 T-5/2
(ii) Homologous Turbine : A turbine which is geometrically and kinematically similar i.e.,
having similar stream lines (or) similar velocity triangles.
1. Significance of specific speed (Ns) : Defined as the speed of a turbine which is identical in
shape, geometrical dimensions, blade angles, gate opening etc., with the actual turbine but of
such a size that it will develop unit horse power. When working under unit head.
It is useful in comparing the different types of turbines as every type of turbine has different
specific speed.
Mathematically, Ns
Note:
(1) If P is in metric horse power the specific speed is obtained in M.K.S units.
(2) If P is taken in Kilowatts the specific speed is obtained in S.I. units.
Significance:
(1) For selecting type of turbine.
Also performance of a turbine can be predicated.
Specific Speed
10 to 35
35 to 60
60 to 300
300 to 1000
Type of Turbine
Pelton Wheel with single jet.
Pelton Wheel with two or more jets
Francis Turbine
Kaplan (Or) Propeller Turbine.
Page 265
Fluid Mechanics
Note: Some of the authors report Ns as 35 to 50. The higher the specific speed, the smaller
the runner diameter as well as overall size of runner, due to which the weight and the cost of
runner are reduced.
2. Shape Number : A dimensionless form of specific speed is known as Shape Number
Shape Number = Dimensionless specific speed.
(for in S.I. System)
3. Unit Quantities : In order to predict behaviors of a turbine working under varying conditions
of head, speed, output and grate opening, the results are expressed in terms of quantities
which may be obtained when the head on the turbine is reduced to unity. The conditions of
turbine under unit head are such that the efficiency of the turbine remains unaffected. The
important unit quantities are given below.
(A) Unit Speed : It is defined as the speed of a turbine working under a unit head. (ie., under
a head of 1 m). Denoted by N .
We have N
N
Where N speed of turbine under a head H
H = head under which a turbine is working
U = tangential velocity.
(B) Unit Discharge (Qu):
Where Q discharge passing through a given turbine under a head H
(C) Unit power (Pu) : Pu = P/H3/2
Where P power developed by turbine under a head H
Use of Unit Quantities : If a turbine is working under different heads the behavior of the
turbine can be easily known from the values of Unit Quantities.
4. Similitude in Turbines:
Scale models are often used in designing and other studies relating to turbines. Geometric
similarity is assured by having geometrically similar velocity vector diagram. It is usual to
neglect viscous effects in the model studies. The model and prototype characteristic
relationships are usually expressed in terms of the following relationship between the
variables:
7.7.6 Cavitation in Turbines

Cavitation is found to occur in turbines as well as in various hydraulic structures such as
penstocks, gates, valves, spillway etc due to low pressures.
Page 266
Fluid Mechanics
In reaction turbines the cavitation may occur at the runner exit or the inlet to the draft tube,
where the pressure is considerably reduced.
Due to cavitation the metal of the runner vanes and the draft tube is gradually eaten away in
these zones, which results in lowering the efficiency of the turbine. As such the turbine
components should be so designed that as far as possible cavitation is eliminated.
In order to determine whether cavitation will occur in any portion of the turbine,
D. Thoma of Germany has developed a dimensionless parameter called Thomas cavitation
factor, which is expressed as
. (H
H ) is also called as barometric head.
Where H is atmospheric pressure head, H is vapour pressure head, H is suction pressure head
(or height of runner outlet above tail race) and H is working head of turbine.
Complete similarity in respect of cavitation can be ensured if the value of is same in both the
model and the prototype. Moreover it has been found that depends on Ns of the turbine, and
for a turbine of particular Ns the factor can be reduced upto a certain value upto which its
efficiency dose not remains constant. A further decrease in the value of results in a sharp fall in
no. The value of at this turning point is called critical cavitation factor c The value of c for
different turbines may be determined with the help of the following empirical relationship.
For Francis Turbines
0.6 5 N
For Propeller Turbines
0. 8
For Kaplan turbines, values of
444
.
-------------- (i)
)
--------------- (ii)
obtained by equation (ii) should be increased by 10 percent.
If for a turbine is greater than no cavitation.

7.7.7 Centrifugal Pumps
Centrifugal Pumps are rotodynamic type of pumps in which the dynamic pressure developed
enables the lifting of liquids from a lower level to a higher level.
A rotodynamic pump is a reaction turbine in reverse.
Reaction Turbines placed below the tail water while coupled to electric motor and rotated in
reverse direction will work as pumps.
A centrifugal Pump is a machine which increase the pressure energy of a fluid.
1. Classification of Centrifugal Pumps: The basis for classification of Centrifugal Pumps depends
upon the following characteristics features:
i)
Working Head
ii) Type of Casing
iii) Relative direction of flow through impeller
iv) Number of impellers per shaft
v)
Number of entrances to the impeller
vi) Type of Liquid Handled
vii) Disposition of Shaft
Page 267
Fluid Mechanics
viii) Specific Speed N

ix) Dimensionless Parameter K
Classification based upon working head:
a) Working Head: Based upon the head at which water is delivered the pumps are Classified
as
i) Low Lift Centrifgal Pumps:
- Heads upto 15m, - Impeller surrounded by volute.
- No guide vane, - Shaft generally horizontal.
- Entrance of water to the impeller from one side or both sides depending upon the
quantity of discharge.
ii) Medium lifts Centrifugal Pumps:
- Works against the head as high as 40 m
-They are provided with guide vanes.
iii) High lift Centrifugal Pumps:
-They deliver liquids at the heads of above 40 m
Classification based upon the direction of flow:
i) Radial Flow Pump: Almost all centrifugal pumps are manufacture with radial flow
impellers.
ii) Mixed Flow Pump: Used for irrigation purposes.
arge Q at low H.
- Liquid flows in the impeller with a combination of radial and axial flow.
- These look like a screw and also called as screw impeller pumps.
iii) Axial Flow Pump: The flow through the impeller is in the axial direction only.
- Very large Q at low heads
- There is no centrifugal action.
Classification based upon No. of impellers:
i) Single Stage Centrifugal Pump:
- One impeller mounted to the shaft.
- Low lift pumps.
ii) Multi Stage Centrifugal Pump:
- Two or more impellers mounted to a single shaft in single casing.
- Pr. is built up in stages.
- Used for high working heads.
- No. of stages depends upon the head.
Classification based on specific speed:
Specific Speed: The speed of a geometrically similar pump when delivering one m sec
against a head of one metre.
(Unit discharge)
Where N = Actual speed of pump in r.p.m.

Page 268
Fluid Mechanics
Q = Discharge m sec .
Delivery head (Total or manometric) in m.
Types of Impeller
Ns
/sec, H = 1m
10-30
Q=
a) Slow speed radial flow runner
*Ns
With Q = Litres/sec H = 1m
300-900 rpm
b) Normal Speed radial flow
30-50
900-1500
c) High Speed radial flow
50-80
1500-2400
d) Mixed flow (screw runner)
80-160
2400-5000
e) Axial flow or propeller runner
110-500
3400-15000
* Ns = 30 Ns
Work done by the impeller:
Liquid enters the impeller radially i.e., Abs. Velocity of liquid at inlet is in radial direction.
90
- For shock free entry of liquid.
The relative velocities V and V are parallel to the vane at the inlet and outlet tips.
(In case of diffusion pump, the direction of absolute velocity of liquid leaving the impeller
coincides with the tangent to the inlet tip).
U2
Vw2
Outlet velocity
2
2
V2
Vf2
triangle
Vr2
Tangent to impeller at
Outlet of vane
Tangent to impeller of
inlet of vane
Inlet velocity triangle

V1 = Vf1
Vr1
1
= 900
u1
Figure 7.7.7
Work-done / sec by the impeller on the liquid = W/g (V
Work Done
W g V
U )
90 W
V
Work done / unit wt. =

Speed Ratio :
H
0
V
U )
Q)
V cot
Total or manometric head.
Page 269
Flow Ratio :
Fluid Mechanics
U and V can be worked out and substituded in the
expression of work done.

Low N
0.95
0.10
High N impeller
1.25
0.25
i) Fundamental Equation of Centrifugal Pump:- Work done per Kg is also given by

= Change in K.E. + Centrifugal head + Static pr. Head (energy produced by impeller)
3. Head of pump:
a) Static Head:
H
h
h
h = Static suction lift
h = Static delivery lift
Static head is the net total vertical height through which the liquid is lifted by the pump.
b) Manometric head (or) Total Head (or) Gross Head (or) Effective head
Total Head required to be produced by the pump to satisfy external requirements.
H = Energy given to the liquid by the impeller - Losses of head in the pump.
.
- Losses of head in the pump
Also H
is neglected).
4. Efficiencies:
i) Manometric Efficiency
(or)
ii) Volumetric Efficiency :-

.
(
iii) Mechanical Efficiency

iv) Overall Efficiency
)
.
X X
5. Head loss due to shock:

The efficiency of a pump decreases due to variation in design discharge and speed because of
loss of head due to shock at the inlet.
ABD = Inlet velocity triangle.
Page 270
Fluid Mechanics
AB is parallel to the vane inlet tip.

If the flow is reduced or increased from BD to CD while the speed of rotation remains the
same, the vel. triangle is represented by ACD and AC is the new relative at the inlet remains
unchanged.
Also EC is parallel to AB.
Tangential change in velocity AE will take place suddenly and results in shock causing head
loss.
oss of head due to shock at entrance
6. Working proportions of impeller and pipes:
a) Outside dia of impeller
U
D
U
Nu gH
N = speed in r.p.m
H = Total head
Usually 0.95 1.25

The above eq. can be used to check an existing pump to determine the head developed
if D and N are known.
b) Inlet dia. of impeller
= 0.5 D usually
c) Least dia. of impeller from min. starting speed consideration
gH
.
D
This equation is similar to
0.5 D
for
Dia. of suction pipes:

.
V = velocity of flow in suction pipe.

= 1.5 to 3 m/s (usually)
Dia. of delivery pipe:

d
V = 1.5 to 3.5 m/sec
Specific Speed : Ns =
(Most commonly used) (Dimension formula)
* Also on power criteria. The uncommon expression for specific speed. Ns
The speed in r.p.m. of a geometrically similar pump of such a size that under corresponding
conditions it would absorb 1 KW power when working against a head of 1 metre.
Non Dimensional specific speed (or) Shape number of the pump:
Page 271
Fluid Mechanics
* For pumps discharging large quantities at low heads. Such as axial flow pumps the N will
have large value.
7. Multi Stage Pumps in series:
Head produced by a C.P. depends on the rim speed of the impeller, which can be increased by
increasing rotative speed or the dia. of the impeller or both, requiring large impellers.
A multi stage pump consists of two or more identical impellers mounted on a common shaft
and enclosed in the same casing.
All the impellers are connected in series.
Total head. H = n (H )
H = head gained in the impeller
= n (H
H ) H = head gained in the guides
H H
H ,Q=Q
Q
8. Pumps in Parallel:
When a large quantity of liquid is required to be pumped against a relatively small head, two
or more pumps are connected in parallel.
Pumps in parallel are so arranged that early pump works separately lifting liquid from a
common sump and delivering it to a common collecting pipe.
.
.
If
H = constant.
9. Priming of Pump:
Pressure developed is specific weight of the liquid in contact. If air is in contact, pressure
developed is for air and cannot pump the liquid.
Priming i.e. filling the liquid in suction pipe impeller casing and in delivery pipe upto
delivery valve with the liquid to be pumped is essential.
- Gain in pressure head between the outlet of the impeller and the outlet of the pump is given
by
K(V /2g), K = 0.4 for volute casing
K = 0.7 for turbine pump or diffusion casing.
10. Limitation of Suction Lift:
When pumps are installed above the level of sump. Pressure at inlet < P .
Applying Bernoullis eq. at pump inlet and the liquid level in sump, the absolute pressure
head.
V = vel. In suction pipe.
ht. of inlet above the sump.
[
h = head loss in strainer
It is not possible to create at the pump inlet, an absolute pressure lower than the vapour
pressure. If P = vapour pressure of liquid in Abs, units then P P
P in limiting case.
Page 272
Fluid Mechanics
Suction lift in no case shall be greater than the above value otherwise vaporizations of liquid
due to reduction in pressure takes place leading to cavitation.
* Usually h = 6 to 8 m
for water at 10 20 C
h
0m
for water at 65
Positive pressure shall be provided at pump inlet if water is at 65. i.e. the pump to be
installed below sump water level.
11. Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH):
NPSH = Abs. Pr. Head at pump inlet vapour pr. Of liquid to be pumped vel. Head in the
suction pipe.
NPSH
h ]
h
But R.H.S is the total suction head

H
NPSH H i.e. Total suction head
NPSH is the head required to make the liquid flow through the suction pipe into the
impeller.
12. Cavitation in Centrifugal Pumps:
If the pressure at the suction side of the pump drops below the vapour pressure of the liquid
then cavitation may occur.
Cavitation in a centrifugal pump results in sudden drop of head and efficiency.
Thomass cavitation factor
H
= atm. Pr. head, H = vapour pr. head, h = suction head.
h = head loss in suction, H = manometric head, H = total suction head.
N = sp. speed.
Critical
0. 03 (
When hot liquids are to be pumped the pumps have to be installed at liquid surface or even
below the liquid surface
In first case h = 0, in second case h
0 indicating that there is ve pr. at pump inlet.
Suction specific speed
S=N
Range of S for cavitation free operation of C.P. and propeller pumps.
S = 4700 to 6700
Page 273
Heat Transfer
Part 8: Heat Transfer

Part 8.1: Conduction
8.1.1 Fourier equation
For 1-D steady state heat conduction through homogeneous material without heat generation is given
by
Q = K A (dt/dx) q = Q/A = - K (dt/dx)
dt/dx is the temp gradient
-ve sign indicates that the heat flow is in the direction of negative temperature gradient and that
serves to make the heat flow positive.
Thermal conductivity K is one of its transport properties. Others are the viscosity associated
with the transport of momentum, diffusion coefficient associated with the transport of mass.
K provides an indication of the rate at which heat energy is transferred through a medium by
conduction process.
Following are the assumptions of Fourier equation
Steady state conduction
One directional
Bounding surfaces are isothermal in character i.e, constant and uniform temps are maintained at
the two faces.
Isotropic and homogeneous material and K is constant
Constant temp gradient and linear temp profile
No internal heat generation.
Features of Fourier equation:
Valid for all matter solid, liquid or gas
Is a vector expression indicating that heat flow rate is normal to an isotherm and is in the direction
of decreasing temperature.
It cannot be derived from first principle
Helps to define the transport property K
Thermal resistance:
In heat transfer the driving force is the temperature difference.
(
Electric current (I), Heat flow rate (Q),Voltage (V), Temp. difference (dt), Resistance dx/KA
called thermal resistance (Rt)
Unit thermal resistance = dx/K

Page 274
Heat Transfer
Unit thermal conductance = K/dx

K for different materials are
Freon12 0.0083 (min), silver 410 w/mK (max), Al 225, Brass 107, Copper = 385, Steel
20 to 45, Concrete 1.2, Brick 0.65, earth 0.3, glass 0.75, plaster 0.8, wood 0.052, saw
dust 0.07, cork 0.03, air 0.024, ash 0.12, Ice 2.25, water 0.55 0.7
For most materials K = K0 (1 + t).
K0 Thermal conductivity at 0
Constant (+ve or ve)
+ve for non metals and insulation materials
-ve for metallic conductors exception in Al and Uranium
8.1.2 General heat conduction equation
= K/c called thermal diffusivity and is a physical property of the material. It is more useful in
unsteady conduction situations.
For one dimensional, steady state with
Liquids have low K and high c and so low

Solids have high K and low c and so high
indicates rate at which heat is distributed in a material
The relative magnitude of thermal diffusivity is a measure of rapidity with which the material
responds to sudden temp changes.
In insulators the heat conduction takes place due to vibration of atoms about their mean positions
In metals besides atomic vibrations, there are large no of free electrons which also participate in
the process of heat conduction.
8.1.3 Steady state conduction
Conduction through a plane wall:
Let = isotropic wall thickness
K = Constant thermal conductivity
A = Constant C.S. area
Page 275
Heat Transfer
Assume one dimensional heat conduction through homogeneous material and wall is insulated on its
lateral faces but different constant temperatures T1 and T2 are maintained at boundary surfaces.
The general heat conduction equation of one dimensional, steady state without heat generation is
on integration and substituting the B.Cs, the temp distribution equation becomes
Differentiating the above equation w.r.t.x

dt/dx = (
Taking Fourier equation and substituting dt/dx, we get
From temp distribution equation it is seen that it is linear across the wall and it is independent of the
material because it does not involve thermal conductivity. From H.T. equation it can be written as
where
= Thermal resistance = / KA
Conduction through a composite wall:

Under steady state conditions heat flow does not vary across the wall i.e., it is same for every layer.
Therefore
Thermal Contact Resistance

Heat flow through a multi layer composite wall can be calculated based on the assumption that
i. There is perfect contact between adjacent layers
ii. The temp is continuous at the interface
iii. There is no fall of temp at the interface
However in real systems, the contact surfaces touch only at a discrete locations due to surface
roughness, void spaces etc which are usually filled with air. So there will not be a single plane of
contact. This implies that the area for heat flow at the interface will be small compared to the
geometric area of the face. Due to this apparent decrease in the heat flow area and also due to the
presence of voids, there occurs a large resistance to heat flow. This resistance is referred as thermal
contact resistance and it causes temp drop between two materials at the interface.
Page 276
Heat Transfer
Heating and cooling of fluids:

Cold fluid
Hot fluid
hall
Conduction through a cylindrical wall:

For steady state unidirectional with no internal heat generation the equation becomes
on integration and substituting the B.Cs we get the temp distribution equation as
Q=(
where
Writing the above Q equation in the form of plane wall

Q = KA (T1 T2) / =
Where
(T1 T2) / (r2 r1)
is the logarithmic mean area = (A2 A1) / log (A2 / A1)
Conduction through sphere:

Steady state, one dimensional with no heat generation equation in spherical co-ordinates is
(
Page 277
Heat Transfer
on integration and substituting the B.Cs we get the temp distribution equation as
*
From the above it is seen that it is hyperbolic

*
Where Rt = {(r2 r1) / 4 K
If we write the above H.T. equation in the form of plane wall

Q = (KA T / ) = {(K Am T) / (
Where Am = 4
)}
=4
Where rm =
Shape factor : In general all the factors relating to geometry of the section are grouped together into a
single constant called the shape factor. Shape factors for different sections are
Q = K TS, where S = A/ for plane wall
S = 2L/ log (r2/r1) for cylinder
S = 4 r1 r2/(r2 r1) for sphere
The unit of shape factor is length units. From the above it is seen that for a prescribed temp difference
(
), bodies with the same shape factor will allow heat transfer proportional to material K
Shape factor for an edge is
0.54 X length of edge
0.15 X dx
A complete rectangular furnace has 6 walls, 12 edges and 8 corners. The shape factor for complete
furnace is
Stotal = 2/dx (ab + bc + ca) + 4 X 0.54 (a + b + c) + 8 x 0.15 x dx
dx = wall thickness
a, b, c are inside dimensions
the above relation for S is valid when a, b, c > (1/5) dx
if not
Page 278
Heat Transfer
Note: For same inside capacity and same amount of fabrication material, same temp and same material
the heat loss is lowest in cylindrical furnace because of lowest shape factor. The ratio of R.T or S.F are
cubical : spherical : cylindrical is 1 : 0.71 : 0.439
Effect of variable thermal coductivity:
Fourier law of heat conduction through a plane wall can be expressed as
Q = -K0(1 + t)A dt/dx
K0 = thermal conductivity at 00C
= constant
On separating the variables and solving it
Q = -Km A (T1 T2) where Km = Ko (1 +
),
= (T1 + T2)/2
Critical thickness of insulation:

The insulation radius at which resistance to heat flow is minimum is called critical radius and
corresponding thickness of insulation is critical thickness.
Critical radius =
= K/h for cylinder
Critical radius =
= 2K/h for sphere
Critical thickness =
When
the effect of wall thickness dominates the overall thermal resistance
Similarly for sphere the critical radius works out to be

8.1.4 Heat transfer from extended surfaces (fins)
Page 279
Heat Transfer
Generally H.T from a surface is calculated based on Q = hA (T Ta), from this it is seen that H.T. can
be increased by increasing h or A or (T Ta) or combination, but h depends on geometry, fluid
properties, flow rate so we cannot increase much amount of h and also (T Ta) is difficult to
increase
So the only way is to increase the surface area of H.T. This can be done by providing extensions to the
surfaces which are called extended surfaces or fins.
Steady flow of heat along a Rod:
For rectangular Fin
Ac = b.t
Perimeter = 2 (b + t)
For circular Fin
Ac =
Perimeter = d
Assumptions
Thickness is small when compared to L and b and H.T is one dimensional

Homogeneous and isotropic fin material and K is constant
Uniform h.t.c which also includes radiation effects
No heat generation within the fin
Joint is perfect
Steady state heat dissipation
Take a small element of fin which has thickness dx and is located at a distance x from wall. Heat
conducted into the element at plane x = Heat Conducted out from fin at (x + dx) + heat convected
from the fin between plane x and (x + dx)
The general solution for the above equation is
This is the general heat dissipation equation from the fin surface
(i) Infinitely long fin (L )
The boundary conditions are
T = To at x = 0 and = o = To Ta
T = Ta at x = and = 0
On substitution
Page 280
Heat Transfer
(T Ta) = (To Ta)

For estimating heat transfer
Q = - K Ac (dt/dx)x = 0
On simplification
Q = - K. Ac (- m ) = K. Ac (m
Generally tapered fin is preferred because it has more lateral area near the base where the difference in
temperature is high.
(ii) Short Fin Insulated at the Tip
= o at x = 0
dt / dx = 0 at x = 1
applying the above BCs, the temp distribution equation is
The heat transfer equation is
(iii) Finite Fin without tip insulation

Page 281
Heat Transfer
1. = o at x = 0
2. heat conducted to the fin at x = L equals to the heat convected from the end of the fin to
surroundings.
Applying the BCs, the temp distribution equation is
The heat transfer equation is
Fin performance:
Efficiency of Fin: It is the ratio of performance of an actual fin to that of an ideal or fully effective fin
For long fin,
For fin insulated at tip,
Effectiveness of fin: It is the ratio of the H.T. with fin to H.T. without fin.
H.T. without fin

H.T. with long fin =
For long fin =

From the effectiveness equation the following observations were made
For improving H.T, the should be greater than 1
But from practice the fins on surfaces is justified only if the ratio PK / hAc > 5
Fins are generally made of Al (even though its thermal conductivity is less than that of copper)
because of its lower cost and weight
/Ac increases, the also increases and to accommodate this we use thin fins at less pitch
Fins will always be used where the h.t.c is less. Suppose if there is fluid at one side and gas at the
other side, it is preferred to use fins in gas side. This is the reason for not using fins in steam
condenser tubes:
for fin insulated at tip.

Note: For calculating error in measurement of temp of gas with thermometric well
Page 282
Heat Transfer
Where
Temperature at the bottom of the well
= Gas temperature
= Temperature of the pipe wall
m=
t = thickness of the wall
8.1.5 Transient Heat Conduction

For steady state the main assumption is temp at both sides is constant over a period of time. But in
reality it is not possible to maintain constant temp and so is called unsteady state heat conduction, it is
of time dependent
Change in temperature during unsteady state may follow a periodic or non-periodic variation
In non-periodic the variation in temp is neither according to any definite pattern nor is in repeated
cycles.
Ex:- heating of ingot in a furnace
In periodic variation, temp changes in repeated cycles and the conditions get repeated after some
fixed time interval.
Ex : temperature variations in the cylinder of I.C engine
THC in solids with Infinite K
H.T in cooling or heating of a body depends upon
- internal conduction resistance
- surface convection resistance
but in general, convection resistance is more than conduction resistance
for ex:- quenching of small metal billet casting in bath. In this case convection is more predominant
than conduction. So conduction resistance is neglected.
K
Heat transfer is mainly controlled by convection only

But in reality
never equal to 380 and K never tends to infinity
Page 283
Heat Transfer
Note:- The problems which comes under this type requires solids of large K, with areas that are large
in proportion to their volumes like thin metallic wires and plates
Heat treatment of metals by quenching, time response of thermocouples, thermometers etc can be
analyzed by this method.
The process in which
<<
is called Newtonian heating or cooling
In Newtonian heating or cooling the temperature throughout solid is considered to be uniform at a
given time, such an analysis is called lumped heat capacity analysis.
Let us consider a body of
A = surface area, V = volume, = density.
K = Thermal Conductivity, C = Specific heat
Ti = initial temperature, T = temp of surroundings
Rate of change of I.E = Convection H.T
on substitution and simplification, the temp distribution equation becomes
Rise or fall of temp takes place exponentially

Vc/hA has a dimensions of time so is called thermal time constant. It indicates the rate of response
of a system to sudden change in temperature
= thermal resistance x thermal capacitance

Also VC/hA = (hl/K) x (/ ) = Biot number x Fourier number
Biot Number (Bi): It gives an indication of internal conduction resistance to the external convection
resistance. A small value of Bi indicates the system has a small conduction resistance, so when the
conduction resistance is small, almost uniform temp exists within the system or solid body. The
convection resistance predominates and convection heat exchange controls the transient phenomenon.
So the requirement for lumped heat parameter is
Bi < 0.1
That is for plates or cylinders or spheres if Bi < 0.1, the body temperatures differs only by 5% at any
time.
Fourier Number (FO): F0
It signifies the degree of penetration of heating or cooling effect through solid. For example if /
small, a large time is required to obtain a significant change of temp.
is
The lumped parameter solution for T.H.C is

Page 284
Heat Transfer
Instantaneous heat flow rate

For total heat flow rate, integrate
with time interval = 0 to =
And on simplification
Response Time of a Temperature Measuring System:

The important application of lumped heat parameter is thermocouple and thermometer. In general we
expect that the temp of measuring instrument should reach the temp of source as early as possible.
That is the response time should be as min as possible.
For rapid response the index
term reach zero faster.
should be as large as possible to make the exponential
The above can be reached by decrease wire dia, density and specific heat or by increasing the value of
h, therefore a thin wire should be used in thermocouples
has time units and called time constant
/* = 1
Ti Ta = 0.368 (Ti Ta)

* = 1/Bi.Fo if Bi Fo increases decreases.
The lower the value of *, the better the response of thermocouple
In practical conditions temp of thermocouple is to be recorded after 4*
THC in solids with finite
and
This needs graphs correlating (T Ta) / (To Ta) and l/Bi for different values of x/L or r/R etc
If temp distribution is given, Bi is found from graph and then we can calculate Fo, from Fo can
be calculated and vice versa
T.H.C in infinite thick solids (Bi ) (infinite in all directions)
The equation of THC
Page 285
Heat Transfer
On solving and substituting boundary conditions

Instantaneous heat flow At the surface (x = 0) is

Total H.T. rate at the surface will be obtained by integrating = 0 to

The temperature distribution at any time
wall at distance x from surface is

For using infinite solution to body of finite thickness subjected to one dimensional is

Under similar conditions the temp at the center of cylinder or sphere of radius R is
erf error function taken from table
Page 286
Heat Transfer
Part 8.2: Convection

8.2.1 Convection
Convection is the mode of heat transfer between a surface and a fluid moving over it.
The energy transfer in convection is mainly due to bulk motion of fluid particles.
If this motion is mainly due to density variations then it is called free or natural convection.
If this motion is produced by some super imposed velocity field then it is called forced
convection.
8.2.2 Heat transfer coefficient
Let us take an arbitrary shape of area A at temp Ts, over which a fluid flows at a velocity V and at
temp
the local heat flux according to Newtons law of cooling is
q=h(
But for total heat transfer
Where
Also h depends on
Surface condition (roughness and cleanliness)

Geometry and orientation of the surface
Thermo-physical properties of fluid
Nature of fluid flow
Boundary layer configuration
Prevailing thermal conditions
Bulk and mean film temp:

The physical properties (,K,,Cp) of a fluid are temp dependent. But there is no definite rule to take
properties at a particular temp. the accuracy will dependent upon the temp at which properties are
taken.
Bulk temp = Tb = (Ti + To) / 2
Mean film temp = Tf = (Ts + T) / 2
are inlet and exit temp of a heat exchanger
are surface and fluid temp before touching surface
Reynolds Number (Re): It is the ratio of Inertia force to the viscous force. It is indicative of the
relative importance of inertial and viscous effects in a fluid motion. At low Reynolds number, the
viscous effects dominate and so the fluid motion is laminar. At high Reynolds number, the inertial
Page 287
Heat Transfer
effects lead to turbulent flow and the associated turbulence level dominates the momentum and energy
flux.
Grashof number (Gr): Indicates the relative strength of the buoyant to viscous force.
l = characteristic length
= fluid coefficient of thermal expansion
g = acceleration due to gravity
t = temp difference (
= density
= fluid viscosity
Grashof number has a role in free convection similar to that played by Reynolds number in forced
convection.
Prandtl number (Pr): It is indicative of the relative ability of the fluid to diffuse momentum and
internal energy by molecular mechanisms.
= kinematic viscosity / thermal diffusivity

The kinematic viscosity indicates the momentum transport by molecular friction and thermal
diffusivity represents the heat energy transport through conduction. So Pr provides a measure of
relative effectiveness of momentum and energy transport by diffusion.
Pr is a connecting link between velocity and thermal boundary layers respectively.
/
where = thickness of velocity boundary layer
= thickness of thermal boundary layer
n = positive index
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Heat Transfer
<<<<< . . . . . . . . . oils
. . . . . . . . gases
>>>>> . . . . . . liquid metals
Nusselt number (Nu): Establishes the relation between convective film coefficient h, thermal
conductivity K, and characteristic length l of the physical system
Nu = hl/K = conduction resistance / convection resistance = (l/K) / (l / hl)
Stanton Number (St): It is the ratio of heat transfer coefficient to the flow of heat per unit
temperature rise due to the velocity of the fluid.
If n shields are placed between two bodies

Then the ratio of H.T with one shield to without shield is (half)
If n radiation shields are inserted between two planes then
There will be two surface resistances for each radiation shield and one for each radiating
plane, if all are equal, all surface resistances are equal. If n shields are used then no. of
surface resistances is equal to (2n + 2), and the no. of space resistances are equal to (n + 1)
Presence of n shields reduces the radiant heat transfer by a factor of (n + 1) i.e if configuration factor
is equal to zero
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Heat Transfer
Part 8.3: Radiation

8.3.1 Salient Features of Radiation
The salient features of Radiation are
Electromagnetic waves are emitted as a result of vibrational movements of the molecular,
atomic or sub atomic particles comprising the matter. The emission occurs when the body is
excited by an oscillating electrical signal, electronic or neutronic bombardment, chemical
reactions etc.
Two radiations are distinguished by
C (speed of light) = (wavelength) x f (frequency)
if is less, f is high and vice versa
Energy emitted by a photon = e =
= h.f
m = hf/
momentum = mc = h.f/c
where h = plancks constant = 6.625 x
J/s
Thermal radiation has properties similar to the light
At high temperature bodies emit more radiation energy than at low temp.
The total radiant energy (Qo) comprising upon a body would be partially or totally absorbed by it
(Qa), reflected from its surface (Qr), or emitted through it (Qt) according to the characteristics of the
body. But by the conservation of energy principle the total sum must be equal to the incident radiation.
Qa + Qr + Qt = Qo
where
= absorptivity
= reflectivity
= transmissivity
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
, , are always positive and lies between 0 and 1

for non reflectivity surfaces = 0, + = 1 and perfect reflecting surfaces = 1, + = 0
for black body = 1, + = 0
for opaque bodies = 0, + = 1
for transparent or diathermanous bodies = 1, + = 0
A body that reflects all the incident thermal radiations is called specular body. Specular reflection
implies that angle between the reflected beam and normal equals to the angle made by incident
radiation with normal ex:- highly polished surfaces
In diffused reflection, the incident beam is reflected in all the directions that is directional
independence of reflected beam.
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Note: A small hole leading into a cavity thus acts very nearly as a black body because all the radiant
energy entering through it gets absorbed.
8.3.2 Total Emissive Power
Stefan-Boltzmanns Law: The total emissive power E of a surface is defined as the total radiant
energy emitted by the surface in all directions over the entire wavelength range per unit surface area
per unit time
According to Stephen Boltzmann law the amount of radiant energy emitted per unit time from unit
area of black surface is proportional to the fourth power of its absolute temp.
Where
= radiation coefficient or Stephen Boltzmann constant
let a surface 1 at T1 is completely enclosed in black body at T2 then

(
(
)
(
Kirchoffs Law: It can be stated as the emissivity and absorptivity of a real surface are equal for
radiation with identical temps and wave lengths. Therefore it states that a perfect absorber is also a
perfect radiator.
Gray Body: When the emissivity of non-black surface is constant at all temps and throughout the
entire range of wavelength, the surface is called a gray body.
For many materials the emissivity is different for the various wavelengths of the emitted energy. The
radiating bodies exhibiting this behaviors are called the selective emitters.
Emissivities of real bodies: Emissivity of a surface indicates its ability to emit radiation energy in
comparision with a black surface of the same temp level.
(i) Monochromatic emissivity: It is the ratio of the monochromatic emissive power of a surface
to the monochromatic emissive power of a black surface at the same wavelength and temp.
For a gray body the monochromatic emissivity is independent of the wavelength of the
emitted radiation.
(ii) Total emissivity: Ratio of the total emissive power of a surface to the total emissive power of
black surface at the same temp
(iii) Normal total emissivity: Ratio of normal component of the total emissive power of a surface
to the normal component of the total emissive power of a black body at the same temp.
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8.3.3 Shape Factor

It is defined as the fraction of radiative energy that is diffused from one surface element and strikes
the other surface directly with no intervening reflections. It is also called geometrical factor,
configuration factor or view factor, it is represented by
means the shape factor form a surface to
another surface . Therefore
is
The properties of shape factor are

(i) The value of shape factor depends only on the geometry and orientation of surfaces with
respect to each other.
(ii) Net heat exchange between surfaces A1, A2 is
Q12 = A1 F12 1
A2 F21 2
If both are black surfaces and are maintained at same temp i.e.
1
2
b and T1 = T2 = T
Q12 = 0 = A1 F12
A2 F21 2
So A1 F12 1
= A2 F21 2
A1 F12 = A2 F21 . . . . . . . . . called Reciprocity Theorem
(iii) The shape factor of convex surface 1 with respect to enclosure surface 2 i.e. F12 is unity.
Therefore
A1 F12 = A2 F21
Shape factor of convex surface with respect to itself is 0 i.e. F11 = 0
(iv) The shape factor for concave surface with respect to itself is not zero
F11 0
(v) If the transmitting surface is subdivided the shape factor for that surface with respect to the
receiving surface is not equal to the sum of the individual shape factors.
A1 F12 = A3 F32 + A4 F42
A1 A3 A4 and F12 F32 + F42
But if it is reverse A2 F21 = A2 F23 + A2 F24 that if the receiving surface is F21 = F23 + F24
divided, then the sum is equal
(vi) Shape factor is the fraction of total radiation leaving the radiating surface and falling upon a
particular receiving surface.
F11 +F12 + F13 + F14 + . . . . . . . . . . . . . + F1n = 1
F21 + F22 + F23 + F24 + . . . . . . . . . . . . . . + F2n = 1
............................................
Fn1 + Fn2 + Fn3 + Fn4 + . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . + Fnn = 1
8.3.4 Heat exchange between non-black bodies
(A) Infinitely long parallel plate:.
Net heat exchange between two bodies is
(B) Infinite long concentric cylinders:
Consider two large concentric cylinders of area A1 and A2 emissivities 1 and 2 and surfaces are
maintained at temp T1 and T2
Net heat exchange between two bodies is
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Heat Transfer
(C) Small gray bodies: The size of the bodies is very small when compared to distance between them.
That is the energy emitted by body 1 would be partly absorbed by body 2 and remaining is lost in
space and no reflections. Therefore the energy exchange between two bodies is
(
)
=
(
)
where F12 = 1 2 called equivalent emissivity or interchange factor
(D) Small body in a large enclosure:
=
where
8.3.5 Electrical network approach for radiation exchange
The radiation problems can be easily obtained by reducing the actual system to an equivalent electrical
network and then solving that network. Some of the terms in this technique are
(A) Radiant energy exchange between two black surfaces
(B) Radiant energy exchange between two infinite parallel gray planes
(C) Radiation heat exchange between large concentric cylinders or sphere is
(D) The radiation exchange between a small body in a large enclosure
(E) Heat exchange between two black surfaces enclosed by an insulated (adiabatic) surface
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(F) Heat exchange between two gray surfaces enclosed by an insulated surface
When third body is black
(G) Radiation H E between 3 gray surfaces. The figure is same as above but Eb3 T3 and Q12
equation is same as above
Radiation shields: It is a thin shield placed between two planes that would neither remove nor
add any heat to the system but used to reduce heat transfer rate.
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Part 8.4: Heat Exchanger

Heat exchanger is a process equipment designed for the effective transfer of heat energy between two
fluids (hot and cold fluid). Examples are
(i) Boilers (evaporators), super heaters and condensers of power plant
(ii) Automobile Radiators
(iii) Evaporator of an ice plant
(iv) Water and air heaters and coolers
The heat transferred in the heat exchanger may be in the form of latent heat (ex: boilers and
condensers) or sensible heat (ex: heaters and coolers)
8.4.1 Heat Exchanger Classification
Heat exchangers are classified according to
A) Nature of heat exchange process:
Direct contact or open heat exchanger: this is done by complete physical mixing (simultaneous
heat and mass transfer takes place) ex: water cooling towers and jet condensers in steam power
plants.
Regenerator: here hot and cold fluids flows alternately when hot fluid passes, the heat is
transferred to the solid matrix and then the flow of hot fluid, is stopped next cold fluid is passed
on to the matrix which takes heat from solid matrix ex:- open hearth and blast furnaces.
Recuperator: the fluids flow simultaneously on either side of a separating wall. Examples are
super heaters, condensers, economizers and air pre-heaters in steam power plants, automobile
radiators
B) Relative direction of motion of fluids : According to flow of fluids, the H.E are classified into 3
categories
Parallel flow (co-current)
Counter flow (counter current)
Cross flow
C) Mechanical design of H.E. surface
Concentric tubes
Shell and tube
Multiple shell and tube passes
D) Physical state of heat exchanging (condensation and evaporation)
Condenser
Evaporator
8.4.2 Performance Analysis
Let m = mass flow rate (kg/s)
Cp = Sp. Heat
t = fluid temp
t = temp drop or rise of a fluid across the H.E
C = Heat capacity =
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Subscripts c, h indicates cold and hot fluids

Heat lost by hot fluid =
Heat gain by cold fluid =
For the HE to be in equilibrium condition always heat lost by hot fluid is equal to heat gained by cold
fluid, so
Heat transferred from hot to cold fluid is = U.A.
where U = overall heat transfer coefficient
A = surface area
= mean temp difference
As we know that
this is without fouling factor

During operation the tube surfaces get covered by deposits of ash, soot, dirt and scale etc causes rust
formation and deposition of fluid impurities is called fouling
Note:(i) The U depends upon flow rate and properties of fluid, material thickness, surface condition of
tubes and the geometrical configuration of the H.E.
(ii) When fluids with low values of K and h will give low value of U when flowing in one side
(iii) When highly conductive fluids passes on both sides will give high value of U
(iv) For efficient and effective design there should be no thermal resistance in the heat flow path
Fouling factor =
Where
scale h.t.c
For cylindrical type we can calculate U based on outer and inner area
When thickness is small
and /KA is neglected
8.4.3 LMTD (Log Mean Temp Difference)

Assumptions made in LMTD are
The U is constant throughout the H.E.

and m are constant
The H.E is perfectly insulated
The C.S of stream is uniform
No conduction of heat along the tubes of H.E.
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The K.E and P.E changes are negligible

The flow conditions are steady
So by using LMTD heat transfer is given by
Q=UA
Where
called logarithmic mean temp difference
Note: If heat capacities of both the liquids are same then
Then = 0/log 1 = 0/0 indeterminate

Applying L Hospitals rule and solving, it becomes
In general
and for same HT rate (As) counter < (As) parallel
If the variation in temp of the fluids are relatively small then the temp variation curves are
approximately straight lines and the accurate results can be obtained through arithmetic mean temp
difference (AMTD)
AMTD = (
Note:
LMTD will generally be used when > 1.7

H.T. rate is same in bath parallel and counter flow types when one of the fluid temp remains
constant
When overall h.t.c is varying linearly as U = a + b , HT is given by

The counter flow H.E. preferred than parallel flow because
The exchange of heat may rise the temp of the cold fluid to more nearly the temp of the hot
fluid
LMTD is higher and accordingly more heat can be transferred
The unknown exit temp of the cooling water may be found from an energy balance on two
fluids
For multi tube and multi-pass H.E. we should use a correction factor F which can be found out
through graphs which are plotted between P and Z
Where
And F should be less than 1.0
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8.4.4 Effectiveness and NTU

The concept of LMTD will not work when outlet temp of both the fluids are not known. Normally in
many mechanical applications we do not know exit temps of both the fluids. At this situations we use
NTU approach which is based on the concept of capacity ratio, effectiveness and number of transfer
units.
Capacity ratio is the ratio of minimum to maximum capacity rate (
or
)
Capacity ratio = C =
when
=
when
So a fluid with smaller value of capacity rate experiences the greater change in temp. In
counter flow when
Tc2 tends to Th1
Effectiveness of H.E (): is the ratio of actual heat transfer to the maximum possible heat
transfer
NTU: It is a measure of the size of H.E. It provides some indication of the size of the H.E
NTU = UA / Cmin
Effectiveness for the parallel flow HE:
Effectiveness
Effectiveness for the counter flow HE:
Effectiveness
Limiting values of capacity Ratio
1. For boiling and condensation for one fluid change of temp is zero that means capacity rate
Cmax Therefore C = Cmin / Cmax = 0
exp ( NTU) for both parallel and counter flow
2. In gas turbine, exhaust gases after expansion in the turbine are used to heat the compressed air
so both the fluids have same capacity rate
C = Cmin / Cmax = 1
For parallel flow HE = [1 exp ( 2NTU)]/2 so max value of is 50%. For counter flow
HE, C 1, (1 C) tends to zero
On substitution
max value of is 100%
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Part 9: Manufacturing Engineering

Part 9.1: Engineering Materials
The properties of a material are intimately connected to its basic molecular structure. Some
knowledge of this structure is therefore essential for understanding the various macroscopic
properties exhibited by material.
9.1.1 Crystal Structure

The properties of a material are significantly dependent on the arrangement of atoms. In all
metals and in many non-metallic solids, the atoms are arranged in a well ordered pattern. Such
solids are commonly called crystalline solids. In a crystal, we can identify the unit cell, the
repetition of which forms the whole crystal. The structure of a crystal is identified and described
by this unit cell.
The three commonly observed crystal structures in metals are Body centered cubic (BCC), Face
centered cubic (FCC) and Closed pack hexagonal (CPH). The FCC and CPH have the most dense
packing.
(a)Body-centered cubic (bcc)
(b)Face-centered cubic (fcc)
(c)Close-packed hexagonal (cph)
Fig. 9.1.1 Some common unit cells.

When a liquid metal solidifies by cooling, the atoms arrange themselves in regular space lattices,
form a crystal. The crystallization starts simultaneously at various places within the liquid mass.
Most metals have only one crystal structure. A few metals, however, can have more than one
type of crystal structure. Such elements are called allotropic metal. Iron is an example of
allotropic metal.
Crystal Imperfections: Crystals are rarely perfect, i.e, the lattices are not without imperfections.
These imperfections govern most of the mechanical properties of the crystalline solids. The
imperfections in a crystal lattice structure are classified as follows:
Point Defect: If an imperfection is restricted to the neighbourhood of a lattice point, the
imperfection is referred to as a point defect. Point defects are mostly of 3 types, Vacancy,
Interstitial impurity and Substitutional impurity as depicted in below figure.
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(a)Vacancy
(b)Interstitial impurity (c)Substitutional impurity

Fig. 9.1.2 Types of point
defects
Line Defect: If an imperfection extending along a line has a length much larger than the lattice
spacing, the imperfections is called as line defect or a dislocation. Dislocations are of two types,
edge dislocations and screw dislocations.
Y
X
Y
X
Y
(b) Screw dislocation
(a) Edge dislocation
Fig 9.1.3 Edge and screw dislocations

Surface Defect: When an imperfection extends over a surface, the imperfection is known as
surface defect. The most common type of surface defects is twins.
Twin planes
Displaced atoms
Fig. 9.1.4 Twinning mechanism

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9.1.2 Physical and Mechanical Properties of Materials

A common means of distinguishing one material from another is by evaluating their physical
properties. These include characteristics such as density, melting point, optical properties etc.
More often however, the properties that describe how a material responds to applied loads
assume dominant position in material selection. These mechanical properties are usually
determined by subjecting prepared specimen to standard laboratory tests.
Isotropy: It is the faculty of having similar properties in all directions. If the properties are
different in different directions, the material is termed as anisotropic, e.g. wood.
Homogeneity: If a body has similar properties throughout its volume it is known as
homogeneous. Thus homogeneity ensures the uniformity of properties from point to point.
Continuity: If the material grains in the body are properly bonded to adjacent grains and fill the
total volume, we consider it continuous.
Tensile Test/ Stress-Strain Diagrams: The uni-axial tension test is done to obtain different
strength related parameters for the engineering materials. The results and discussion of the test
are discussed as under:
f
c
b
a
d e
Stress 0
Strain,
Fig. 9.1.5 Typical stress-strain diagram for a ductile material
Ductile Materials: Fig 9.1.5 shows the stress-strain diagram for a ductile material such as mild
steel. The curve starts from the origin O showing thereby that there is no initial stress or strain
in the test specimen. Upto point a Hookes law is obeyed and stress is proportional to strain.
Therefore, oa is a straight line and point a is called the limit of proportionality and the stress at
point a is called the proportional limit stress, . The portion of the diagram between ab is not a
straight line but upto point b, the material remains elastic, i.e. on removal of the load, no
permanent set is formed and the path is retraced.
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The point b is called the elastic limit point and the stress corresponding to that is called the
elastic limit stress,
. In actual practice, the point a and b are so close to each other that it
becomes difficult to differentiate between them. Beyond the point b, the material goes to the
plastic stage until the upper yield point c is reached. At this point there is a cross to a lower
value to point d, called the lower yield point. Corresponding to point c, the stress is known as
upper yield point stress,
and corresponding to point d, the stress is known as lower yield
point stress,
. At point d the specimen elongates by a considerable amount without any
increase in stress and upto point e. The portion de is called the yielding of the material at
constant stress. From point e onwards, the strain hardening phenomena becomes predominant
and the strength of the material increases thereby requiring more stress for deformation, until
point f is reached. Point f is called the ultimate point and the stress corresponding to this point is
called the ultimate stress, . It is the maximum stress to which the material can be subjected in
a simple tensile test. At point f the necking of the material begins and the cross-sectional area
starts decreasing at a rapid rate. Due to this local necking, the stress in the material goes on
decreasing inspite of the fact that the actual stress intensity goes on increasing.
Ultimately the specimen breaks at point g, known as the breaking point, and the corresponding
stress is called the nominal breaking stress based upon the original area of cross section.
Whereas the true stress at fracture is the ratio of the breaking load to the reduced area of crosssection at the neck. The initial portions of the diagram are shown in Fig. 9.1.6 on exaggerated
scale.
b
a
b
a
Loading
Loading
Unloading
Unloading
(b)
0
(a)
0
Residual Strain
(b)
Fig. 9.1.6 Loading and Unloading paths
0
0.2%
Fig. 9.1.7
Sometimes it is not possible to locate the yield point quite accurately in order to determine the
yield strength of the material. For such materials the yield point stress is defined at some
particular value of the permanent set. It has been observed that if load is removed in the plastic
range then the unloading path line is parallel to the straight portion of the stress-strain diagram
as shown in Fig. 9.1.6 (b). The commonly used value of permanent set for determining the value
of yield strength for mild steel is 0.2 per cent of the maximum strain as shown in Fig. 9.1.7.
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Elasticity: A material can be called perfectly elastic, if and only if:

1. While loading or unloading, the deformation and recovery are instantaneous.
2. The recovery is complete and immediate, i.e. no permanent set is left after unloading.
3. The load deformation curve has same shape while loading or unloading
Anelasticity: This is often called delayed elasticity. Here the recovery is complete but not
instantaneous and takes some time.
Ductility: The amount of plasticity that a material can exhibit is a significant feature when
evaluating its suitability for certain manufacturing process. For metal deformation process, the
more plastic a material is, the more it can be deformed without rupture. The ability of a material
to change shape without fracture is known as ductility.
Toughness: Toughness or modulus of toughness is defined as the work per unit volume required
to fracture a material. The tensile test can provide one means of measuring toughness, since the
total area under stress-strain curve represent the desired value.
Hardness: Hardness is a very important but hard to define property of materials. It can be
defined as resistance to permanent deformations under static and dynamic loading.
9.1.3 Heat Treatment

Heat treatment is the controlled heating and cooling of metals for the purpose of altering their
properties and can perform without a concurrent change in product shape. Heat treatment can
alter mechanical properties of steels by changing the size and shape of the grains.
Heat treatment are generally employed for the following purposes:
1. To improve machinability
2. To change and refine grain size
3. Stress relieving
4. To improve mechanical properties
5. To improve magnetic and electrical properties
6. To increase resistance to wear, heat and corrosion
7. To produce hard surface on a ductile interior
The brief description of different types of heat treatment process is as under:
Annealing: Annealing is a heat treatment process in which the iron based alloys are heated above
the transformation range, held there for proper time and then cooled slowly (at the rate of 300C 1500C per hour) in furnace. Annealing can be of various types:
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Process Annealing: In this process, recrystallization of ferrite is done at sub-critical

temperature. During this process, hardness of steel is decreased as the ductility is
increased. The steel is heated to about 6500C and cooled freely in air. This process is
generally used on rolled products such as flats, sheets etc.
Patenting: This process is similar to sub annealing with only difference is that it is
applied to steel wires.
Spheroidizing: This is an annealing process in which high carbon steel, tool steels
containing a large amount of free cementite, which makes them brittle, are heated 200C
to 400C below lower critical temperature, held there for considerable time and then
cooled very slowly at room temperature at furnace itself.
Isothermal annealing: This annealing process is used for plain and high carbon steels. In
this a ferrous alloy is austenitised, and then cooled and held at transformation
temperature at which austenite transforms to a relative soft ferrite carbide aggregate.
Normalizing: Normalizing is defined as the process in which Iron base alloys are heated
400C to 500C above the transformation range and held there for a specified period and
followed by cooling in still air at room temperature.
Hardening: Hardening is the heat treatment process in which steel is heated at 20 0C above the
transformation range, soaking at this temperature for a considerable period to ensure thorough
penetration of the temperature inside the component, followed by continuous cooling to room
temperature by quenching in water, oil or brine solution.
Tempering: Tempering is defined as the reheat process done at sub-critical temperatures. Such
reheating permits the trapped martensite to transform into troostite or sorbite depending upon
the tempering temperature and relieves the internal stress.
Case Hardening: Case hardening is type of heat treatment process which is supported by a tough
and shock resisting core. Below are some case hardening techniques:
Carburisation: In this process, the carbonaceous medium is a solid carburiser. The chief
carburiser for pack carburising is activated charcoal with grain size varying from 3.5 to
10 mm in diameter.
Nitriding: It is a process of saturation of surface of steel with Nitrogen by holding it for a
prolonged period (up to 100 hrs) at a temperature ranging from 4800C to 6500C in an
atmosphere of Ammonia.
Cyaniding: It is a process in which both carbon and nitrogen in the form of cyaniding salt
are added to the surface of low and medium carbon steel to increase its hardness and
wear resistance.
Induction Hardening: In process of induction hardening a high frequency current of
about 1000 to 10000 cycles per second is passed through a copper inductor block which
acts as a primary coil of the transformer. In this the heated part is cooled rapidly with
sprays of water delivered through the numerous small holes in the inductor block. This
helps in obtaining hard and wear resistance surface while having soft core.
Flame Hardening: This process is also same as Induction hardening with difference that
heating of the specimen is carried out by flame instead of induction effect. The heating is
generally accomplished by oxy-acetylene flame.
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Part 9.2: Casting

9.2.1 Casting
Casting is a process in which molten metal flows by gravity or other force into a mold
where it solidifies in the shape of the mold cavity.
Temp is also applied to the part that is made by this process
The sequence of operations involved in casting are
o
Pattern making
Mold and core making
Melting and pouring Furnaces & Solidification
Casting Shakeout, removal of risers and gates
Heat treatment
Cleaning and finishing Fettling
Inspection Defects, Pressure tightness, Dimensions
Casting Terms
Flask: This holds the sand mould intact. According to position: Drag lower moulding
flask; Cope Upper moulding flask; Cheek intermediate moulding flask used in the
three piece moulding. Made of metal for long term use
Pattern: It is a replica of the final object to be made with some modifications.
Parting line: It is the dividing line between the two moulding flasks that makes up the
sand mould.
Bottom board: Used when at the start of the mould making process, first the pattern is
kept on the bottom board and sand particles sprinkled on it and then the ramming is
done in the drag.
Pouring basin: Funnel shaped cavity at the top of the mould into which the molten metal
is poured. Reduces the eroding force of the liquid metal stream coming directly from the
furnace
Strainer: A ceramic strainer in the sprue removes dross.
Splash core: A ceramic splash core placed at the end of the sprue also reduces the
eroding force of the liquid metal stream
Skim bob: It is trap placed in a horizontal gate to prevent heavier and lighter impurities
from entering the mould.
Sprue: A Passage through which the molten metal from the pouring basin reaches the
mould cavity.
Runner system: It has channels that carry the molten metal from the sprue to the mold
cavity.
Gate: It is an actual entry point through which molten metal enters mould cavity
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Core: It is used for making hollow cavities or otherwise defines the interior surface of the
castings.
Chaplet: It is used to support cores inside the mould cavity to take care of its own weight
and overcome the metallostatic forces.
Chill: This is a metallic object which is placed in the mould to increase the cooling rate of
castings to provide uniform or desired cooling rate.
Riser: It is a reservoir of molten metal provided in the casting so that hot metal can flow
back into the mould cavity when there is a reduction in volume of metal due to
solidification.
9.2.2 Pattern
Pattern is a replica of the object to be made by the casting process, with some modifications. The
size of pattern is slightly greater than the casting by an amount called allowances.
Pattern allowances:
Shrinkage allowance
Machining allowance or finishing allowance
Draft or Taper allowances
Distortion allowance
Shake or Rapping allowance
Classifications of Patterns: Various types of patterns depending upon the complexity of the job
the number of castings required and the moulding procedure adopted
Single piece pattern

Split pattern or two piece pattern
Gated Pattern
Cope and drag pattern
Match plate pattern
Loose piece pattern
Follow board pattern
Sweep pattern
Skeleton pattern
Pattern materials: The selection of pattern material is based on the following factors.
Production Quantity
Dimensional accuracy required
Molding process
Size and shape of the casting
Wood, Metals, Plastics and Polyurethane foam are generally used materials
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Pattern color Code: The patterns are normally painted with contrasting colours such that the
mould maker would be able to understand the functions clearly.
Colour
Red or Orange
Code
Unfinished surfaces and cast surfaces
Yellow
Surfaces to be machined
Black
Core prints for unmachined openings
Yellow stripes on black

Green
Diagonal black stripes with clear
varnish
Core prints for machined openings

Seats of and for loose pieces & loose core prints
To strengthen the weak patterns
9.2.3 Moulding Materials

Variety of moulding materials:
Moulding sand
System sand
Rebounded sand
Facing sand
Parting sand
core sand
Required processing properties of moulding material:

Refractoriness: It is the ability of the moulding material to withstand the high temperatures of
the molten metal so that it does not cause fusion.
Green Strength: The green sand should have enough strength so that the constructed mould
retains its shape. (Where Green refers moisture contained in the sand)
Dry Strength: It should retain the mould cavity and at the same time withstand the metallostatic
forces when the sand is at dry condition.
Hot Strength: At high temperature, the strength of sand that is required to hold the shape of the
mould cavity.
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Permeability: The ability of sand to allow the gas to pass through the mould. It depends on size
and shape of grains, moisture content and degree of compaction.
Adhesiveness: Ability of molding sand to adhere to the surface of molding boxes.
Cohesiveness: Ability of sand particles to stick to each other. Increases with increase in clay and
decreases with increase in grain size.
Mold hardness: It is the hardness of mold which is measured similar to Brinell hardness test.
Types of molding sands:

Based on its origin: Natural sand, Synthetic sand & Special sands:
Based on initial condition: Green sand, Dry sand, Loam sand, Facing sand, and Parting sand.
Moulding sand composition: Main ingredients of moulding sand: Silica grains, clay, water and
additives
Silica sand: (Silica grains)
Silica grains forms the major portion of the moulding sand (96%) and rest being the other
oxides such as alumina, sodium (Na2O + K2O) and magnesium oxide (MgO + CaO)
Impurities (oxides) should be minimum because it affects the fusion point of the silica sands.
Clay:
Used as binding agents and this is mixed with the moulding sands to provide the strength,
because of their low cost and wider utility
Types of Clay:
Kaolinite or fire clay (Al2O32SiO22H2O)

Bentonite (Al2O34SiO2H2OnH2O)
Southern bentonite
Calcium as adsorbed ion
Low dry strength but higher green strength
Water:
Develops plasticity and strength

Amount of water used should be properly controlled.
Usual percentages of water is from 2 % to 8 %
Additives:
Coal dust:
Used for providing better surface finish to the castings
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Saw dust or Wood flour:
It widens the range of water that can be added to get proper green strength.
It reduces the expansion defects while improving the flowability of the moulding sand
Starch and dextrin:
Organic binding materials used with mould and core sands.
Increase resistance to deformation, skin hardness and expansion defects such as scab.
Iron oxide:
Improves surface finish, decreases metal penetration, reduces burn-on, increases the chilling
effect of the mould
It decreases green strength and permeability while improving the hot strength.
It reduces collapsibility and makes the shake-out of the mould difficult.
Testing sand properties:

Moisture content:
Method I:
To test the moisture of moulding sand a carefully weighed test sample of 50 g is dried at a
temperature of 105oC to 110oC for 2 hours at the time all the moisture in the sand would
have been evaporated.
Now weigh the sample
% of moisture (weight difference in grams) x 2
Method II: (Moisture Teller)
Sand is dried by suspending the sample on a fine metallic screen and allowing hot air to flow
through the sample.
Time taken for removal of moisture in a matter of minutes compared to earlier method.
Method III: (Moisture Teller)
It utilizes calcium carbide to measure the moisture content.
Measured amount of calcium carbide in a container along with a separate cap consisting of
measured quantity of moulding sand is kept in the moisture teller.
The apparatus is shaken vigorously such that the following reaction takes place.
CaC2 + 2H2O C2H2 + Ca (OH)2
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The amount (pressure) of acetylene generated is proportional to the moisture present in the
sample.
Clay Content:
It is determined by dissolving or washing it off the sand.

To determine the clay %, a 50 g sample is dried at 105 to 110oC and the dried sample is
taken in a one litre glass flask and added with 475 ml of distilled water and 25 ml of a one
percent solution of caustic soda( NaOH 25 g per litre)
Sample is thoroughly stirred and washed for many times. And the sand is removed from the
flask and dried by heating.
Clay % calculated as = (Difference in weight of the dried sand and sample) x 2
Sand grain size:
The dried clay free sand grains are placed on the top sieve of a sieve shaker which contains
a series of sieves one upon the other with gradually decreasing mesh sizes.
The sieves are shaken continuously for a period of 15 min.
Grain Fineness Number is a quantitative indication of the grain distribution
Grain fineness Number amount retained on each sieve is multiplied by the respective
weightage factor, summed up, and then divided by the total mass of the sample.
MF
GFN
f
Where Mi multiplying factor for the ith sieve;
fi amount of sand retained on the ith sieve;
Permeability:
Permeability is expressed in terms of permeability number.

The standard permeability test is to measure time taken by a 2000 cm3 of air at a pressure
typically of 980 Pa, to pass through a standard sand specimen confined in a specimen tube.
The standard specimen size is 50.8 mm in diameter and a length of 50.8 mm.
Permeability Number P =
V H
p AT
Where V = Volume of air = 2000 cm3, H = Height of the sand specimen = 5.08 cm, p = air
pressure, (g/cm2), A = cross sectional area of sand specimen = 20.268 cm2, T = time in
minutes for the complete air to pass through.
Permeability Number P =
501.28
p T
Green Compression Strength:
Test is carried out on the universal sand strength testing machine.

It refers to the stress required to rupture the sand specimen under compressive loading.
The standard specimen put on the strength testing machine and the force required to cause
the compression failure is determined.
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Green shear strength:
Test is carried out on the universal sand strength testing machine with a different adapter
fitted in the universal machine so that the loading now be made for the shearing of the sand
sample.
Stress required to shear the specimen along the axis is then represented as the green shear
strength.
Dry Strength:
The standard specimen dried between 105 and
for 2 hours which is used for testing.
Mould Hardness:
A spring loaded steel ball with a mass of 0.9 kg is indented into the standard specimen
prepared.
The depth of indentation can be directly measured on the scale which shows units 0 to 100.
When no penetration occurs reading is 100 which means hardest mould
When it sinks completely reading is 0 which means very soft mould.
Sand Preparation:
The preparation of sand is thorough mixing of its various ingredients. In the mixing process the
clay is uniformly enveloped around the sand grains and moisture is uniformly distributed which
is done by MULLER machine.
Various parameters influencing the sand properties:
Sand grain shape and size
Grain Size Permeability
Coarse grains would have more void space between the grains which increase the
permeability.
Finer grains would have lower permeability and they provide better surface finish to the
casting produced.
Distribution of the grain size widely distributed sand would have higher permeability.
Grain shape- permeability, binder amount:
Angular sand grains require higher amounts of binder.
Round grains would have lower permeability compared to angular grains
Grain size refractoriness:
Higher the grain size, higher would be the refractoriness
Purity of sand grains improves the refractoriness.
Finer grains & impurities in the sand tend to lower the refractoriness.
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Grain size strength:
The green compression strength increases with a decrease in the grain size because the fine
grain size provides a large surface area for the binder to act.
Clay type and amount of Moisture content

Clay & water green compression strength:
Initially the green compression strength increases with increase in water content and then
after reaching the optimum value it starts decreasing.
Additional amount of water increases the plasticity and dry strength but reduces the green
strength.
Method of preparing sand mould
The degree of ramming increases the bulk density or the mould hardness.
Increased ramming increases the strength
Permeability of green sand decreases with the degree of ramming.
Factors
Permeability
Strength
Increase of grain fineness number
Decreases
Increases
Clay content
Decreases
Increases
Moisture content
Reaches a maximum and

then decreases
Reaches a maximum and

then decreases
Degree of ramming
Decreases
Increases
Moulding machines: Used for production work involving large batches of the same type of
casting is to be produced. Eliminate arduous labor, offer high quality casting by improving the
application and distribution of forces, and manipulate the mold in a carefully controlled fashion.
Three methods used for ramming the sand into the moulding flasks
Jolting
Squeezing
Sand slinging
9.2.4 Defects in castings

The defects in castings may arise due to the defects in one or more of the following
Design of casting and pattern
Molding sand and design of mold & core
Metal Composition
Melting and pouring
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Gating and risering
The following are the major defects which are likely to occur in sand castings:
Gas defects: These defects are caused to a great extent by the lower gas passing tendency of the
mould which may be due to lower venting, lower permeability of the mould or improper design
of the casting, lower permeability caused by finer grain size of the sand, higher clay, higher
moisture, or by excessive ramming of the moulds.
Blow holes and open blows:

Spherical, flattened or elongated cavities present inside the casting (Blow holes) or
on the surface (Open blows)
Because of moisture left in mould is converted into steam by heat in the molten
metal, part of which entrapped in the casting ends up as blow hole or ends up as
open blow when it reaches the surface.
Causes moisture in the mould, lower venting and lower permeability of the mould.
Remedy proper venting and adequate permeability
Air inclusions:
The atmospheric and other gases absorbed by the molten metal in the furnace, in the
ladle, and during the flow in the mould, when not allowed to escape, would be
trapped inside the casting and weaken it.
Reasons
Higher pouring temperatures
poor gating design such as straight sprues in unpressurized gating,

abrupt bends and other turbulence
low permeability of the mould.
Remedy Choose the appropriate pouring temperature and improve gating practices
by reducing the turbulence
Pin hole porosity:

Caused by release of gases (Hydrogen) during pouring, consists of many small gas
cavities (small diameter & long pin hole) formed at or slightly below the surface of
the casting.
Reason the high pouring temperature which increases the gas pick-up.
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Shrinkage cavities (Pipe)

It is a depression in the surface or an internal void in the casting.
Caused by solidification shrinkage that restricts the amount of molten metal
available in the last region to freeze.
Occurs near the top of the casting (pipe)
Remedy proper riser design.
Moulding material defects: These defects occur because the moulding materials are not of
requisite properties or due to improper ramming.
Cuts and Washes:

Appear as rough spots and areas of excess metal in casting
Reasons caused by the erosion of moulding sand by the flowing molten metal at
high velocity.
Remedies by the proper choice of moulding sand and using appropriate moulding
method for preventing the erosion of mould and by altering the gating design to
reduce the turbulence in the metal, by increasing the size of gates or by using
multiple ingates.
Metal penetration
When the molten metal enters the gap between the sand grains rough casting.
Reasons either the grain size of the sand is too coarse or no mould wash has been
applied to the mould cavity, and by higher pouring temperatures.
Remedy choose appropriate grain size, together with a proper mould wash.
Fusion
Fusion of sand grains with the molten metal, giving a brittle, glassy appearance on
the casting surface.
Reasons clay in the moulding sand have low refractoriness or high pouring
temperature.
Remedy Choice of correct type and amount of bentonite
Run out
When the molten metal leaks out of the mould
Reasons caused either due to faulty mould making or because of the faulty
moulding flask.
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Rat tails and buckles

Under the influence of the heat, the sand expands, thereby moving the mould wall
backwards and in the process when the wall gives away, the casting surface may
have this marked as a small line.
Reasons moulding sand has got poor expansion properties and hot strength or the
heat in the pouring metal is too high facing sand applied does not provide the
necessary cushioning effect.
Remedy proper choice of facing sand ingredients and the pouring temperature
Swell
Under the influence of the metallostatic forces, the mould wall may move back
causing a swell in the dimensions of the casting.
Reason the faulty mould making procedure adopted
Remedy proper ramming
Drop
Dropping of loose moulding sand or lumps normally from the cope surface into the
mould cavity
Reason improper ramming of the cope flask.
Scabs
Sort of projection on the casting which occur when a portion of the mould face or
core lifts and the metal flows beneath in a thin layer.
Appear as rough, irregular projections on the surface containing embedded sand.
Pouring Metal defects
Mis-runs
When the metal is unable to fill the cavity completely and thus leave unfilled
cavities.
Cold shuts:
When two metal streams while meeting in the mould cavity, do not fuse
together properly discontinuity or weak spot in the casting.
Causes of above two defects:

by the lower fluidity of the molten metal or when the section thickness of the
casting is too small.
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When the heat removal capacity is increased such as in the case of green sand
moulds.
Remedy
To increase the fluidity of the metal by changing the composition or raising
the pouring temperature.
Improving the mould design.
Slag inclusions:
Slag (undesirable oxides and impurities) entering the mould cavity will be
weakening the casting and also spoil the surface of the casting.
Remedy adding flux and proper slag trapping methods.
Metallurgical defects
Hot tears:
Internal or external ragged discontinuities or cracks on the casting surface, caused by
hindered contraction occurring immediately after the metal has solidified.
Metal has low strength at higher temperatures; any unwanted cooling stress may
cause the rupture of the casting.
Reason when the casting is poorly designed and abrupt sectional changes take
place; no proper fillets and corner radii are provided, and chills are inappropriately
placed.
Hot spots
Caused by the chilling of the casting
Remedy proper metallurgical control and chilling practices.
Shift
Results in mismatch of the sections of a casting usually at a parting line.
Causes misalignment of flasks
Remedy by ensuring proper alignment.
9.2.5 Heating and Pouring

The heat energy required is the sum of
the heat to raise the temperature to the melting point
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the heat of fusion to convert it from solid to liquid

the heat to raise the molten metal to the desired temperature for pouring
)
{ (
(
)}
H total heat required to raise the temperature of the metal to the pouring temperature, J;
density, g/cm3; Cs = weight specific heat for the solid metal, J/g-C; Tm = melting temperature of
the metal, C; To = starting temperature- usually ambient, 0C ; Hf = Heat of fusion, J/g; Cl=weight
specific heat of the liquid metal, J/g-C; Tp = pouring temperature, 0C and V= Volume of metal
being heated, cm3
Pouring Introduction of molten metal into the mold, including its flow through the gating
system and into the cavity, is a critical step in the casting process.
Factors affecting the pouring operation include: pouring temperature, pouring rate and
turbulence
Pouring Temperature is the temperature of the molten metal as it is introduced into the mold.
the difference between the temperature at pouring and the temperature at which freezing
begins (the melting point for a pure metal or the liquidus temperature for an alloy)(Super
Heat)
Pouring rate refers to the volumetric rate at which the molten metal is poured into the mold.
If the rate is too slow metal will chill and freeze before filling the cavity
If the rate is too high turbulence will occur in the flow
Turbulence in the fluid flow is characterized by erratic variations in the magnitude and direction
of the velocity throughout the fluid.
Effects of Turbulence:
Tends to accelerate the formation of metal oxides that can be become entrapped during
solidification
Aggravates mold erosion, the gradual wearing away of the mold surfaces due to impact of
the flowing molten metal.
9.2.6 Gating design

The liquid metal that runs through the various channels in the mould obeys the Bernoullis
theorem which states that the total energy head remains constant at any section.
h
P V2
constant
w 2g
Where h potential head, m

P Pressure, Pa
V Liquid Velocity, m/s
w Specific weight of liquid, N/m3
g Gravitational constant, m/s2
But as the metal moves through the gating system, a loss of energy occurs because of the friction
between the molten metal and the mould walls.
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Law of continuity says that the volume of metal flowing at any section in the mould is constant.
Q A1V1 A2V2
Where Q rate of flow, m3/s

A Area of cross section, m2
V Velocity of metal flows, m/s
Fluidity:
The molten metal flow characteristics are often described by the term fluidity, a measure
of the capability of a metal to flow into and fill the mold before freezing.
Spiral mold test standard testing method to measure the fluidity of the molten metal.
Factors affecting fluidity Pouring temperature relative to melting point, metal

composition, viscosity of the liquid metal, and heat transfer to the surroundings.
Higher pouring temperature relative to the freezing point - increases the fluidity of the
molten metal which also causes some casting problems oxide formation, gas porosity,
and penetration of liquid metal into the interstitial spaces between the grains of sand
forming the mold.
Metal Composition w.r.t. the metals solidification mechanism best fluidity is obtained
by metals that freeze at a constant temperature (pure metals and eutectic alloys).
The freezing mechanism, metal composition also determines heat of fusion the amount
of heat required to solidify the metal from the liquid state.
Higher heat of fusion tends to increase the measured fluidity in casting.

Property
Factors
With decrease in:
Viscosity
Surface tension
Increase of
Freezing range
Fluidity
With increase in:
Heat content
Permeability
9.2.7 Solidification and Cooling

Pure Metals: - solidifies at a constant temperature equal to its freezing point, which is the same
as its melting point.
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Solidification time
-
It is the time required for the casting to solidify after pouring.
Local solidification time: - actual freezing takes time during which the metals
latent heat of fusion is released into the surrounding mold.
Total solidification time time taken between pouring and complete
solidification.
Dependent on the size and shape of the casting by an empirical relationship

(Chvorinovs rule)
V
T Cm
A
T- Total solidification time, min

V- volume of the casting, cm3
A- Surface area of the casting cm2
n-exponent taken to have a value = 2
Cm Mold constant (min/cm2)
-
Rule indicates that a casting with a higher volume-to-surface area ratio will cool and
solidify more slowly than one with a lower ratio.
Rule is used for designing the riser in a mold.
To perform its function of feeding molten metal to the main cavity, the metal
in the riser must remain in the liquid phase longer than the casting, then only
effects of shrinkage are minimized.
Shrinkage:
Shrinkage occurs in three steps:
(1) liquid contraction during cooling prior to solidification
(2) contraction during the phase change from liquid to solid Solidification shrinkage
(3) thermal contraction of the solidified casting during cooling to room temperature
Solidification shrinkage occurs in nearly all metals because the solid phase has a higher
density than the liquid phase.
Exception in the above category, Cast iron containing high carbon content, whose
solidification is complicated by a period of graphitization during the final stages of
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freezing, which causes expansion that tends to counteract the volumetric decrease
associated with the phase change.
Directional Solidification: In order to minimize the damaging effects of shrinkage, it is desirable
for the regions of the casting most distant from the liquid metal supply to freeze first and for
solidification to progress from these remote regions toward the risers. It is attained by locating
sections of the casting with lower V/A ratios away from the riser, freezing will occur first in
these regions and the supply of liquid metal for the rest of the casting will remain open until
these bulkier sections solidify.
Another way to encourage directional solidification is to use Chills.
Internal Chills are small metal parts placed inside the cavity before pouring so that the molten
metal will solidify first around these parts.
External Chills are metal inserts in the walls of the mold cavity that can remove heat from the
molten metal more rapidly than the surrounding sand in order to promote solidification.
( )
( )
Figure (a) External chill to encourage rapid freezing of the molten metal in a thin section of the
casting and (b) the likely result if the external chill were not used
Riser Design:
Riser is used in a sand-casting mold to feed liquid metal to the casting during freezing in
order to compensate for solidification shrinkage.
To function, the riser must remain molten until after the casting solidifies.
The riser represents waste metal that will be separated from the cast part and remelted
to make subsequent castings. It is desirable for the volume of metal in the riser to be
minimum. Since the geometry of the riser is normally selected to maximize the V/A ratio,
this tends to reduce the riser volume as much as possible.
Different forms of riser:

Side riser attached to the side of the casting by means of a small channel
Top riser connected to the top surface of the casting.
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Open riser exposed to the outside at the top surface of the cope.-dis adv: allowing more
heat to escape, promoting faster solidification.
Blind riser entirely enclosed within the mold
Design of riser is such that the time taken for solidification of liquid metal in the riser should
be more than the time taken for solidification of liquid metal in the cavity.
o
(Ts) riser (Ts) casting
Riser can be designed by using four methods:
Caines Method
Modulus method
Navel research method
Shrinkage volume consideration method
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Part 9.3: Forming Process

Forming can be defined as process in which the desired size and shape are obtained through
plastic deformation of material. The stresses induced during the process are greater than yield
strength but less than fracture strength of the material.
The forming process can be grouped under two broad categories, namely, cold forming and hot
forming. If the working temperature is higher than the re-crystallization temperature of the
material, then the process is called hot forming. Otherwise the process is called as cold forming.
During hot working, a large amount of plastic deformation can be imparted without significant
strain hardening. This is important as large amount of strain hardening renders the material
brittle.
9.3.1 Rolling
The basic objectives of the analysis we give here are to determine (i) the roll separating forces,
(ii) the torque and power required to drive the rolls, and (iii) the power loss in bearings. An
analysis considering all the factors in a real situation is beyond the scope of this text, and
therefore the following simplifying assumptions will be made:
(i) The rolls are straight and rigid cylinders.
(ii) The width of the strip is much larger than its thickness and no significant widening
takes place, i.e., the problem is of plane strain type.
(iii) The coefficient of friction is low and constant over the entire roll job interface.
(iv) The yield stress of the material remains constant for the entire operation, its value
being the average of the values at the start and at the end of rolling.
Determination of Rolling Pressure: Figure 9.3.1(a) shows a typical rolling operation for a strip
with an initial thickness t which is being rolled down to a final thickness t . Both the rolls are of
equal radius R and rotate with the same circumferential velocity V. The origin of the coordinate
system xy is taken at the midpoint of the line joining the centres O and O . (The operation is
two-dimensional, and so the position of O along the axis mutually perpendicular to Ox and Oy is
of no significance. In our analysis, we shall assume that the width of the strip is unity.) The entry
and exit velocities of the strip are V and V , respectively. In actual practice, V
V V.
Therefore, at a particular point in the working zone, the velocity of the strip will be equal to V,
and this point will hereafter be referred to as the neutral point.
(a) Details of rolling

operation
(b) Stresses on
element
Fig. 9.3.1 Forces and stresses during rolling

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The expressions for the non-dimensional roll pressure *(
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+ in the regions before and after the
neutral point we obtain are

( )
( )
)e
2 tan
)e ,
The pressure at the neutral point can be determined from either of the above equations for
pressure. So, the value of corresponding to the neutral point ( ) is obtained by equating the
right-hand sides of these equations. Thus,
0 ln 2 .
/3
For typical values of the parameters in a rolling operation, we find that the roll pressure p
increases continuously from the point of entry till the neutral point is reached and decreases
continuously thereafter.
Typical distributions of pressure p are shown in Fig. 9.3.2. The peak pressure at the neutral point
is normally called the friction hill. This peak pressure increases with increasing coefficient of
friction.
Exit
Entry
p (2k)
Neutral
points
Fig. 9.3.2 Pressure distribution in rolling
Determination of Roll Separating Force

Assuming that the width of the strip is unity, the total force F trying to separate the rolls can be
obtained by integrating the vertical component of the force acting at the roll-strip interface.
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Since the angle is normally very small, the contribution of the roll-strip interface friction force
is negligible in the vertical direction. Thus,
F = p cos d
p d (since is small),
i.e., F =
The integrations in above equation are normally computed numerically.

Driving Torque and Power
The driving torque is required to overcome the torque exerted on the roll by the interfacial
friction force.
Fig. 9.3.3 Equilibrium of deformation zone

Figure 9.3.3 shows the deformation zone along with the forces acting on it, including an
equivalent horizontal force F which represents the net frictional interaction between each roll
and the strip (the reaction - F of F has to be overcome by the roll driving torque T). F can be
determined by considering the horizontal equilibrium of the system. Thus,
F
*(
*(
t)
2 p sin d +
t)
2 p
t)
d +
Accordingly,
T F R = (
Once the driving torque T is determined, the driving power per roll P is obtained as
P
T ,
where is the angular speed of the roll.

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9.3.2 Forging
In this section, our analysis is mainly devoted to determining the maximum force required for
forging a strip and a disc between two parallel dies. Obviously, it is a case of open die forging.
Forging of strip:
Figure 9.3.4(a) shows a typical open die forging of a flat strip. To simplify our analysis, we shall
make the following assumptions:
(i)
(ii)
The forging force F attains its maximum value at the end of the operation.
The coefficient of friction between the work piece and the dies (platens) is
constant.
(iii) The thickness of the work piece is small as compared with its other dimensions,
and the variation of the stress field along the y-direction is negligible.
(iv) The length of the strip is much more than the width and the problem is one of
plane strain type.
(v) The entire work piece is in the plastic state during the process.
At the instant shown in Fig. 9.3.4(a), the thickness of the work piece is h and the width is 2l. Let
us consider an element of width dx at a distance x from the origin. [In our analysis, we take the
length of the work piece as
Workpiece
Moving
plate
Fixed
plate
(a) Details of forging operation
(b) Stresses on element
Fig. 9.3.4 Forces and stresses during forging

unity (in the z-direction)]. Figure 9.3.4 b shows the same element with all the stresses acting on
it. Considering the equilibrium of the element in the x-direction, we get
hd
2 dx = 0,
where is the frictional stress. To make the analysis simpler, p and

principle stresses. The problem being of a plane strain type, Thus,
p
Substituting d
2K or d
are considered as the
dp , K is the allowable shear stress
, we get
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dp =
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dx
Near the free ends, i.e., when x is small (and also at x 2l; the problem being symmetric about
the midplane, we are considering only one-half in our analysis, i.e., x l), a sliding between
the workpiece and the dies must take place to allow for the required expansion of the workpiece.
However, beyond a certain value of x (in the region x l), say, x , there is no sliding between
the workpiece and the dies. This is due to the increasing frictional stress which reaches the
maximum value, equal to the shear yield stress, at x = x and remains so in the rest of the zone,
x x l. Hence, for x x ,
p
and, for x x l
K.
However, it should be noted that this assumption is incorrect as the shear stresses
planes on which p is acting (Fig. 9.3.4b).
act on the
For the sliding (non-sticking) zone, we have

dx
or
ln p
or
x x ).
Now, at x = 0,
C
C (
= 0, i.e., p = 2K (from the yield criterion). So,
ln 2K
p = 2Ke
( xx )
For the sticking zone, we have
or
dp
dx
p=
C (x x l)
If = p = p at x = x , then C
pp
(x
2Kx h. Thus,
x ).
Also,
or
p = 2K*exp(2 x h)
Ax=x ,
2K exp(2 x h)
(x
x )+
p = K Using this along with the expression for p , we get
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2K exp(2 x h) = K
or
or
ln ( )
x
ln ( )
Substituting this value of x in equation, we obtain

p = 2K *
ln ( )-
+,
x xl
The total forging force per unit length of the workpiece is given as
F = 2* p dx
p dx+,
where p and p are the pressures obtained earlier.
9.3.3 Drawing
In a drawing operation, in addition to the work load and power required, the maximum possible
reduction without any tearing failure of the workpiece is an important parameter. In the analysis
that we give here, we shall determine these quantities. Since the drawing operation is mostly
performed with rods and wires, we shall assume the workpiece to be cylindrical, as shown in
Fig. 9.3.5 A typical drawing die consists of four regions, viz.,
Die
Job
Fig. 9.3.5 Drawing of cylindrical

rod
(i) a bell-shaped entrance zone for proper guidance of the workpiece, (ii) a concial working
zone, (iii) a straight and short cylindrical zone for adding stability to the operation, and (iv) a
bell-shaped exist zone. The final size of the product is determined by the diameter of the
stabilizing zone (d ), the other important die dimension being the half-cone angle ().
Sometimes, a back tension F is provided to keep the input workpiece straight. The work load,
i.e., the drawing force F, is applied on the exit side, as shown in Fig. 9.3.5, A die can handle jobs
having a different initial diameter (d ) which, in turn, determine the length of the job die
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interface. The degree of a drawing operation (D) is normally expressed in terms of the reduction
factor in the cross-sectional area. Thus,
D=
( )
when the true strain is

= ln ( ) ln (
),
A and A being the initial and the final cross-sectional areas of the workpiece.
9.3.4 Deep Drawing

From the point of view of analysis, the process of deep drawing is very complex. In this process,
various types of forces operate simultaneously. The annular portion of the sheet metal
workpiece (See Fig. 9.3.6) between the blank holder and the die is subjected to a pure radial
drawing, whereas the portions of the workpiece around the corners of the punch and the die are
subjected to a bending operation. Further, the portion of the job between the punch and the die
walls undergoes a longitudinal drawing. Though in this operation varying amount of thickening
and thinning of the workpiece is unavoidable, we shall not take this into consideration in our
analysis.
The major objectives of our analysis are (i) to correlate the initial and final dimensions of the job
and (ii) to estimate the drawing force F. Figure 9.3.6 shows the drawing operation with the
important dimensions.
Punch
F
Blank
holder
Job
t
r
r
r
Die
Fig. 9.3.6 Deep drawing
The radii of the punch, the job, and the die are r , r and r , respectively. Obviously, without
taking the thickening and thinning into account, the clearance between the die and punch
(r
r ) is equal to the job thickness t. The corners of the punch and the die are provided with
radii r and r respectively. A clearance (c) is maintained between the punch and the blank
holder.
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-Job axis
Z
(a) Stresses acting on element during drawing
(b) Radial stress due to blank holding

pressure
Fig. 9.3.7 Analysis of deep drawing operation.
To start with, let us consider the portion of the job between the blank holder and the die. Figure
9.3.7(a) shows the stress acting on an element in this region. It should be noted that the
maximum thickening (due to the decreasing circumference of the job causing a compressive
hoop stress) takes place at the outer periphery, generating a line contact between the holder and
the job. As a result, the entire blank holder force F is assumed to act along the circumference
Fig. 9.3.7(b). Thus, the radial stress due to friction can also be represented by an equivalent
radial stress 2F (2 r t) at the outer periphery.
Now, considering the radial equilibrium of the element shown in Fig. 9.3.7(a), we get
rd
As
is
and
dr
dr
are the principle stresses, the equation we obtain by using Trescas yield criterion
) = 2K
(We have not used on Mises criterion to avoid mathematical complexity.)

=0
Integrating, we obtain
C
Now, at r = r ,
C=
ln r
F ( r t), as already mentioned. Hence,
ln r
Using this in the expression for
, we have
ln
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So, the radial stress at the beginning of the die corner (i.e., at r = r
|
r
t) is given by
ln ( )
Job axis
|r r
rd
rd
Friction
Z
Fig. 9.3.8 Effect of friction at corners.
As the job slides along the die corner, the radial stress, increases to
due to the frictional
forces, as shown in Fig. 9.3.8 This increment can be roughly estimated by using a belt-pulley
analogy.
Thus,
where is the coefficient of friction between the workpiece and the die.
There is a further increase in the stress level around the punch corner due to bending. As a
result, the drawn cup normally tears around this region. However, to avoid this, an estimate of
the maximum permissible value of (r r ) can be obtained with
equal to the maximum
allowable stress of material. Since r is the final outside diameter of the product, it is easy to
arrive at such an estimate. This estimate is based on the consideration of fracture of the material.
However, to avoid buckling (due to the compressive hoop stress in the flange region), (r r )
should not, for most materials, exceed 4t.
Normally, the blank holder force is given as
F
r K,
where is between . 2 and . 8. An estimate of the drawing force F (neglecting the friction
between the job and the die wall) can easily be obtained,
F
2 r t
9.3.5 Bending
In a bending operation, apart from the determination of work load, an estimate of the amount of
elastic recovery (spring back) is essential. When the final shape is prescribed, a suitable amount
of overbending is required to take care of this spring back. In this section, we shall work out
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these quantities and also illustrate how the stock size for a given job is computed. Figure 9.3.9
shows a bending operation with characteristic dimensions.
F
Punch
Job
Die
Fig. 9.3.9 Details in bending

A radius r is provided at the nose of the punch and, accordingly, the die centre has a radius
(r
t), where t is the job thickness. The portions of the die, in contact with the job during the
operation, are also provided with some radius, say r . The angle between the two faces of the
punch and the die is . At the instant shown, the angle between the two bend surfaces of the job
is ( 2 ). As we shall subsequently show, the bending force F is maximum at some
intermediate stage, depending on the frictional characteristics. The degree of a bending
operation is normally specified in terms of the strain in the outer fibre. The width of the job w
(in the direction perpendicular to the plane of the paper) is much larger as compared with t, and
hence a plane strain condition can be assumed. It is obvious that the stock length should be
calculated on the basis of the length of the neutral plane of the job. Since the radius of curvature
involved in a bending operation is normally small, the neutral plane shifts towards the centre of
curvature. Usually, a shift of 5-10% of the thickness is assumed for the calculation of strain and
stock length. Thus, the strain in the outer fibre of the bend is given as
ln [
) (
(
(
.
.
ln [
assuming a 5% shift of the neutral plane. Depending on the ductility of the job material,
a limiting value beyond which a fracture takes place. The limiting value of
(
can determine the smallest punch radius for a given job thickness.
has
), we
Determination of Work Load: Since the job undergoes plastic bending, the stress distribution at
the cross section along the centre line (XX) is as shown in Fig. 9.3.10(a). This distribution is
obtained by neglecting all other effects of curvature except the shift of neutral line. It is obvious
that in the zone on either side of the neutral plane the strain level is within the elastic range.
When the strain (both in the tensile and the compressive zones) reaches the yield limit, plastic
deformation starts. Assuming the yield stress to be
(same in both tension and compression)
and linear strain
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Neutral
line
Plastic compression
zone
Elastic zone
Plastic tension
zone
X
(a) Bending stress distribution

+ 0.45t
+1
-
Neural line
(b) Simplified bending stress

distribution
(c) Forces and moments in

bending
Fig. 9.3.10 Mechanics of bending
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hardening, the stress distribution will be as shown in the figure. The magnitude of
and
is
different due to the shift of the neutral plane. For the sake of simplicity, the stress distribution
for large plastic bending is idealized as shown in Fig. 9.3.10(b). When the strain hardening rate
is n, then
n
.
n ln [
n ln [
The loading due to this stress distribution can be represented by a bending moment M and a
force P (per unit width of the job), shown in Fig. 9.3.10(c), Expressed as
M=( .
t) (
P= [ .
)
.
( .
.
t) (
),
Now, let us consider the right half of the job (of unit width) and the forces and moments acting
on it (see Fig. 9.3.11). Since P arises from the shift of the neutral plane which is very small, it can
be neglected in comparison
Fig. 9.3.11 Free body diagram of half the job

with the other forces. The normal and frictional forces exerted by the die and the punch at their
contact lines (since r is small as compared with the other dimensions, the finite contact
between the job and the punch can be idealized as a line) are N and N, respectively. As t is
small, the moment due to N is negligible. Hence M Nl cos . One-half of the bending force per
unit width is given as
N cos
N sin
or F
2N(cos
sin )
Substituting N in terms of M, we obtain

F=
(cos
sin cos )
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Now, differentiating F with respect to , we get

( sin 2
cos 2 )
Since M is independent of . It is obvious that F reaches a maximum when

tan
Thus, the maximum work load per unit width is given as
[
cos(tan
sin(tan
)]
9.3.6 Extrusion
The basic nature of the deformation in extrusion is, to some extent, similar to that in drawing.
Here instead of applying a tensile load at the exit end, a compressive load is applied at the other
end. However, a number of complexities arise as the die is commonly flat-face (i.e., the
equivalent half-cone angle is very large unlike in the drawing die). Consequently, with the same
assumptions as in drawing, the results become highly inaccurate. In our analysis here, we shall
determine the work load and the frictional power loss for a simple forward extrusion with a flatface die. For doing this, we shall use two approaches; of these, one is in line with that used for
drawing, whereas the other is based on the energy consideration. Since both involve rather
drastic assumptions, we shall compare the results obtained from the two approaches.
Determination of work Load from Stress Analysis
With a flat-face die and high friction between the material and the container wall, a dead zone,
shown in Fig. 9.3.12(a), develops where no flow of material takes place. We assume that the
dead zone can be approximated by a half-cone angle of
. The material undergoing
deformation can be divided into two regions, namely, (i) section AA to BB, where the flow of
material is considered as a rigid body motion and (ii) section BB to CC, where the flow is
analogous to that in a drawing operation (of course, with a compressive load). Figure 3.15(b)
shows an element in the region BB-CC along with the stresses acting on it. Comparing Fig.
9.3.12(b)
with
Die
B
H
Product
d, = 2r,
C
x
dx
B
H
+d
2r
2(r, =
dr)
d(r, = 2r)
Ram
Dead zone
(a)Details of extrusion process
(b)Stresses on element
Fig. 9.3.12 Analysis of extrusion process
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The figure for drawing the similarity between extrusion and drawing is easily discernible. The
only change here is that
is compressive. Therefore, following the same analysis as in drawing
equation can be rewritten as
( )
( )
],
where
= 0 and F A is nothing but the compressive stress at the section BB. Thus,
considering the compressive nature here, we have
|
[( )
where
],
(because tan
tan
Let us now consider the stresses acting on the boundaries of the region between the sections AA
and BB. The frictional stress at the container wall is assumed as the shear yield stress K, i.e., p=
K. At the section BB, the value of p is given by p =
criterion). Hence [taking K =
=
BB
(considering von Mises yield
)0( )
It should be noted that equation was derived assuming that the half-cone angle is small,
whereas here we have taken
. This introduces some inaccuracy in the analysis but the
solution becomes unwieldy without this assumption.
Fig. 9.3.13 Frictional load during extrusion

which can be solved to obtain the value of . Considering the axial equilibrium of the region
(Fig. 9.3.13), we get
|AA d
|BB d
d lK
Finally, we get the work load F as
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dl
Frictional Power Loss

The total frictional power loss can be found by summing up the frictional power losses in the
conical and the cylindrical regions of the work material. The contribution from the second region
can be expressed as
P
d lKV
dV l
To determine the loss in the first region, we can use either of the two approaches followed in
computing the work load. According to the first of these approaches, the frictional power loss in
the conical region is given as
P
2 d p 2 V dr
where V = V ( )
The yield criterion can be written as p =
(
) [( )
, where
is expressed, with
, as
Making use of the foregoing relations in the expression for P , we get

P
2 V d
2
Finally, P
{( )
V d
V d [
( )
{( )
}] dr
]dr
ln ( )]
So, the total power loss in friction is

P
So, the total power loss is

P
P
=
d V ln ( )
dV *
d ln ( )+
9.3.7 Punching and Blanking

As we have already noted, the punching and blanking processes cannot, strictly speaking, be
grouped under the forming operations. In these processes, a finite volume from a sheet metal is
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removed in block by using a die and a punch. The shape and size of the portion removed are
determined by the geometry of the die and the punch. If the final product happens to be the
removed portion, then the operation is termed as blanking. On the other hand, if the pierced
sheet metal is the final product, then the operation is called punching. Since the basic mechanics
of material removal is the same in both the operations, we shall discuss these under a single
heading, namely punching.
Punch
Job holder
Job
Die
d
Clearance c
Fig. 9.3.14 Details of punching process.

Figure 9.3.14 shows a simple punching operation. As in deep drawing, so here too the job is held
by job holders to prevent any distortion and to provide a support. It should be noted that the
punch and die corners are not provided with any radius (unlike in the deep drawing operation)
as the objective in this process is to cause a rupture of the material. A clearance c is provided
between the punch and the die. Hence, the die diameter d
d
2c, where d is the diameter
of the punch.
9.3.8 Powder Metallurgy

Powder metallurgy is the name given to the process by which fine powdered materials are
blended, pressed into desired shape (compacted) and then heated (sintered) in a control
atmosphere to bond the contacting surfaces of the particles and establish desired properties.
This method is used for mass production of small, intricate parts of high precision, often
eliminating need of additional machining.
The powder metallurgy has four basic steps:
Powder manufacture
Mixing or Blending
Compacting
Sintering
Powder Manufacture: The properties of powder metallurgy are highly dependent on the
characteristics of metal or material powders that are used. Some important properties or
characteristics include chemistry and purity, particle size, size distribution, particle shape and
the surface texture of the particle. The commercial powder is produced by some form of melt
atomization where a liquid is fragmented into molten droplets which then solidify into particles.
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Powder Mixing and Blending: It is rare that a single powder will posses all of the characteristics
desired in a given process and product. Most likely, the starting material will be a mixture of
various grades and sizes of powder, with additions of lubricants or binders.
The final product chemistry is often obtained by combining pure metal or non metal powders
rather than using prealloyed material. Sufficient diffusion must occur during the sintering
operation to produce a uniform chemisty and structure in the final product.
Blending or mixing operations can be done either dry or wet, where water or other solvent is
used to improve mixing, reduce dusting and lessen explosion hazards.
Compacting: It is one of the most important process of powder metallurgy. Loose powder is
compressed and densified into a shape known as a green compact, usually at room temperature.
High product density and the uniformity of that density throughout the compact are generally
desired characteristics. In addition the compact should posses sufficient green strength for inprocess handling and transport to the sintering furnace.
Sintering: In the sintering operation, the pressed powder compacts are heated in a controlled
atmosphere to a temperature below the melting point but high enough to permit sold state
diffusion, and held for sufficient time to permit bonding of particles. Most metals are sintered at
temperatures of 70%-80% of melting temperature.
When product is composed of more than one material, the sintering temperature may even be
above the melting temperature of one or more components.
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Part 9.4: Joining Process

Unlike the manufacturing process employed to produce a single component, the joining process
are used to assemble different members to yield the desired complex configuration. Such a
complex geometry is either too difficult to obtain or impossible to obtain by using only the
manufacturing processes.
9.4.1 Principles of Solid phase welding

The solid state welding processes may be carried out both at the room temperature and at an
elevated temperature without, of course, melting any part of the joining surfaces. For a better
understanding of the quality of a solid phase joint, it is worthwhile to recapitulate the strength
and cohesion of metals. A defect-free crystal fails by a cleavage along a crystallographic plane
where the interatomic force is the weakest. As a result, two new surfaces are produced, and the
surface energy is defined as the work done in order to create these surfaces. The strength of a
single crystal ( ) is found to be
( )
where E is the modulus of elasticity of the material and d is the lattice spacing in the cleavage
plane. However, in a brittle solid, the failure takes place by the extension of the cracks already
present, and the bulk strength is much reduced from that given by above equation. In this case,
the bulk strength ( ) is expressed as
( )
where l ( d) is the length of the crack.

In the solid phase welding processes, the four important factors are (i) surface deformation (ii)
surface films, (iii) recrystallization, and (iv) diffusion.
The surface deformation that takes place during welding is difficult to measure. As such, in
pressure welding, the bulk deformation is used as an index of the surface deformation and is
expressed as
(for a sheet of original and final thickness t and t , respectively),
(for a circular specimen of original and final diameters d and d ,
respectively).
The strength of a welded junction increases with increasing bulk deformation. Moreover, no
weldment takes place below a certain critical deformation. The amount of deformation
necessary for obtaining a specific strength decreases with increasing temperature. A strong weld
may be made with only 10% deformation if the working temperature is quite close to the
melting point of the material. The ratio of the oxide hardness and the parent metal hardness also
effectively governs the amount of necessary deformation.
The greatest hurdle in solid phase welding is posed by the surface oxide layers and oil films. The
liquid films can be removed by heating in hot welding, and by means of scratch brushing in cold
welding. The oxide films can also be reduced to a certain extent by scratch brushing. Moreover,
these oxide layers (being hard and brittle) fracture when the pressure is applied. A lateral
movement is very useful (as in ultrasonic welding) since this tends to roll together the
fragmented oxide layer into a relatively thick agglomerate. This results in a more metal-to-metal
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contact area. An excessive oxide contamination is always harmful, resulting in a poor joint
efficiency.
A solid phase welding done at the room temperature does not allow recrystallization and gain
growth at the interface. This reduces the ductility of the joint to some extent. An increase in
working temperature not only increases the ductility but also eliminates some other defects. The
phenomenon of diffusion, though it has not been studied extensively, has an important bearing
on the performance of a solid phase weld. The shape and the size of the voids at the interface are
modified considerably depending on the amount of diffusion.
9.4.2 Principles of Fusion welding

In a fusion welding process, the material around the joint is melted in both the parts to be joined.
If necessary, a molten filler material is also added. Thus, a fusion welding process may be either
autogeneous or homogeneous. Metallurgically, there are three distinct zones in a welded part,
namely, (i) the fusion zone, (ii) the heat affected unmelted zone around the fusion zone, and (iii)
the unaffected original part. The most important factors governing a fusion welding process are
(i) the characteristics of the heat source,
(ii) the nature of deposition of the filler material in the fusion zone, known as the weld pool,
(iii)
the heat flow characteristics in the joint,
(iv)the gas metal or slag metal reactions in the fusion zone, and
(v) the cooling of the fusion zone with the associated contraction, residual stresses, and
metallurgical changes.
Heat Source: A heat source, suitable for welding, should release the heat in a sharply defined,
isolated zone. Moreover, the heat should be produced at a high temperature and at a high rate.
The most common sources of heat include (i) the electric arc (as in various arc weldings), (ii)
the chemical flame (as in gas welding), (iii) an exothermic chemical reaction (as in thermit
welding), and (iv) an electric resistance heating (as in electroslag and other resistance welding
processes). The general characteristics of these heat sources are now discussed.
Emission and Ionization of Electric Arc: First of all, let us see how an electric arc is created and
maintained between two electrodes of opposite polarity. Figure 9.4.1 schematically shows an
electric circuit used for arc welding where the work is the positive electrode (called the anode)
and the electrode rod is the negative electrode (called the cathode). Initially, a good contact is
made between the electrode and the work. Thereafter, the electrode is withdrawn. As a result,
the metallic bridges start breaking, thus increasing the current density per bridge.
Electrode
Electric source
Arc
Work
Fig. 9.4.1 Arc welding scheme
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Finally, the current density rises to such a high value that the bridges start boiling. Under such
conditions, the electrons come out of both the surfaces by a process known as thermionic
emission. Obviously, the electrons (having the negative charge) coming out of the anode are
pulled back, whereas those coming out of the cathode are also attracted towards the anode.
The rate at which the electrons are emitted from a hot surface is given by
I=C
exp(
),
where I is in amp/cm , , is the absolute temperature, C is a constant, and is given by

e (k )
Where e charge of an electron, k Boltzmanns constant, and (when measured in electron
volts) as the thermionic work function. , in fact represents the kinetic energy necessary to boil
out an electron. The values of for some common metals are shown in Table 9.4.1
Table 9.4.1 Ionization potential and thermionic work function of some common metals
Metal
Ionization potential (V)
(eV)
Aluminium
6.0
4.1
Copper
7.9
4.4
Iron
7.83
4.4
Tungsten
8.1
4.5
Sodium
5.1
2.3
Potassium
4.3
2.2
Nickel
7.61
5.0
Arc structure, characteristics, and power: Structurally, we can distinguish five different zones in
an electric arc. These are as follows.
(i) Cathode spot: This is a relatively very small area on the cathode surface, emitting the
electrons.
(ii) Cathode Space: It is a gaseous region adjacent to the cathode and has a thickness of the order
of
cm. This region has the positive space charge, so a voltage drop is necessary as the
electrons are to be pulled across this region.
(iii)
Arc Column: This is the visible portion of the arc consisting of plasma (hot ionized gas)
where the voltage drop is not sharp.
(iv)Anode Space: This, again, is a gaseous region (thickness
cm) and is adjacent to the
anode surface where a sharp drop in the voltage takes place. This is because the electrons
have to penetrate the anode surface after overcoming the repulsion of the therminicallyemitted electrons from the anode surface.
(v) Anode Spot: This is the area on the anode surface where the electrons are absorbed. This
area is larger than the cathode spot.
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The potential drop across an arc is schematically shown in Fig. 9.4.2. The voltage drop shown in
this figure is for given spacing, current, and electrode materials. A change in the materials alters
all the values. However, a change in the spacing and the current essentially changes only then
drop in the arc column.
Anode
Anode space
Cathode
Arc column
Cathode space
Cathode
Potential
Fig. 9.4.2 Potential across arc space

It has been experimentally found that, for given spacing (and, of course, electrode materials), the
voltage reduces up to a current value of 50 amp (against the ohmic law of constant resistance)
and increases thereafter, as shown in Fig. 9.4.3. This can be explained as follows. Up to 50 amp of
current, the shape of the arc is almost cylindrical and the surface to volume ratio of a cylinder
decreases with increasing radius. Thus, a thick, high current arc loses less heat and essentially
burns hotter. This result in a higher conductivity (and consequently lower resistance) as
compared with a thin, low current, arc. However, beyond 50 amp of current, the arc bulges out
and the current path becomes more than the arc gap which again increases the resistance of the
arc. Due to these two opposite effects, i.e., higher temperature and longer current path, the
voltage drop remains constant over a wide range of the current values.
Voltage
50
100
500
Current (amp)
Fig. 9.4.3 Current-voltage characteristic of arc
As a first approximation, we can assume the conductivity of the arc column to be independent of
the arc length l. The electrode drops are also independent of the arc length. Hence, we can write
the voltage drop across the entire arc as
V = A + Bl,
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where A is the electrode drop and Bl represents the column drop.

The voltage-current relationship of an arc (Fig. 9.4.3) determines the required characteristics of
the power source.
Heat flow characteristics: A study of heat flow characteristics can provide an estimate of the
minimum heat input rate required to form a weld of a given width. Moreover, a recognition of
the major variables controlling the thermal cycle (i.e., the heating and the cooling rate of the heat
affected zone) is essential for a successful fusion welding. In the fusion welding processes, the
heat source is moving, except in spot welding where the source is stationary. Once the steady
state is reached, even with a moving heat source, the temperature distribution relative to the
source becomes stationary. The most convenient way of analyzing such a problem with a moving
source is to assume the source as stationary and the workpiece to move with the same velocity
in the opposite direction. This speed is called the welding speed. Two different types of heat
sources can be considered. In most cases, the heat is liberated in a small zone which is idealized
as a point source, and the heat flow from the source is three-dimensional. In a few cases, e.g., in
butt welding of relatively thin plates, the heat is liberated along a line and heat source is
idealized as a line source. In such situations, the heat flow is two-dimensional The available
results include those of infinite, semi-infinite, and finite medium, each with point and line
sources. Of these results, the most useful is the one which gives the minimum heat input rate
necessary for maintaining a given width of the weld. For a three dimensional heat source, this is
given as
Q=
wk
),
where Q = rate of heat input (W),

w = width of the weld (m),
k = thermal conductivity of the work material (W/m-),
melting point of the work material above the initial temperature (),
v = speed of welding (m/sec),
thermal diffusivity of the work material (m /sec)

=
( = density, c = specific heat).
For a two-dimensional heat source, the corresponding equation is given by

Q = 8k
h(
),
where h = plate thickness.

In arc welding with short circuit metal transfer, the heat input rate is easily seen to be
Q = CVI,
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where
V = arc voltage (V),
I = arc current (A),
C = fraction of total time during which the arc is on.
Cooling of fusion weld
The three important effects intimately connected with the cooling of a fusion weld are (i)
contraction, (ii) residual stress, and (iii) metallurgical phase transformation. All these effects
significantly control the quality of a weld.
(i) Contraction: During the freezing of the weld pool, a decrease in the volume takes place.
Moreover, the direction of freezing, and thus the effect of contraction, depends on the type of
joint.
(ii) Residual Stress: During the fusion welding of plates, as the weld pool contracts on cooling,
this contraction is resisted by the rest of the plates (which have not melted). As such, a
tensile stress is generated in the weld, and this is balanced by the compressive stress in the
parent metal. This residual stress may result in the cracking of a brittle material and is not
important as far as a ductile material is concerned.
(iii)
Metallurgical Changes: These changes are due to the heating and subsequent cooling of
the weld and the heat affected zones of the parent materials. Such changes significantly
affect the quality of the weld. The wide variety of changes that may take place depend on
various factors, e.g.,
a) the nature of material, i.e., single-phase, two-phase,
b) the nature of the prior heat treatment, if any, and
c) the nature of the prior cold working.
9.4.3 Principles of Solid/Liquid State Joining

Three different processes, namely, brazing, soldering and adhesive bonding are grouped under
solid/liquid state welding. The physical phenomena associated with each of these processes are
essentially the same, and differ mainly in the metallurgical aspects. In these processes, the bulk
material is not melted. Also, a molten filler material is used to provide the joint.
Soldering and Brazing
The soldering and brazing processes are carried out by allowing a molten filler material to flow
in the gap between the parent bodies. Obviously, the filler material has to have a melting point
much lower than that of the parent bodies. When the filler material is a copper alloy (e.g.,
copper-zinc and copper-silver), the process is called brazing. A similar process with a lead-tin
alloy as the filler material is called soldering. The most common heat source for these processes
is electrical resistance heating.
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Part 9.5: Theory of Metal Cutting

The material removal processes are family of shaping operations in which excess material is
removed from a starting work part so that what remains is the desired final geometry.
9.5.1 Machining
Machining is a manufacturing process in which a sharp cutting tool is used to cut away material
to leave the desired part shape. The predominant cutting action in machining involves shear
deformation of the work material to form a chip; as chip is removed, a new surface is exposed.
Advantages of Machining:
Variety of work materials

Variety of part shapes and geometric features
Dimensional accuracy
Good surface finishes.
Limitations
Wasteful of material
Time consuming
The process of removing metal can be done by using two types of cutting tools.
Single point cutting tools

o
Ground type
Tipped type
Multipoint cutting tools

o
Drill bit
Milling cutter
Grinding wheel etc.
MRR obtained from multipoint cutting tool is more than that from single point cutting tool
The life of multipoint cutting tool is more than single point cutting tool.
Single point cutting tools are fed axially at a uniform feed per revolution. But multipoint
cutting tools are fed perpendicularly to the cutter axis of rotation.
Method of machining
Orthogonal cutting or 2D cutting

Oblique cutting or 3D cutting
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9.5.2 Mechanics of basic Machining Operation

vchip
Rake angle
Chip
thickness
Uncut
thickness
Rake surface
Tool
Clearance
angle
Work
v
Flank
surface
Mechanism of chip formation:

When the zone under the cutting action is carefully examined, primary shear zone and secondary
shear zone are formed.
Primary shear zone: the uncut layer deforms into a chip after it goes through a severe plastic
deformation in the primary shear zone.
Secondary shear zone: after the chip formation, the chip flows over the rake surface of the
tool and the strong adhesion between the tool and the newly-formed chip surface results in
some sticking. Due to that, it undergoes a further plastic deformation at the interface
between tool and chip.
Chip formation influenced by the following factors:

Major Factors
Work material properties.
Cutting speed
Feed rate
Depth of cut
Effective rake angle of the tool
Type of cutting fluid
Minor factors
Surface finish of tool
Coefficient of friction between tool and chip
Temperature of cutting region
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Types of Chips:
Continuous chip
Continuous with built-up edge
Discontinuous chip
Non-homogeneous chip
Favorable factors to get continuous chip
Ductile work material

Small uncut chip thickness, fine feed
High cutting speed
Large rake angle
Suitable cutting fluid
Using sharp cutting edge
Favorable factors to get Continuous chip with built-up edge:
Ductile work material

Low cutting speeds
Low rake angle and high feed
Heavy depth of cut
Absence of cutting fluid
Stronger adhesion between chips and tool face
Favorable factors to get Discontinuous chip:
Brittle work material

Small rake angle
Large uncut chip thickness
Very low or very high cutting speed
Lack of an effective cutting fluid
Low stiffness of the machine tool
Back rake angle
Side rake angle
End relief angle
Side relief angle
End cutting edge angle
Side cutting edge angle
Downward direction
According to ASA system, the single point cutting tool can be designated as
Notation
Name of the angles
Order of Reading
Nose radius
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Z ,V
X
s Y
Y
X
Back rake angle (b): It is the angle between the face of the tool and a line parallel to the base of
the tool and measured in a plane (perpendicular) through the side cutting edge.
Side rake angle (s): It is the angle between the tool face and a line parallel to the base of the tool
and measured in a plane perpendicular to the base and the side cutting edge.
End relief angle ( e): It is the angle between the portion of the end flank immediately below the
end cutting edge and a line perpendicular to the base of the tool, and measured at right angle to
the end flank.
Side relief angle ( s): It is the angle between the portion of the side flank immediately below the
side cutting edge and a line perpendicular to the base of the tool, and measured at right angle to
the side flank.
End cutting edge angle (e): It is the angle between the end cutting edge and a line normal to the
tool shank.
Side cutting edge angle (s) or Lead angle: It is the angle between the side cutting edge and the
side of the tool shank.
Nose radius (r): Radius curvature of the tool tip. It provides strengthening of the tool nose and
better surface finish.
Importance of various angles:
Back rake angle (b):
Purpose:
To control the direction of chip flow
To give protection to the tool point

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Controls the directions of the resultant force on the tool and chip flows.
Rake angle influences the cutting forces, power and surface finish:
Effect on performance:
Strength of tool: Tool with large rake angle is weak and the tool point may break off readily and
on the contrary tools with negative rake angle are stronger.
cutting force
+
back rake
back
compression
rake
shear
Heat conduction: Tool with large rake angle do not conduct heat readily whereas tools with
negative rake angles have better heat conductivity.
rake
rake
Heat
Dissipation
Heat
Dissipation
Cutting force: With decrease in rake angle the shear plane angle () decreases and for the same
depth of cut, the extent of the shear plane increase and thereby the cutting force increases ( at
the tool-chip interface assumed to be constant)
+ve
For same
depth of cut
l1>l2
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Power consumption: With large rake angle the cutting forces are less thereby the power required
for making the cut is also reduced.
The back rake angle controls the point of initial contact between the tool and the
workpiece and there by exercises a control over strength of tool point.
ve rake angle
subjected to impact
Positive Back Rake angle

Promote chip formation giving the
tool more wedge shape but weakens
the tool section causing heat
concentration near the chip and
reduces tool life.
Less rough surface
Less curling and more open chips
More continuous chips
When machining low strength ferrous
and non-ferrous materials and workhardening materials
Using low power machines
The setup lacks strength and rigidity
and cutting at low speeds
When machining long shafts of small
diameters
Negative Back Rake angle

Chip is highly distorted that forces
increased causes tool vibration,
chatter, poor finish, machining
accuracy and machine power.
More rough surface
More curling of chips
The chips break in short intervals
Machining high strength alloys
For rigid set ups and when cutting

at high speeds
When there are heavy impacts
loads
such
as
interrupted
machining
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Side rake angles (s)

Purpose: By providing a shearing action for chip removal, this angle enables the tool to cut more
freely.
Effect on performance:
Power consumption:
As the side rake angle increases, the amount of chip that bends decreases, and hence the
power required to part and bend the chip decrease as the side rake angle increases
Work
Piece
( +ve side rake

angle )
Heat Generation:
A fairly large part of the power required to part and bend the chip is transformed into
heat.
As the side rake angle decreases, the heat generation also increases (because power
consumption increases ) but the temperature at the tool point decreases because the
area of heat dissipation increases with decrease in side rake angle.
( +ve side rake )
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Feed/rev:
The thickness of the chip is largely determined by the amount of feed/rev.
The feed/rev increase, the chip thickness increases and consequently the power
expended to part the chip also increases resulting in higher amount of heat generated.
For a high feed/rev, the side rake angle should be decreased in order to increase the area
of heat dissipation.
Surface finish:
The side rake angle increases, the size of built up edge that adheres to the top face near
to the cutting edge becomes smaller and therefore, the resulting surface finish is smooth.
Side rake angle has a greater effect on the chips breakage than does the back rake angle
Positive side Rake angle
Discontinuous
chips
and
more
More rough surface
Negative side Rake angle
broken Continuous chips

Less rough surface(ie) there is an
improvement in surface finish, a
reduction in cutting forces and also
an increase in tool life.
End cutting edge angle(e)

Purpose:
To avoid rubbing between the edge of the tool and the workpiece.
If a large part of the end cutting edge is in contact with work which increases the radial force
and this may lead to chatter and vibration.
Main function of end cutting edge angle is to prevent chatter and vibration
Too greater an angle leaves the tool pointy, which results in a tool which is not able to
conduct away the heat fast enough.
No relation with the power consumption but it affects the tool life.
On finishing tool, a small flat is ground on the front portion of the edge next to the nose
radius.
Tools like, cut off tools and necking tools often have no end cutting edge angle.
Less Positive angle
More Positive angle
Less roughness, however it should be Increase in the height of feed

maintained such that it does not rub marks.
with the workpiece
More rough surface and reduction
in tool strength.
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Side cutting edge angle(s)
The angle distributes the cutting stresses favourably at the start and at the end of a cut.
With s the tool first contacts the workpiece some distance away from the tip and hence
Depth of cut
Edge
Leaving
Gradually
Edge Entering
Gradually
the starting load is better withstood and also s allows the tool to enter and leave the workpiece
gradually, so there is no extra load comes into play and therefore tool life increases.
Chip produced will be thinner and wider which will distribute the cutting and heat produced
over more of the cutting edge.
A gentle back pressure is created against the tool by the introduction of side cutting edge
angle and thereby the chatter and vibration are reduced in the machine tool.
The back pressure keeps the cross slide tight against the lead screw which prevents any
backlash.
L ength of the cutting
action of the tool
Depth of
cut (d)
Direction
of
feed.
Feed
pressure
Side Pressure
Direction
of
feed.
Feed Pressure
Back pressure
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It has a significant influence on the life of the tool under normal conditions. Because by
producing a wider chip it distributes the cutting force and heat produced over larger cutting
edge.
No influence on the power consumed or on the total force necessary to cut the metal for a
given cut of feed.
Size of this angle influences chatter (ie) greater angles cause chatter
Helps to avoid the formation of a built up edge on the tool.
No side cutting edge angle is desirable when machining castings and forgings with hard and
scaly skins, because the least amount of tool edge should be exposed to the destructive
action of the skin.
Less Positive angle
More Positive angle
Thicker discontinuous chips
Thinner continuous chips
More rough surface
Less rough surface

Slight increase in tool life. Could
cause chatter in a non-rigid setup.
Side relief angles ( s)
Allows the tool cutting edge to penetrate into the metal and promotes free cutting by
preventing the side flank f the tool from rubbing against the work.
If the side relief is too small then,
Side cutting edge cannot dig into the work properly.
Tool becomes dull quickly.
Tool will rub against the work which promotes the formation of wear land and finish
on the work will be spoiled.
If it is too large the cutting edge will be very weak and obviously the tool life will be lowered.
Higher values
Lower values
Used for tougher tool materials
For brittle tool materials
Used to machine the softer materials
Used to
materials
machine
the
harder
End relief angle ( e)
To prevent the end of the tool from rubbing on the work.

Interrupted cutting requires additional tool strength due to impact loading; therefore lower
flank angles are used.
It has marginal effect on the cutting forces, power and surface finish
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Effect of rake and relief angle at different settings:

During turning cylindrical jobs the tool tip must coincide with centre line of job, if not the
effects are:
-
If tool tip is above centre line, the tool will destroyed due to friction
If tool tip is below centre line, the tool tip will dull rapidly
To reduce the above two effects the tool is filled at slightly inclined position, due to this the
back rake and end relief angles will get changed. The effective rake and relief angles can be
calculated as follows:
Let Of
Off set distance; r
radius of work;
Angular change; Sin
Of r
The considerations are

i) off set is taken as positive if the tip is above centre line and negative if the tip is below
centre line
ii) Always subtract from relief angle algebraically
iii) Always add to back rake angle algebraically
Nose radius (r)
The increase in nose radius avoids high heat concentration at a sharp point, improvement in
tool life and an improvement in surface finish is obtained.
Slight reduction in cutting forces is usually obtained.
Chatter will result if nose radius is too large; because a large nose radius thins the chip and
increases radial pressure.
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Chip has uniform

thickness
w/p
Manufacturing Engg
Chip thickness
decreases at point of
tool.
w/p
Depth of
cut
Depth of
cut
Feed marks are closer together when feed rate is reduced; a feed rate equal to the nose
radius gives a poor finish.
If nose radius is increased the feed marks tend to be wiped out.
Nose radius equal to

feed
rate
9.5.3 Cutting tool materials

A cutting tool must have certain characteristics in order of produce good-quality and economical
parts.
Hot Hardness: The tool should be able to retain its hardness and strength even at elevated
temperatures encountered in cutting operations.
Wear resistance: The tool should give an acceptable tool life which is obtained before the tool is
resharpened or replaced.
Toughness: The tool should not fracture or fail due to the sudden impact load on tool which is
created in interrupted cutting operations.
Chemical stability or inertness: It should have less affinity towards the workpiece material, so
that any adverse reactions contributing to tool wear are avoided.
Friction coefficient: The friction coefficient should be low to enable the easy flow of chip during
the machining.
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Cost and method of manufacture: Cost should be low and method of manufacture should be easy
Tool materials:
Carbon steels (High carbon steels):
Composition C = 0.8 to 1.3%; Si = 0.1 to 0.4%; Mn = 0.1 to 0.4%
High speed steel (HSS)
Composition of General HSS:
18% - Tungsten used to increase hot hardness and stability
4 % - Chromium used to increase strength
1 % - Vanadium used to maintain keenness of cutting edge.
Cast nonferrous tools (Stellite):
Cemented Carbides: It is produced by powder metallurgy technique with sintering at 1500oC.
The two basic groups of carbides used for machining operations are tungsten carbide and
titanium carbide.
Ceramics and sintered oxides: There are two principle families of ceramic cutting tool materials
Alumina base ceramic and silicon-nitride (SiN) base ceramic
Cermets:
Diamond: Single crystal diamond & Poly-crystalline diamond (compacts)
Cubic boron nitride (CBN)
UCON: It is developed by union carbide in USA. It is consists of
Columbium 50 % ; Titanium 30 %; Tungsten 20%
Cutting fluids: Cutting fluids are sometimes called cutting oil or coolant or lubricant.
Purposes of cutting fluid:
Reduce friction and wear, thus improving tool life and surface finish.
Reduce forces and energy consumption
Cool the cutting zone, thus reducing workpiece temperature and distortion.
Wash away the chips.
Protect the newly machined surfaces from environmental corrosion.
Types of cutting fluid:
Water
Oils
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Soluble Oil: It contains 80% water, soap and mineral oil. Soap helps as an emulsifying
agent.
o Straight Oil: It contains mineral oils, Kerosene and low viscosity petroleum products.
o Mixed Oil: It is a combination of straight, mineral and fatty oils.
emulsions, semi-synthetics, and synthetics
9.5.4 Tool life

Tool failure: The useful life of a cutting tool may end in a variety of ways:
Fracture
Plastic deformation
Gradual Wear (Tool wear)
Flank wear
Crater Wear
Tool life:
It can be defined as the time a newly sharpened tool will cut satisfactorily before it becomes
necessary to remove it and regrind or replace.
Other criteria are sometimes used to evaluate tool life:
Change of the quality of the machine surfaces
Change in the magnitude of the cutting force resulting in changes in machine and
workpiece dimensions to change
Change in the cutting temperature.
The selection of the correct cutting speed has an important bearing on the economics of all
metal-cutting operations. To measure the tool life the Taylor tool life relationship is used
VT n C
Where V = Cutting speed, m/min
T = Tool life, minutes (it is time that it takes to develop a certain flank wear land)
C = a constant equal to the intercept of the curve and the ordinate or the cutting speed.
Actually it is the cutting speed for a tool life of one minute.
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slope of the curve n
tan
Manufacturing Engg
logV1 logV2
logT2 logT1
Values of n and C differ depending on work and tool materials

Cutting speed is the most significant process variable in tool life; however, depth of cut and feed
rate are also important. Thus tool life relation can be modified as follows.
VT n d x f y C
Where d is the depth of cut, f is the feed rate (mm/rev)
Variables affecting tool life:
Process variables
Tool material
Tool geometry
Workpiece material
Cutting fluid
Economics of machining: Economics of machining is not but selection of cutting speed for
optimum conditions which can be done based on the following criteria:
For minimum production cost

For Maximum production rate
For maximum profit or maximum efficiency
The maximum production rate consideration will lead to higher tool cost, where as the minimum
cost consideration will lead to reduced production rate.
For minimum production cost: The total cost of a part can be written in the form
R = R1 + R2 + R3 + R4 + R5
R Total cost/piece
R1 material cost/piece
R2 set up and idle time cost /piece
R3 Machining cost/piece
R4 tool changing cost/piece
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R5 tool regrinding cost/piece.

y1 Cost/min of labour and overheads,
y2 total cost per grind including depreciation
L Length of work (mm)
D Work diameter (mm)
V Cutting speed (m/min)
T Tool life, min
f Feed, mm/rev
Ts Setup time and idle time/piece, min
Tm- machining time/piece, min
Tct tool changing time, min
Material cost R1: The material cost does not depend on the cutting conditions and remains as
constant (R1)
Set-up and idle time cost (R2): It is given by the product of the set-up and idle time and the
cost/unit time of labour and overheads. This is also independent of the cutting conditions f and v
R2 = y1Ts
Machining cost (R3): The machining cost/piece is given by the product of the machining
time/piece and the cost/unit time of labour and overheads.
R3 = y1Tm = y1
LD
1000fV
Tool changing cost (R4):

Number of times the tool has to be changed =
Tm
T
1
Tm
LD V n
Tool changing cost/piece = y1 x Tct x
= y1
Tct
T
1000fV C
Tool regrinding cost/piece (R5):

R5= y2 x No. of times tool failed
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LD V n
= y2

1000fV C
LD
LD V n
LD V n
Total Cost per piece R = R1 + y1Ts + y1
+ y1
Tct + y 2

1000fV
1000fV C
1000fV C
To obtain minimum total cost per piece,
dR
0
dV
Differentiating the above equation w.r.t. V, (In above equation the first two terms are constant)
Vopt
ny1
C
1 - ny1Tct y2
y
1
Corresponding Tool-life T = 1 Tct 2
y1
n
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Part 9.6: Metrology and Inspection
9.6.1 Limits, Fits and Tolerances

Every production process involves a combination of three elements viz, men, machine and
materials. Each of these elements has some inherent variations as well as some unnatural
variations. The natural variations are due to chance causes, which are difficult to trace and
control. The unnatural variations are due to assignable cause which can be easily traced,
controlled and reduced to economic minimum. These variables result in variation of size of
components.
Limits: The limits of size of a dimension of a part are two extreme permissible sizes, between
which the actual size of a dimension may lie. They are fixed with reference to the basic size of
that dimension. The high limit (upper limit) for that dimension is the largest size permitted and
the low limit is the smallest size permitted for that dimension.
Tolerance: The permissible variation in size or dimension is called tolerance. Thus, the word
tolerance indicates that a worker is not expected to produce the part to the exact size, but a
definite small size error is permitted. The difference between the upper limit and the lower limit
of a dimension represents the margin for variation in workmanship and is called a Tolerance
zone.
Tolerance can also be defined as the amount by which the job is allowed to go away from
accuracy and perfectness without causing any function trouble, when assembled with its mating
part.
Systems of writing tolerances

There are two systems of writing tolerances:
(i) Unilateral system
(ii) Bilateral system
Unilateral System: In this system, the dimension of a part is allowed to vary only on one side of
basic size i.e., tolerance lies wholly on one side of the basic size either above or below it.
Tolerance
Basic Size
Tolerance
Fig. 9.6.1Unilateral Tolerance
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Examples of unilateral tolerances are:

.
. , 2
. , 2
. , 2
. etc.
2
Unilateral system is preferred in interchangeable manufacture, especially when precision fits are
required, because:
(i) It is easy and simpler to determine deviations.
(ii) Another advantage of this system is that Go gauge ends can be standardized as the
holes of different tolerance grades have the same lower limit and all the shafts have
same upper limit.
(iii) This form of tolerance greatly assists the operator, when machining of mating
parts. The operator machines to the upper limit of shaft (lower limit for hole)
knowing fully well that he still has some margin left for machining before the parts
are rejected.
Bilateral System: In this system, the dimension of the part is allowed to vary on both the sides of
the basic size i.e., the limits of tolerance lie on either side of the basic size; but may not be
necessarily equally disposed about it,
Tolerance
Tolerance
Basic Size
Fig. 9.6.2 Bi-lateral tolerance
.
.
.
e.g., 2
, 2
In this system it is not possible to retain the same fit when tolerance is varied and the basic size
of one or both of the mating parts is to be varied. This system is used in mass production where
machine setting is done for the basic size.
Cost
Relationship between Tolerance and Cost:

The relationship between tolerance and cost of production is shown in Fig. 9.6.3 If the tolerance
are made closer and closer, the cost of production goes on increasing, because to manufacture
the component with closer tolerances, we need:
Work Tolerance
Fig. 9.6.3 Relation between Cost and Tolerance
(i)
Precision machines, tools, materials
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(ii) Trained and highly skilled operators:

(iii) Tight inspection and more precise testing and inspection devices.
(iv) It needs more concentration of the operators, frequent checking and more time
which slows down the rate of production.
(v) Close supervision and control is essential.
Fits: Fit may be defined as the degree of tightness or looseness between two mating parts to
perform a definite function when they are assembled together.
Terminology for Limits and Fits:

Shaft: The term shaft refers not only to the diameter of a circular shaft but also to any external
dimension of a component.
Hole: The term hole refers not only to the diameter of circular hole but also to any internal
dimension of a component.
When an assembly is made of two parts, one is known as male-surface and the other mating part
as a female (enveloping) surface. The male surface is called as Shaft and the female surface as
Hole.
Basic or Nominal Size: It is the standard size of a part with reference to which the limits of
variation of a size are determined. It is referred to as a matter of convenience. The basic size is
the same for the hole and its shaft. It is the designed size obtained by calculations for strength.
Actual Size: Actual size is the dimension as measured on a manufactured part.
Zero line: It is a straight line drawn horizontally to represent the basic size. In the graphical
representation of limits and fits, all the deviations are shown with respect to the zero line
(datum line). The positive deviations are shown above the zero line and negative deviations
below as shown in Fig. 9.6.4
Deviation: Deviation is the algebraic difference between the size (actual, maximum etc.) and the
corresponding basic size.
Upper Deviation: It is the algebraic difference between the upper (maximum) limit of size and
the corresponding basic size. It is a positive quantity when the maximum limit of size is greater
than the basic size and a negative quantity when the upper limit of size is less than the basic size
as shown in Fig. 9.6. It is denoted by ES for hole and es for a shaft.
Lower Deviation: It is the algebraic difference between the lower limit of size and the
corresponding basic size. It is a positive quantity when the lower limit of size is greater than the
basic size and negative quantity when the lower limit of size is less than the basic size.
It is denoted by EI for hole and ei for shaft.
The relationship of deviation with tolerance (IT) is given by,
For shaft
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IT = es ei (upper deviation lower deviation)

i.e.,
es = ei + IT
For hole
IT = ES EI
ES = EI + IT.
Fundamental Deviation. Fundamental deviation is that one of the two deviation (either the
upper or the lower) which is the nearest to the zero line for either hole or a shaft. It fixes the
position of the Tolerance Zone in relation to the zero line as shown in Fig. 9.6.
Tolerance
Zone
Tolerance
Fundamental
Deviation
(Lower Deviation)
Zero line
Low
limit
size
High
limit
size
Basic
size
Fig. 9.6.4 Lower deviation as fundamental deviation

The fundamental deviation for the hole is denoted by capital letters A, B, C, . 2 C and the same
for shaft is denoted by small letters a, b, c, zc etc. as explained later.
Zero line
Fundamental
Deviation
Tolerance Zone
(Upper Deviation)
Tolerance
Low
limit
size
High
limit
size
Fig. 9.6.5 Upper deviation as fundamental deviation

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From Fig. 9.6.5 it is clear that when the tolerance zone is above the zero line, lower deviation is
the fundamental deviation. While, when the tolerance zone is below the zero line, upper
deviation is the fundamental deviation.
Basic shaft: Basic shaft is the shaft whose upper deviation is zero. Thus the upper limit of the
basic shaft is the same as the basic size. It is denoted by letter h.
Basic Hole: Basic hole is the hole whose lower deviation is zero i.e., its low limit is the same as
the basic size. It is denoted by a letter H.
Tolerance Zone: It is the zone bounded by two limits of size of a part in the graphical
representation of tolerance. It is defined by its magnitude and by its position in relation to the
zero line as shown in Fig. 9.6.5
Tolerance grade: The tolerance grade is an indication of the degree of accuracy of manufacture
and it is designated by the letters IT followed by a number, where IT stands for International
Tolerance grade. Tolerance grades are IT , IT , IT , up to IT 6, the larger the number larger
will be the tolerance.
Standard Tolerance Unit: A unit which is a function of basic size and which is common to the
formula defining the different grades of tolerances. It is denoted by the letter i and expressed in
terms of microns. It serves as a basis for determining the standard tolerance (IT) of the system.
Fit: Fit may be defined as a degree of tightness or looseness between two mating parts to
perform a definite function when they are assembled together.
It is the relationship between the two mating parts with respect to the amount of loose or
tightness which is present when they are assembled together.
Accordingly, a fit may result either in a movable joint or a fixed joint. For example, a shaft
running in a bearing can move in relation to it and thus forms a movable joint, whereas, a pulley
mounted on the shaft forms a fixed joint.
Classification of Fits
On the basis of positive, zero and negative values of Clearance, there are three basic types of fits:
(1) Clearance Fit
(2) Transition Fit and,
(3) Interference Fit.
These are further classified in the following manner:
Fits
Clearance Fit
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
Slide Fit
Easy slide Fit
Running Fit
Slack running Fit
Loose running Fit
Transition Fit
(a) Push fit
(b) Wringing Fit
Interference Fit
(a) Force Fit
(b) Tight Fit
(c) Shrink fit
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Clearance Fit: In this type of fit shaft is always smaller then the hole i.e., the largest permissible
shaft diameter is smaller than the diameter of the smallest hole. So that the shaft can rotate or
slide through with different degrees of freedom according to the purpose of mating part.
Max.
Clearance
minimum clearance
Hole Tolerance
Zero line
Shaft Tolerance
Fig. 9.6.6 Clearance Fit

Clearance fit exists when the shaft and the hole are at their maximum metal conditions, The
tolerance zone of the hole is above that of the shaft as shown in Fig. 9.6.6
Maximum Clearance: It is the difference between the minimum size of shaft and maximum size of
hole.
Minimum Clearance: It is the difference between the maximum size of shaft and minimum size of
hole.
1. Slide Fit: This type of fit has a very small clearance, the minimum clearance being zero.
Sliding fits are employed when the mating parts are required to move slowly in relation to
each other e.g., tailstock spindle of lathe, feed movement of the spindle drill in a drilling
machine, sliding change gears in quick change gear box of a centre lathe etc.
2. Easy Slide Fit: This type of fit provides for a small guaranteed clearance. It serves to ensure
alignment between the shaft and hole. It is applicable for slow and non-regular motion, for
example, spindle of lathe and dividing heads, piston and side valves, spigots etc.
3. Running Fit: Running fit is obtained when there is an appreciable clearance between the
mating parts. The clearance provides a sufficient space for a lubrication film between mating
friction surfaces. It is employed for rotation at moderate speed, e.g., grear box bearings, shaft
pulleys, crank shafts in their main bearings etc.
4. Slack running Fit: It is obtained when there is a considerable clearance between the mating
parts. This type of fit may be required as compensation for mounting errors e.g., arm shaft of
I.C. engine, shaft of certifigual pump etc.
5. Loose running Fit: Loose running fit is employed for rotation at very high speed, e.g., idle
pulley on their shaft such as that used in quick return mechanism of a planar.
Interference Fit: In this type of fit the minimum permissible diameter of the shaft is larger than
the maximum allowable diameter of the hole. Thus the shaft and the hole members are intended
to be attached permanently and used as a solid component.
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Interference
Shaft
Hole
Fig. 9.6.7 Interference fit

Elastic strains developed on the mating surfaces during the process of assembly prevent relative
movement of the mating parts. For example, steel tyres on railway car wheels, gears on
intermediate shafts of trucks, bearing in the gear of a lathe head stock, drill bush in jig plate,
cylinder liner in block, steel rings on a wooden bullock cart wheels etc.
1. Force Fit: Force fits are employed when the mating parts are not required to be
disassembled during their total service life. In this case the interference is quite appreciable
and, therefore, assembly is obtained only when high pressure is applied. This fit, thus, offers
a permanent type of assembly, e.g., gears on the shaft of a concrete mixture, forging machine
etc.
2. Tight Fit: It provides less interference than force fit. Tight fits are employed for mating parts
that may be replaced while overhauling of the machine, for example, stepped pulleys on the
drive shaft of a conveyor, cylindrical grinding machine etc.
3. Heavy force and Shrink Fit: It refers to maximum negative allowance. Hence considerable
force is necessary for the assembly. The fitting of the frame on the rim can also be obtained
first by heating the frame and then rapidly cooling it in its position.
Transition Fit: Transition fit lies mid way between clearance and interference fit. In this type the
size limits of mating parts (shaft and hole) are so selected that either clearance or indifference
may occur depending upon the actual sizes of the parts. Push fit and wringing fit are the
examples of this type of fit.
Shaft
Hole
Fig. 9.6.8 Transition fit
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In this type of fit the tolerance zones of the hole and shaft overlap completely or in part.
1. Wringing Fit: A wringing fit provides either zero interference or a clearance. These are used
where parts can be replaced without difficulty during minor repairs.
2. Push Fit: The fit provides small clearance. It is employed for parts that must be disassembled during operation of a machine for example, change gears, slip bushing etc.
Allowance
Allowance is the prescribed difference between the dimensions of two mating parts for any type
of fit.
It is the intentional difference between the lower limit of hole and higher limit of the shaft.
The allowance may be positive or negative. The positive allowance is called clearance and the
negative allowance is called interference.
Allowance ( ve)
(Interference)
Allowance ( )
(clearance)
Fig. 9.6.9
Difference between Tolerance and Allowance

Tolerance
Allowance
1. It is the permissible variation in It is the prescribed difference between the

dimension of a part (either a hole or a dimensions of two mating parts (hole and
shaft).
shaft).
2. It is the difference between higher and It is the intentional difference between the
lower limits of a dimension of a part.
lower limit of hole and higher limit of shaft.
3. The tolerance is provided on a Allowance is to be provided on the
dimension of a part as it is not possible dimension of mating parts to obtain desired
to make part to exact specified type of fit.
dimension.
4. It has absolute value without sign.
Allowance may be positive (clearance) or

negative (interference).
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Systems of Obtaining Different Types of Fits

A limit and fit system is the system of series of standard allowances to suit specific range of basic
size. If these standard allowances are selected properly and assigned to mating parts ensures
specific classes of fit.
There are two systems of fit for obtaining clearance, interference or transition fit. These are:
(1) Hole basis system.
(2) Shaft basis system.
Hole basis System. In the hole basis system the hole is kept constant and the shaft sizes are
varied to give the various types of fits.
In this system lower deviation of the hole is zero i.e., the low limit of hole is the same as basic
size. The high limit of hole and the two limits of size for the shaft are then varied to give the
desired type of fit, as shown in Fig. 9.6.10
Hole tolerance
Zero line
Shaft tolerance
(a) Clearance Fit
(b) Transition Fit
(c) Interference Fit
Fig. 9.6.10 Hole Basis System (fundamental deviation of hole is zero)

Shaft basis System: In the shaft basis system the shaft is kept constant and the sizes of the hole
are varied to give various types of fits.
In this system the upper deviation (fundamental deviation) of shaft is zero i.e., the high limit of
shaft is the same as basic size and the various fits are obtained by varying the low limit of shaft
and both the limits of hole.
Hole Tolerance
Zero line
Shaft tolerance
(a) Clearance Fit
(b) Transition Fit
(c) Interference Fit
Fig. 9.6.11 Shaft Basis System (Upper deviation of shaft is zero)
The hole basis system is most commonly used because it is more convenient to make correct
holes of fixed sizes, since the standard drills, taps, reamors and broaches etc. are available for
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producing holes and their sizes are not adjustable. On the other hand size of shaft produced by
turning, grinding etc. can be very easily varied.
Shaft basis system is used when the ground bars or drawn bars are readily available. These bars
do not require further machining and fits are obtained by varying the sizes of hole.
Difference between Hole Basis and Shaft Basis Systems
Hole Basis System
Shaft Basis System
1.
Size of hole whose lower deviation is zero (Hhole) is assumed as the basic size.
Size of shaft whose upper deviation is zero (hshaft) is assumed as assumed as basic size.
2.
Limits on the hole are kept constant and those

of shaft are varied to obtain desired type of fit.
Limits on the shaft are kept constant and those on

the hole are varied to have necessary fit.
3.
Hole basis system is preferred in mass

production, because it is convenient and less
costly to make a hole of correct size due to
availability of standard drills and reamers.
This system is not suitable for mass production

because it is inconvenient, time consuming and
costly to make a shaft of correct size.
4.
It is much more easy to vary the shaft sizes

according to the fit required.
It is rather difficult to vary the hole size according

to the fit required.
5.
It requires less amount of capital and storage

space for tools needed to produce shafts of
different sizes.
It needs large amounts of capital and storage

space for large number of tools required to
produce holes of different sizes.
6.
Gauging of shafts can be easily

conveniently done with adjustable
gauges.
Being internal measurement, gauging of holes

cannot be easily and conveniently done.
and
gap
9.6.2 Gauges and Gauge Design

Gauges are scaleless inspection tools at rigid design, which are used to check the dimensions of
manufactured parts. They also check the form and relative positions of the surfaces of parts.
They do not determine (measure) the actual size or dimensions of part. They are only used to
determine whether the inspected part has been made within the specified limits. These gauges
consist of two sizes corresponding to their maximum and minimum limits. For gauging hole
limits plug gauges and for gauging shafts snap gauges are used.
Gauges are easy to employ and can be used in many cases by unskilled operators. For checking
the component with a gauge it is not necessary to make any calculations or to determine the
actual dimension of the part, the time involved for checking/inspection is thus considerably
reduced. For these reasons they find wide application in engineering particularly for mass
production.
Gauges differ from measuring instruments in the following respects :
(i) No adjustment is required in their use
(ii) They are not general purpose instruments but are specially made for some particular
component, which is to be produced in sufficiently large quantities.
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(iii)
They give quick results about the conformance or non-conformance of the part
with the specified tolerances.
Plain Gauges: Plain gauges are used for checking plain, that is, unthreaded holes and shafts. They
are classified in the following ways.
(1) According to their type:
(a) Standard gauges
(b) Limit gauges
(2) According to purposes:
(a) Workshop gauge
(b) Inspection gauge
(c) Reference or master gauge.
(3) According to the form of the tested surface:
(a) Plug gauge
(b) Snap, Gap or Ring gauge.
(4) According to their design:
(a) Single limit and double limit gauges
(b) Single-ended and double-ended gauges
(c) Fixed and adjustable gauges.
Standard Gauges: If a gauge is made as an exact copy of the mating part of the component to be
checked, it is called as standard gauge. For example, if a bushing is to be made which is to mate
with a shaft. Shaft is the mating part. Then, the bushing is checked by a gauge which is a copy of
the mating part in form of its surface and size. A standard gauge cannot be used to check an
interference fit. It has limited applications.
Limit Gauges: Limit gauges are very widely used in industries. As there are two permissible
limits of the dimension of a part, high and low, two gauges are needed to check each dimension
of the part, one corresponding the low limit of size and other to the high limit of size of that
dimension. These are known as GO and NO-GO gauges.
The difference between the sizes of these two gauges is equal to the tolerance on the workpiece.
GO gauges check the Maximum Metal Limit (MML) and NO-GO gauge checks the Minimum Metal
Limit (LML). In the case of a hole, maximum metal limit is when the hole is as small as possible,
that is, it is the low limit of size. In case of hole, therefore, GO gauge corresponds to the low limit
of size, while NO-GO gauge corresponds to high limit of size. For a shaft, the maximum metal
limit is when the shaft is on the high limit of size. Thus, in case of a shaft GO gauge corresponds
to the high limit of size and NO-GO gauge corresponds to the low limit size.
While checking, each of these two gauges is offered in turn to the work. A part is considered to
be good, if the GO gauge passes through or over the work and NO-GO gauge fails to pass under
the action of its own weight. This indicates that the actual dimension of the part is within the
specified tolerance. If both the gauges fail to pass, it indicates that hole is under size or shaft is
over size. If both the gauges pass, it means that the hole is over size or the shaft is under size.
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Tolerance
Tolerance
LL
HL
NOT
LL
HL
GO
NO GO
GO
HOLE
(a) For Hole
(b) For Shaft

Fig. 9.6.12 Limit Gauges
Material for Gauges

The material used for manufacturing the gauges must fulfil the following requirements, either by
virtue of its own properties, or by a heat treatment process.
(a) Hardness to resist wear.
(b) Stability to ensure that its size and shape will not change over a period of time.
(c) Corrosion resistance,
(d) Machinability to enable it to be machined easily into the required shaft and to the
required degree of accuracy.
(e) Low coefficient of linear expansion to avoid effect of temperature.
(f) The parts of the gauge which are to be held in the hand should have low thermal
conductivity.
A good quality high carbon steel is usually used for gauge manufacture. Suitable heat treatment
can produce a high degree of hardness coupled with stability. High carbon steel is relatively
inexpensive, it can be readily machined and brought to a high degree of accuracy and surface
finish.
Gauges can also be made from steel, special wear resisting material, like hard chrome plated
surfaces and tungsten carbide, Invar etc. Glass gauges were used during World War. Chromium
plating makes the gauge corrosion and wear resistant. Also, the size of worn gauging surface can
be increased by this method. The gauge surfaces can also be plated to provide hardness,
toughness and stainless properties.
Taylors Principle of Gauge Design
It states that
(1) GO gauges should be designed to check the maximum material limit, while the NO-GO gauges
should be designed to check the minimum material limit.
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Now, the plug gauges are used to check the hole, therefore the size of the GO plug gauge should
correspond to the low limit of hole, while that of NO-GO plug gauge should corresponds to the
high limit of hole.
Tolerance
Zone
GO
Max. Limit
Tolerance
Max.
Zone
Limit
NO
GO
GO
NO GO
Mini.
Limit
Fig. 9.6.13
Similarly, the GO Snap gauge on the other hand corresponds to the high limit of shaft, while
NO-GO Snap gauge corresponds to the low limit of shaft.
The difference in size between the GO and NO GO plug gauges, as well as the difference in size
between GO and NO-GO Snap gauges is approximately equal to the tolerance of the tested hole or
shaft in case of standard gauges.
(2) GO gauges should check all the related dimensions (roundness, size, location etc).
Simultaneously whereas NO-GO gauge should check only one element of the dimension at a
time.
According to this rule, GO plug gauge should have a full circular section and be of full length of
the hole it has to check. This ensures that any lack of straightness, or roundness of the hole will
prevent the entry of full length GO plug gauge. If this condition is not full filled, the inspection of
the part with the gauge may give wrong results.
For example, suppose the bush to be inspected has a curved axis and a short GO plug gauge is
used to check it. The short plug gauge will pass through all the curves of the bent busing. This
will lead to a wrong result that the workpiece (hole) is within the prescribed limits. Actually,
such a busing with a curved hole will not mate properly with its mating part and thus defective.
A GO plug gauge with adequate length will not pass through a curved busing and the error will
be detected. A long plug gauge will thus check the cylindrical surface not in one direction, but in
a number of sections simultaneously. The length of the GO plug gauge should not be less than
1.5 times the diameter of the hole to be checked.
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Bush
GO
Plug Gauge
Fig. 9.6.14 Checking a bush with curved axis
Hole
NO-GO Plug Gauge

Fig. 9.6.15 Checking an oval shape
Now suppose the hole to be checked has an oval shape. While checking it with the cylindrical
NO-GO gauge the hole under inspection will overlap (hatched portion) the plug and thus will
not enter the hole. This will again lead to wrong conclusion that the part is within the prescribed
limits. It will be therefore more appropriate to make the NO-GO gauge in the form of a pin as
shown in Fig. 9.6.15
Wear Allowance
The measuring surfaces of GO gauges rub constantly against the surfaces of the work pieces
during checking. This results in wearing of the measuring surfaces of gauges. The GO gauge thus
looses its initial size. The size of the GO plug gauge is reduced due to wear and that of ring or
snap gauge is increased. Hence a wear allowance is provided to the gauges in the direction
opposite to that of the wear. In case of GO plug gauge wear allowance is added, while in ring or
snap gauge it is subtracted. For NO-GO gauges wear allowance is not provided as they are not
subjected to much wear as GO gauges. Wear allowance is usually taken as 50% of work
tolerance. Wear allowance is applied to a normal GO gauge diameter before gauge tolerance is
applied.
9.6.3 Linear Measurement

Linear measurement applies to measurement of lengths, diameters, heights and thicknesses
including external and internal measurements. The line measuring instruments have series of
accurately spaced lines marked on them, e.g. scale. The dimension to be measured is aligned
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with the graduations of the scale. Linear measuring instruments are designed either for line
measurements or end measurements. In end measuring instruments, the measurement is taken
between two end surfaces as in micrometers, slip gauges etc.
The instruments used for linear measurements can be classified as:
(i) Direct measuring instruments
(ii) Indirect measuring instruments
The direct measuring instruments are of two types:
(i) Graduated
(ii) Non-graduated.
The graduated instruments include rules, vernier callipers, vernier height gauges, vernier depth
gauges, micrometers, dial indicator etc. The non-graduated instruments include callipers,
trammels, telescopic gauges, surface gauges, straight edges, wire gauges, screw pitch gauges,
radius gauges, thickness gauges, slip gauges etc. They can also be classified as :
(i) Non-precision instruments such as steel rule, calliper etc.
(ii) Precision measuring instruments, such as vernier instruments, micrometers, dial gauges
etc.
Steel Rule
Steel rule is a line measuring instrument. It is a part replica of the international prototype meter.
It compares an unknown length to be measured with the previously calibrated length. It is made
of hardened steel or stainless steel having series of equally spaced line engraved on it.
Steel rule is most commonly used in workshop for measuring components of limited accuracy.
The marks on a good class rule vary from 0.12 mm to 0.18 mm wide, so that we cannot expect to
obtain a degree of accuracy much closer than within 0.012 mm. The quickness and ease with
which it can be used and its low cost, makes it a popular and widely used measuring device.
Callipers
To measure the diameter of a circular part it is essential that the measurement is made along the
largest distance or true diameter. The steel rule alone is not a convenient method of measuring
directly the size of the circular part. A calliper is used to transfer the distance between the faces
of a component to a scale or micrometer. It thus converts an end measurement situation to the
line system of the rule.
The accurate use of callipers depends upon the sense of feel that can only be acquired by
practice. While using callipers the following rules should be followed:
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
Hold the calliper gently and near the joint

Hold it square to the work
Apply only light gauging pressure
Handle it gently to avoid disturbing the setting for accurate measurement.
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Callipers can be classified as:

(i)
(ii)
Firm joint (Fixed joint) callipers

Spring type callipers.
Surface plate
Surface plate forms the basis of measurement. They are extensively used in workshops and
metrological laboratories where inspection is carried out. They are used as:
(i)
(ii)
A reference or datum surface for testing flatness of surfaces.

Reference surfaces for all other measuring instruments having flat bases e.g., for
mounting V-blocks, angle plates, sine bars, height gauges, dial gauges, comparators
etc.
Surface plates are massive and highly rigid in design. They have truly flat level planes. They are
generally made up of C.I. free from blow holes, inclusions and other surface defects and are heat
treated to relieve internal stresses.
Precision Linear Measurements

The mass production which is a characteristic of modern engineering manufacture makes it
necessary to manufacture component part with close dimensional tolerance to make them inter
changeable. Interchangeability can be achieved only by precision dimensional control of the
parts being manufactured. Thus, to measure the dimensions of the part with close accuracy
precision instruments play an important role.
Vernier Callipers
The vernier callipers consists of two scale: one is fixed and the other is movable. The fixed scale,
called main scale is calibrated on L-shaped frame and carries a fixed jaw. The movable scale,
called vernier scale slides over the main scale and carries a movable jaw. The movable jaw as
well as the fixed jaw carries measuring tip. When the two jaws are closed the zero of the venier
scale coincides with the zero of the main scale. For precise setting of the movable jaw an
adjustment screw is provided. Also, an arrangement is provided to lock the sliding scale on the
fixed main scale.
Least Count: Vernier instruments have two scales, main scale and the vernier scale. The main
scale is fixed and the vernier scale slides over the main scale. When zero on the main scale
coincides with the zero on the vernier scale, the vernier scale has one more division than that of
the main scale with which it coincides. So, the value of a division on vernier scale is slightly
smaller than the value of a division on the main scale. This difference is the least count.
Least count (L.C.) is the difference between the value of main scale division and vernier scale
division. Thus least count of a vernier instrument = Value of the smallest division on the main
scale The value of the smallest division on the vernier scale.
Micrometer
The accuracy of the vernier calliper is 0.02 mm ; most engineering precision work has to be
measured to a much greater accuracy than this, especially to achieve interchangeability of
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component parts. To achieve this greater precision, measuring equipment of a greater accuracy
and sensitivity must be used. Micrometer is one of the most common and most popular forms of
measuring instrument for precise measurement with 0.01 mm accuracy. Micrometers with
0.001 mm accuracy are also available. Micrometers can be classified as :
(a) Outside Micrometer
(b) Inside Micrometer
(c) Screw Thread Micrometer and,
(d) Depth gauge Micrometer.
Principle of Micrometer
Micrometers work on the principle of screw and nut. We know that when a screw is turned
through nut through one revolution, it advances by one pitch distance i.e., one rotation of screw
corresponds to a linear movement of a distance equal to pitch of the thread. If the circumference
of the screw is divided into number of equal parts say n, its rotation through one division will
cause the screw to advance through (
) length. Thus, the minimum length that can be
measured by such arrangement will be (
). By reducing the pitch of the screw thread or by
increasing the number of divisions on the circumference of screw, the length value of one
circumferential division can be reduced and accuracy of measurement can be increased
considerably.
Least Count of Micrometer
Least count is the minimum distance which can be measured accurately by the instrument. The
micrometer has a screw of 0.5 mm pitch, with a spindle graduated in 50 divisions to provide a
.
direct reading of (
)=
= 0.01 mm.
Least count of a micrometer is thus, the value of one division on a spindle, which is connected to
the screw.
L. C. of micrometer
Pitch of the spindle screw

Number of divisions on the spindle
9.6.4 Angular Measurement

Angular measurements are frequently necessary for the manufacture of interchangeable parts.
The ships and aeroplanes can navigate confidently without the help of the sight of the land, only
because of precise angular measurement. Precise angular measuring devices can be used in
astronomy to determine the relation of the stars and their approximate distances.
Instruments for Angular Measurements
There are many instruments which can be used for measuring the angles. The selection of an
instrument to be used for angular measurement depends upon the component and the accuracy
of measurement required. For example, the ordinary bevel protractor with Vernier scale can
read to 2 minutes accuracy and optical protractor is accurate to 2 minutes. These are usually
not adequate for metrological work and for high precision work to within a few seconds. To
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obtain these fine accuracies for high precision work, use is made of sine bar, angle gauges, and
optical instruments. The spirit level and the dividing head are also employed.
The following instruments are generally are generally used for angular measurements
Vernier bevel protractor

Optical bevel protractor
Universal bevel protractor
Sine bar
Angle gauges
Clinometer
Angle dekkor
Auto collimator, etc.
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Part 9.7: Computer Integrated Manufacturing (CIM)

9.7.1 Computer Integrated Manufacturing (CIM)
Computer Integrated Manufacturing comprises a combination of software and hardware for
product design, production planning, production control, and production equipment and
production process. It is an attempt to integrate the many diverse elements of discrete parts
manufacturing into one continuous process like stream.
Manufacturing by CIM technique could be separated into four blocks:
Product Design
Product design for which interactive computer aided design (CAD) system allows the drawing
and analysis tasks to be performed. These computer graphics systems are very useful to get data
out of designers mind into a presentable form and enable analysis in fraction of time required
otherwise and with greater accuracy. Design process is speeded up considerably.
Manufacturing Planning
Computer aided process planning helps to establish optimum manufacture routines and
processing steps, sequences and schedules so that the process is optimum.
Manufacturing
Computer aided manufacturing (CAM) helps indentify manufacturing problems and
opportunities. Distributed intelligence in the form of microprocessors could be used to control
machines and material handling and collect the data on current shop conditions.
Computer Aided Inspection and Reporting
Computer aided inspection and reporting provides a feedback loop.
Advantages of Computer Integrated Manufacturing (CIM)
Remarkable flexibility for manufacturing diverse components in the same setup by easy and
quick manipulation of software.
High rates of production with consistent high quality
Uninterrupted production with negligible supervision.
Economical production even where product demand is only moderate in volume
Drastic reduction of lead times where drastic changes in design are called for.
Integrating and fine tuning of all factory functions
9.7.2 CAD/CAM Technology

CAD/CAM (Computer Aided Design/Computer Aided Manufacturing) technology was initiated in
aerospace engineering but is now applicable in most of the fields. It can be defined as the use of
computers to translate a products specific requirements into final physical product. With this
system, a product is designed, produced and inspected in one automatic process. CAD/CAM
plays a key role in areas such as design, analysis, production, planning, detailing, documentation,
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NC part programming, tool fabrication, assembly, jig and fixture design, quality control and
testing.
Application Areas of CAD/CAM

Design and Design Analysis: CAD system would be best suited for office drawings where frequent
modifications are required on drawing and several parts to be repeated. Once a drawing is
entered in CAD system, later modifications can be done quickly, and detailed drawings can be
prepared quickly from a general arrangement, NC tapes can be produced. Also, it is very
convenient to calculate properties like weight, volume, centre of gravity, moment of inertia etc
because 3D models can be easily produced.
Manufacture: With CAD/CAM system the complete NC part programming process can be carried
out interactively. Source programs in languages such as APT can be produced.
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Industrial Engineering
Part 10: Industrial Engineering

Part 10.1: Production, Planning and Control
10.1.1 Forecasting
The main purpose of forecasting is to estimate the occurrence, timing, or magnitude of future
events. Once, the reliable forecast for the demand is available, a good planning of activities is
needed to meet the future demand. Forecasting thus provides the input to the planning and
scheduling process.
Types of Forecasting:
Long range forecast
Long range forecast consists of time period of more than 5 years. The long range forecasting
is useful in following areas:
o
Capital planning
Plant location
Plant layout or expansion
New product planning
Medium range forecast

Medium range forecast is generally from 1 to 5 years. The medium range forecasting is
useful in following areas:
o
Sales planning
Production planning
Capital and cash planning
Inventory planning
Short range forecast

Short range forecast is generally for less than 1 year:
o
Purchasing
Overtime decision
Job scheduling
Machine maintenance
Inventory planning
Quantitative Methods of Forecasting:

1. Extrapolation
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Extrapolation is one of the easiest ways to forecast. In this method, based on the past few
values of production capacity, next value may be extrapolated on a graph paper.
2. Simple moving average

In this method, mean of only a specified number of consecutive data which are most recent
values in series.
Forecast for (t+1)th period is given by:
( )
n
where:
Di = Actual demand for ith period
n= Number of periods included in each average
3. Weighted moving average
In this method, more weightage is given to the relatively newer data. The forecast is the
weighted average of data.
Where:
Wi= Relative weight of data for ith period
and
It may be noted that when more weight is given to the recent values, the forecast is nearer to
likely trend. Weighted moving average is advantageous as compared to simple moving
average as it is able to give more importance to recent data.
4. Exponential smoothing
In exponential smoothing method of forecasting, the weightage of data diminishes
exponentially as the data become older. In this method all past data is considered. The
weightage of every previous data decreases by (1-), where is called as exponential
smoothing constant.
Ft
t-1 + (
- )
t-2+ (
- )2 Dt-3+ ( - )3 Dt-3..
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Where:
Di= One period ahead forecast made at time t
Dt= Actual demand for Ith period
Smoothing constant (0 )
Comments regarding Smoothing constant :
Smaller is the value of , more is the smoothing effect in forecast.
Higher value of gives more robust forecast and response more quickly to changes.
Higher value of gives more weightage to past data as compared to smaller value.
Statistical Forecasting:
Statistical forecasting is based on the past data. We evaluate the expected error for the statistical
technique of forecasting. Some common regression functions are as follows:
Let:
Ft= Forecast for time period t
dt= Forecasted demand for time period t
t= time period
1. Linear Forecaster
Ft= a+bt
Where a and b are parameters
2. Cyclic Forecaster
Ft= a+ uCos (2/N)t + vSin (2/N)t
Where a, u and v are parameters and N is periodicity
3. Cyclic Forecaster with Growth
Ft= a+ bt+ uCos (2/N)t + vSin (2/N)t
Where a, b, u and v are parameters and N is periodicity
4. Quadratic Forecaster
Ft=a +bt+ct2
Where a, b and c are parameters
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Accuracy of Forecast:
Many factors affect the trend in data therefore it is impossible to obtain an exact right forecast.
Below are the tools that are used to determine the error in the forecasted value.
1. Mean Absolute Deviation (MAD)
This is calculated as the average of absolute value of difference between actual and
forecasted value.
|
n
Where:
Ft= Actual demand for period t
Dt= Forecasted demand for period t
n= number of periods considered for calculating the error
2. Mean Sum of Square Error (MSE)
The average of square of all errors in the forecast is termed as MSE. Its interpretation is
same as MAD.
)
n
3. BIAS
BIAS is measure of the average of all errors in the forecast. Its intern. A positive bias
indicates underestimation while a negative BIAS indicates over-estimation
S
)
n
10.1.2 Production Planning and Control

Production planning and control is one of the most important areas of industrial management.
This aims at achieving the efficient utilization of resources in any organization through planning,
coordination and control of production activities.
Phases of PPC:
Preplanning
o
Product development and design
Process design
Work station design
Page 385
Factory layout and location
Planning Different Resources

o
Material
Method
Machine
Men
Control
o
Inspection
Expedition
Evaluation
Dispatching
Production Planning and Control Steps

1. Routing
Routing is the process of deciding sequence of operations (route) to be performed during
production process. The main objective of routing is the selection of best and cheapest way
to perform a job. Procedure for routing is as follows:
o
Conduct an analysis of the product to determine the part/ component/ subassemblies required to be produced.
Conduct the analysis to determine the material needed for the product.
Determine the required manufacturing operations and their sequence.
Determine the lot size.
Determine the scrap
Estimate product cost.
Prepare different forms of production control.
2. Scheduling
Scheduling involves fixing the priorities for different jobs and deciding the starting and
finishing time of each job. Main purpose of scheduling is to prepare a time-table indicating
the time and rate of production, as indicated by starting and finishing time of each activity.
Scheduling will be discussed in detail in next section.
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3. Dispatching
Dispatching is the selection and sequencing of available jobs to be run at the individual
workstations and assignments of those jobs to workers. Functions of dispatching are as
under.
o
Collecting and issuing work centre
Ensuring right material, tools, parts, jigs and fixtures are available.
Issues authorization to start work at the pre-determined date and time.
Distribute machine loading and schedule charts
4. Expediting
This is the final stage of production planning and control. It is used for ensuring that the
work is carried out as per plans and due dates are met. The main objective is to arrest
deviations from the plan. Another objective is to integrate different production activities to
meet the production target. The following activities are done ine expediting phase:
o
Watching progress of production process.
Identification of delays, disruptions or discrepancies.
Physical control of work-in-progress through checking
Expediting corrective measures.
Co-ordinating with other departments.
Report any production related problems.
10.1.3 Scheduling
Scheduling is used to allocate resources over time to accomplish specific tasks. It should take
account of technical requirement of task, available capacity and forecasted demand. The output
plan should be translated into operations, timing and schedule on the shop floor. Detailed
scheduling encompasses the formation of starting and finishing time of all jobs at each
operational facility.
Scheduling Methods:
Gantt Chart
Gantt chart is a graphical tool for representing a production schedule. Normally, Gantt chart
consists of two axis. On X-axis, time is represented and on Y-axis various activities or tasks,
machine centres and facilities are represented.
Page 387
Part 10.2: Inventory Control

10.2.1 Inventory
Inventory may be defined as any resource that has certain value and which can be used at a later
time, when the demand of item will arise. Below are some functions of Inventory:
1. Inventory is required to meet anticipated demand.
2. Inventory guards against stock out situations.
3. Inventory ensures smooth flow of production process.
Inventory Costs:
In inventory models various cost elements are considered. Generally, these costs are dependent
upon the timing and quantity to order. The different types of costs relevant to inventory models
are explained under:
Unit cost of inventory
Unit cost of inventory is the price which is paid to the supplier for procuring one unit of the
inventory. For parts manufactured in house, cost of inventory is the direct manufacturing
cost.
Ordering cost/ Setup cost
Ordering cost is the cost associated with the placement of an order for the acquisition of
inventories. The expenses incurred in the purchase department are its main constituents.
Setup cost is used when inventory is made within the organization.
Holding cost / Carrying cost
Holding costs are incurred due to maintaining an inventory level in the organization. It is due
to the interest on the held up capital in inventory, insurance cost, rent, obsolescence,
deterioration etc.
Shortage cost / Stock out cost
Shortage cost is the cost incurred due to a stock out situation. There may be lost in sales due
to customer dropping/ postponing the idea of purchase or customer may go to some other
producer.
10.2.2 Variables in Inventory Models:
In the sections to follow, we will discuss some of the commonly used inventory models. For
these models, following notations are used :
Q = Quantity ordered each time
= Optimum quantity of inventory ordered for minimum total cost
D = Annual demand of parts (in unit)
C = Cost of inventory per unit item
C = Carrying cost per unit of individual item, expressed as a percentage of unit cost
Page 388
C = Ordering, set up or procurement cost per order

R = Reorder point
TC = Total annual costs
= Lead time
C = Cost of shortages due to non-availability of inventory
10.2.3 Inventory Models:
Model 1: Uniform Demand Rate, Infinite Production
This is one of the oldest developments in material management. Ford Harris developed it in
1915 and later R.H. Wilson in 1943, popularized it among researchers and practitioners.
Assumptions of the Model I
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Demand for the inventory is deterministic, i.e., it is known with certainty.

Demand rate is constant and known beforehand.
All orders are placed in single lot.
No stock-out shortages or back orders are allowed.
No quantity discount is allowed. Thus, purchase cost per unit is fixed.
Lead time is constant and it is independent of demand.
Inventory is controlled from one point of the system, i.e., in a stockroom or in a
warehouse.
Let us further assume that lead time is zero; which means that the inventory is delivered
instantaneously after the order is placed.
Total cost during the year is the sum of the inventory carrying cost during year and total
ordering cost.
Thus,
TC = (Ordering Cost) (Number or Orders placed in a year)
+ (Carrying cost per unit) (Average inventory level during year)
.. (i)
Number of orders to be placed in a year
verage inventory carried during the year
emand in a year
uantity ordered each time
0
2
2
This is because the inventory level is uniformly decreasing from Q to zero (Fig. 10.2.1).
Hence, from (i):
TC = C ( ) C ( )
..(ii)
What level of inventory should be ordered (i.e., ), so that total cost will be minimum? To
answer this, equation (ii) is differentiated with respect to Q and equated to zero. Second
differential should be positive for cost minimization:
(
( / )
..(iii)
For total cost minimization;

or,
DC (
)
0
Page 389
or,
or,
Q=
( C)
(a positive quantity)
For total inventory cost minimization, we have defined Q as

order quantity (EOQ).
and we will call it as economic
Inventory Ordered (Q)

Q
Average
Inventory
Level(Q/2)
Quantity
(Q)
Q/2
Fig. 10.2.1 EOQ model with uniform demand

Total Cost
(TC)
Lowest
Total Cost
Carrying
Cost ( )
Cost
Ordering
Cost ( )
(EOQ)
Quantity (Q)
Fig. 10.2.2 Economic Order Quantity
Page 390
2
1.5
1.25
1
[
0.5
1.0
( /
1.5
)
2.0
Fig.10.2.3 Sensitivity of EOQ model

Minimum Total Cost, ( C) will be obtained by putting
Thus,
( C)
as Q in equation (ii).
2C C
. . . (iv)
Operating Policy of Inventory Control

Delivery is instantaneous. Therefore, reordering should be done just at the time inventory stock
is zero. This policy has a pre-assumption that lead time is zero. If in case, lead time is known and
constant, the order should be placed exactly ahead of lead time so that the instantaneous supply
of arrives when the stock depletes to zero.
Sensitivity of EOQ model
It is important to note that the total cost curve is quite flat near the EOQ zone (Fig. 2.2). Slight
change in the value of Q is near the EOQ point (i.e., when Q ~ ), the change in total cost is
insignificant.
Mathematically, dividing (ii) by (iv):
(
(
)
)
If we increase or decrease the EOQ by twice, the increase in total cost is only 25% (Fig.10.2.3).
Thus, total cost is not very sensitive in the vicinity of EOQ. The physical significance of this
observation is quite important. If there is a slight error in deciding the EOQ, the total inventory
cost is insignificantly affected.
Now, let us summarize the concept of EOQ. Economic Order Quantity (EOQ) is that size of order
which is able to minimize the total cost of carrying inventory and cost of ordering for a given
period under the assumption of known and certain demand.
Page 391
Other Observations of Basic EOQ Model

High Cost Item Inventory
As,
or, Average Inventory,
or, Average Inventory is proportional to
Therefore, for high cost items (i.e., high value of C ), the average inventory level should be low.
Optimum Ordering Interval ( )
Since, EOQ = demand rate Optimum ordering interval
or,
t
or, t
=
Optimum Number of Orders ( )
The optimum number of orders per year is obtained by dividing annual demand by economic
order quantity.
or, N
Optimum Number of Days Supply ( )

The optimum number of days for which an order is to be made is sometimes required. Since
annual demand (D) is for 365 days, therefore for each optimal order, the supply is for ( ) days.
Therefore,
d
days
Page 392
Part 10.3: Operations Research

Operations research, is a branch of industrial engineering that uses advanced analytical methods
such as mathematical modeling, statistical analysis, and mathematical optimization to arrive at
optimal or near-optimal solutions to complex decision-making problems. It is often concerned
with determining the maximum (of profit, performance, or yield) or minimum (of loss, risk, or
cost) of some real-world objective.
The operations research has many fields. Some of the important field will be covered in the
coming sections.
10.3.1 Linear Programming:
Linear programming is a technique based on mathematical theory for specifying ways to use the
limited resources or constraint of a system to obtain a particular objective such as highest profit,
least cost and least time. The linear programming problem can be solved using Graphical
method (max 2 variables) and Simplex method (any number of variables)
Below mentioned definitions are important for the linear programming problem.
Decision Variable
The decision variable means the variable whose quantitative values are required to be found
to maximize or minimize the objective function.
Objective Function
The function that is to be maximized or minimized is called as objective function.
Constraint
The restrictions that are expressed in form of an equation or inequality are termed as
constraints.
Feasible Solution
A set of values of decision variables, which satisfies the constraint sets. There may be many
feasible solutions to the linear programming problem.
Optimal Solution
The optimal solution of linear programming problem is that set of feasible solution, which
satifies the objective of the problem (Maximizing or minimizing).
Formulation of Linear Programming Problem
Problem:
A LPP may be expressed as:
Optimize (i.e., minimize or maximize) objective function:
Page 393
Z=
Cx
Subject to the constraints:
a x ( or or ) b : for all i; i = 1, 2, . . . . m
x 0; j = 1, 2, . . . n (non negativity constraints)

Here,
x = jth decision variable about which the decision maker is interested.
C = Unit contribution to the jth decision variable in the objective function.
a = Exchange coefficient of jth variable in the ith constraint set.
b = Requirement or availability of ith constraints.
i = Constraint number; i = 1, 2, . . . m.
j = decision variable number; j = 1, 2, . . . n.
( or or ) means that either of the three notations is required.
is called as less than or equal to
is called as greater than or equal to
= is called as equal to
Conversion of a maximization problem into minimization problem
The maximization objective function is equivalent to a minimization objective function
except with changed sign.
Thus,
Maximize Z =
Cx
is equivalent to
Minimize Z =
Cx
Similarly, a minimization problem may be transformed into a maximization problem by

changing the sign of the decision coefficients.
Thus,
Maximize
Cx
is equivalent to
Minimize
Cx
How to deal with equal to sign

he equal to ( ) sign in a constraint may be handled by adopting two constraint sets with
and signs.
For Example:
x
x = 24
Its equivalent is:

Page 394
x 24
and, x
x 24
The linear programming problem may be solved by two methods:

1. Graphical Method
2. Simplex Method
The graphical method to solve LPP is useful when there are only two decision variables. This
is because more than two coordinates are difficult to be represented on a graph paper.
Simplex technique can handle any number of variables.
Assignment Problem
Assignment problem pertains to problem of assigning n jobs on n machines. This problem can be
effectively used for any other problem in which n items (or persons) are to be assigned to other
n items, so that each one of the first group is assigned to one distinct item from the second
group.
Formulation of Assignment Problem
Let there be n jobs which are to be assigned to n operators so that one job is assigned to
only one operator.
i = Index for job, i = 1, 2, . . . n
j = Index for operators, j = 1, 2, . . . n
C
Unit cost for assigning job i to operator j
f job i is assigned to operator j

,
0
therwise
The objective is to minimize the total cost of assignment. If job 1 is assigned to operator 1,
the cost is (C
). Similarly, for job 1, operator 2 the cost is (C
). The objective
function is:
Minimize
. . . . (1)
Since one job (i) can be assigned to any one of the operators, we have following constraint
set:
for all j j
, 2, . . . n
. . . . (2)
Similarly for each operator, there may be only one assignment of job. For this, the
constraint set is:
for all i i
, 2, . . . n
. . . . (3)
The non negativity constraint is:

0
. . . . (4)
Page 395
Minimize
Subject to
for all
, 2, . . . n
for all
, 2, . . . n
0 for all
and all . Problem
Fig. 10.3.32 Mathematical Formulation
of Assignment
Solution of Assignment Problem
The assignment problem is solved in the following manner:
Start
Formulate the Assignment Matrix
Generate Opportunity Cost Matrix
Is the
solution
optimal?
No
Revise the solution
Find
Yes
Assignment of row
with column of
matrix
Total cost of
assignment
Fig. 10.3.33 Solution method of Assignment Problem

10.3.2 Queuing Models:
Waiting lines are one of the important phenomenon in daily life. It affects people who need
service at different places. Some examples of waiting lines are railway reservation counters,
telephone booth, doctors clinic, ircraft landing at airports etc.
The most important issue in the waiting line problem is to decide the best level of service that an
organization should provide.
Page 396
The important aspect of the queuing problem is the arrival pattern. The arrival pattern is
generally governed by probabilistic distribution. The organizations have to come to a
compromise between a good service and less cost in running the service points.
Characteristics of queuing model
Arrival Characteristics
o
Size of input source: The size of the input source can be considered as limited or
infinite.
Arrival Pattern at the system: The number of arrivals per unit time (rate of arrival) is
estimated by Poissons distribution. he probability distribution of inter-arrival
times, which is the time between two consecutive arrivals, may also be governed by a
probability distribution.
For a given arrival rate(), a discrete Poisson distribution is given by:

P(x) =
For x = 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . . . .
where:
P(x) : Probability of x arrival.
x : Number of arrivals per unit time.
: verage arrival time.
/ :
ean time between arrivals or inter-arrival time.
It can be shown mathematically that the probability distribution of inter-arrival time is

governed by the exponential distribution when the probability distribution of number of
arrivals is Poisson distribution. The corresponding exponential distribution for interarrival time is given by:
P(t) = e
Queue
o
Number of waiting lines
Size: The queue may be considered to be limited when its length cannot exceed a
certain number. It may be limited or infinite
Queue discipline: Queue discipline is the rule by which customers waiting in queue
would receive service. Some examples are FIFO (First-In-First-Out), LIFO (Last-InFirst-Out) or SIRO (Service-In-Random-Order)
Service Facility
o
Single Channel Single Phase
Page 397
Single Channel Multi Phase
Multi Channel Single Phase
Kendall Notations
Kendall (1951) proposed a set of notations for queuing models. This is widely used in
literature. The common pattern of notations of a queuing model is given by:
(a/b/c) : (d/e)
Where:
a: Probability distribution of the inter-arrival time
b: Probability distribution of the service time
c: Number of servers in the queuing model
d: Maximum allowed customers in the system
e: Queue discipline
In a queuing model notation, M is traditionally indicative of exponential distribution. Therefore,
( / / ): (/
) indicates a queuing model when the inter-arrival time and service time are
distributed exponential with distribution (equivalent to this: M stands for Poisson arrivals and
departures). There is 1 server, the permissible number of customers in the system are infinite
and the service discipline is first-in-first-out (FIFO).
Single-Line-Single-Server Model
Queuing models may be formulated on the basis of some fundamental assumptions related
to following five features:
Arrival process
Queue configuration
Queue discipline
Service discipline, and
Service facility.
Let us understand the M/M/1 model first. Following set of assumptions is needed:
1. Arrival Process: The arrival is through infinite population with no control or restriction.
Arrivals are random, independent and follow Poisson distribution. The arrival process is
stationary and in single unit (rather than batches).
2.
3.
4.
5.
Queue Configuration: The queue length is unrestricted and there is a single queue.
Queue Discipline: Customers are patient.
Service Discipline: First-Come-First-Serve (FCFS)
Service Facility: There is one server, whose service times are distributed as per
exponential distribution. Service is continuously provided without any prejudice or
breakdown, and all service parameters are state independent.
Page 398
Relevance of This Model

Despite being simple, this model provides the basis for many other complicated situations. It
provides insight and helps in planning process. Waiting line for ticket window for a movie, line
near the tool crib for checking out tools, railway reservation window, etc., are some direct
applications of this model.
Operating Characteristics
It is the measure of performance of a waiting line application. How well the model performs,
may be known by evaluating the operating characteristics of the queue. We analyze the steady
state of the queue, when the queue has stabilized after initial transient stage. Similarly, we do
not consider the last or shutting down stage of the service.
here are two major parameters in waiting line: arrival rate () and service rate (). hey follow
Poisson and exponential probability distribution, respectively. hen arrival rate () is less than
service rate (), i.e., traffic density (
) is less than one, we may have a real waiting line
situation, because otherwise there would be an infinitely long queue and steady state would
never be achieved.
Following are the lists of parameters:
= Mean arrival rate in units per period
= Mean service rate in units per period
= Traffic intensity
n = Number of units in the system
w = Random variate for time spent in the system.
Following are the lists of operating characteristics, which may be derived for steady state
situation and for < :
Queue Related Operating Characteristics
1. Average line length or expected number of units in queue,
(
. . . (10.3.1)
2. Average waiting time or expected time in queue,

. . . (10.3.2)
System Related Operating Characteristics
3. Average line length or expected number of units in the system,
+ units being served
(
. . . (10.3.3)
Page 399
4. Average waiting time or expected time in the system

. . . (10.3.4)
5. Utilization of service facility,
U
. . . (10.3.5)
6. Expected number of units in queue for busy system,

. . . (10.3.6)
7. Expected time in queue for busy system,
. . . (10.3.7)
Probabilities Related Operating Characteristics
8. Probability of no unit in the system (i.e., system is idle),
P
. . . (10.3.8)
9. Probability of system being occupied or busy,

P(n 0)
P
. . . (10.3.9)
10. Probability of n units in the system,

P
P
(Geometric distribution)
. . . (10.3.10)
11. Probability density function for time spent in the system,

f(w) ( )e ( )
w0
. . . (10.3.11)
12. Variance of number of units in the system,

(
. . . (10.3.12)
13. Variance of time in the system,

(
. . . (10.3.13)
10.3.3 CPM and PERT

A project is a collection of some linked activities that are performed in an organized manner
with well known start and finish points, to achieve some specific results that fulfil the needs of
an organization. Project management is the domain that deals with planning, organizing,
staffing, controlling and directing a project for its effective execution. Critical Path Method
(CPM) and Project Evaluation and Review Technique (PERT) are two tools for the project
management.
Assumptions of CPM
o
All time estimates are assumed to be deterministic.
Page 400
The precedence relationship in between activities is known.
CPM can be represented as directed graph in which time (or cost) estimates are
deterministic.
The longest path of the network is the indicator of project duration
Methodology of CPM
Critical path is the path on the network of project activities which takes longest time form
start to finish. The way by which we construct and analyze CPM or PERT network, the
analysis is called as critical path analysis (CPA). A general methodology for CPA is as follows:
Step 1: Break the project in terms of specific activities and/or events. Find the time of each
activity. In CPM, it is a deterministic estimate, while in PERT it is a probabilistic, three time
estimate.
Step 2: Establish the interdependence and sequence of specific activities (also called as
precedence relationship).
Step 3: Prepare the network of activities and/or events.
Step 4: Assign time-estimates and/or cost-estimates to all the activities of the network.
Step 5: Identify longest path (time-wise) on the network. It is the critical path of the network.
The project completion takes time equal to critical path time.
Step 6: Determine slack (or float) for each activity, not contained on the critical path.
Step 7: Use regular monitoring, evaluation and control of the progress of the project by
replanning, rescheduling and relocation of resources (Such as money, manpower, etc.).
We have seen in step 5 that the critical path determines the project completion time. It the
project time needs to be compressed, we have to focus on activities on critical path.
Similarly, if any activity of the critical path gets delayed by t time, then the total project will
be delayed by t time. Same is not true for activities, not lying on critical path. This is due to
slack (or float) associated with them. This offers flexibility in scheduling the resources. From
the to time, some resources from non-critical activities may be diverted to the critical
activity.
Terminology used in CPM/PERT
1. Activity: Distinct part of a project, involving some work, whose completion requires
some amount of time. Examples of activity are: drilling a hole, starting a bus, issuing the
work order, floating a tender, etc.
2. Activity Duration: It is the physical time required to complete an activity. In CPM, it is the
best estimate of the time to complete an activity. In PERT, it is the expected time or
average time to complete an activity.
3. Critical Activity: This activity has no room for schedule deviation. In case of deviation or
slips, the entire project completion will slip. An activity with zero slack is also same.
4. Critical Path: The sequence or chain of critical activities for the project constitutes critical
path. It is the longest duration path through the network.
5. CPM: Project management technique that is used when activity times are deterministic
(Critical Path Method).
6. Crashing: The process of reducing an activity time by adding fresh resources and hence
usually increasing cost. Crashing is needed for finishing the task before estimated time.
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7. Crash Cost: Cost associated with an activity when it is completed in the possible time
(Crash time), which is lesser than the expected or normal time.
8. Dummy Activity: An activity that consumes no time but shows precedence among
activities. It is useful for proper representation in the network.
9. Earliest Finish (EF) Time: The earliest time that an activity can finish, from the beginning
of the project.
10. Earliest Start (ES) Time: The earliest time that an activity can start, from the beginning of
the project.
11. Event: It is the beginning, completion point, or milestone accomplishment within the
project. An activity begins and ends with events. An event triggers an activity of the
project.
12. Expected Activity Time: The average activity time that is used in the project scheduling.
13. Free Slack (float): The length of time upto which an activity can be delayed for
channeling resources or re-adjustments, without affecting the starts of the succeeding
activities.
14. Immediate Predecessor: An activity, which should immediately precede the activity
under consideration.
15. Latest Finish (LF) Time: It is the latest time that an activity can finish, from the beginning
of the project, without causing a delay in the completion of the project.
16. Latest Start (LS) Time: It is the latest time that an activity can start, from the beginning of
the project, without causing a delay in the completion of the project.
17. Most Likely Time ( ): It is the time for completing an activity that is the best estimate;
under the given conditions (used in PERT).
18. Normal Cost: Cost associated with an activity when it is completed in normal time.
19. Optimistic Time ( ): It is the time for completing an activity if everything in the project
goes well (used in PERT).
20. Pessimistic Time ( ): It is the time for completing an activity if everything in the project
goes wrong (used in PERT).
21. Predecessor Activity: An activity that must occur before another activity in the project
which is decided on precedence relationship.
22. Project: Set of activities which are interrelated with each other and are to be organized
for a common goal or objective during a specified time-frame.
23. Project Network: A visual representation of the interdependence between different
activities of a project which are normally associated with a time-wise sequencing.
24. PERT: It is the project management technique used when activity times are probabilistic.
(Program Evaluation and Review Technique).
25. Resource Allocation Methods: Allocation of resources to the activities so that project
completion time is as small as possible and resources are well utilized.
26. Slack: It is the amount of time that an activity or a group of activities can delay in getting
completed without causing a delay in the completion of the project. An activity having
slack cannot be critical activity.
27. Successor Activity: It is the activity that must occur after another activity (which is
predecessor).
28. Total Slack (Float): The time upto which an activity can be delayed without affecting the
start of the succeeding activities.
29. Updating: It involves some revision of the project schedule after partial completion with
revised information.
30. Variance: It is the measure of the deviation of the time distribution for an activity.
Project Evaluation and Review Technique (PERT)
Page 402
PERT incorporates probabilistic time estimates for each activity. It employs a betadistribution for the time estimates. The procedure for making the network and determining
the critical path is same as CPM. However, there is a specific calculation approach for finding
the most expected time for every activity and for finding the measure of certainity in
meeting this estimate.
Time estimate in PERT
PERT allows uncertainty in the estimates for time of each activity. there are three time
estimates in PERT. These are.
Optimistic time (t )
Pessimistic time (t )
Most likely time (t )
Optimistic time for an activity is that estimate for the completion of the activity which
happens when every best thing happens to facilitate the execution. Thus, when everything
goes well, the estimate is optimistic time. On the other extreme, when every thing goes
worst, the duration of time-estimate is the pessimistic time. Most likely time is in between
the optimistic and pessimistic times. Under normal circumstances, this is the probable time
in which an activity is completed.
In PERT, it is assumed that the three time estimates are random variables, distributed as
Beta-distribution. The probability of most likely time is four times that of either of the
remaining two. Mathematically, the expected time (t ) for an activity is related with the
three time estimates as follows.
t
Once, expected time (t ) is known from the three time estimates, the algorithm for network
calculations is similar to CPM approach.
The variance (
) and standard deviation (

v
) for the activity are:
Table: Differences between PERT and CPM

S.N.
PERT
CPM
1.
Time estimates are probabilistic
Time estimates are deterministic
2.
Event oriented
Activity oriented
3.
Focussed on time
Focussed on time-cost trade-off
4.
More suitable for new projects
More suitable
projects
for
repetitive
Page 403
Reference Books
Reference Books
Mathematics:
Higher Engineering Mathematics Dr. BS Grewal
Advance Engineering Mathematics Erwin Kreyszig
Advance Engineering Mathematics Dr. HK Dass
Engineering Mechanics:
Engineering Mechanics Vol. I & Vol. II Meriam & Kraige
Engineering Mechanics I. H. Shames
Engineering Mechanics Beer & Johnson
Engineering Mechanics CBS Publishers
Strength of Material:
An Introduction to the Mechanics of Solids Stephen H Crandall
Strength of Materials Pytel & Singer
Strength of Materials Timoshenko and Young
Theory of Machine:
Theory of Machine Norton
Theory of Machine S. S. Rattan
Theory of machine R. S. Khurmi
Machine Design:
Mechanical Design Shigley
Machine Design Sharma & Agarwal
Thermodynamics & its Applications:
Engineering Thermodynamics P. K. Nag
Power Plant Engineering Arora & Domkundwar
Referigeration & Airconditioning Arora & Domkundwar
I.C. Engines V. Ganesan
Fluid Mechanics & Hydraulic Machines:
Fluid Mechanics K. Z. Schaffer
Fluid Mechanics Schaums series
Fluid Mechanics A. K. Jain
Fluid Mechanics R.K. Bansal
Page 404
Reference Books
Heat Transfer:
Heat Transfer J. P. Holman
Heat transfer D.S. Kumar
Heat Transfer Arora & Domkundwar
Manufacturing Engineering:
Production Engineering R. K. Jain
Manufacturing Science A.K. Ghosh
Tolerance system Mahajan
Industrial Engineering:
Industrial Engineering Banga & Sharma
Page 405

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QUICK REFRESHER GUIDE

Quick Refresher Guide

Probability & distribution

Simple Stress And Strain

Shear Force And Bending Moment

Strain Energy Methods

Columns & Struts

Properties of pure substances

Irreversibility & Availability

Work, Heat & Entropy

Quick Refresher Guide

Design of Machine Elements

Flow through pipes

Quick Refresher Guide

9.1 Engineering Materials

9.3 Forming Process

9.4 Joining Process

9.5 Theory of Metal Cutting

9.6 Metrology and Inspection

9.7 Computer Integrated Manufacturing (CIM)

#10. Industrial Engineering

Production, Planning and Control

Quick Refresher Guide

ith row, jth column

1.1.1.1 Types of Matrices

single row ( or row vector)

1.1.1.3 Square Matrix

Same number of rows and columns.

1.1.1.4 Rectangular Matrix

1.1.1.5 Diagonal Matrix

Quick Refresher Guide

1.1.1.6 Unit Matrix (or Identity Matrix)

1.1.1.8 Symmetric and Skew Symmetric Matrices:

Skew Symmetric Matrix = - A

1.1.1.9 Triangular Matrix

Orthogonal Matrix: If A. A = I, then matrix A is said to be Orthogonal matrix.

Singular Matrix: If |A| = 0, then A is called a singular matrix.

= transpose of a conjugate of matrix A

Quick Refresher Guide

Note: In Hermitian matrix, diagonal elements

Skew Hermitian matrix:

Note: In Skew-Hermitian matrix , diagonal elements

either zero or Pure Imaginary

Multiplication of Matrix by a Scalar:

Every element of the matrix gets multiplied by that scalar.

An n order determinant is an expression associated with n

If A = [a ] , Element a with ith row, jth column.

Quick Refresher Guide

Minors & Co-Factors:

The minor of an element in a determinant is the determinant obtained by deleting the

1.1.1.20 Properties of Determinants:

Determinant of a skew symmetric matrix (i.e. A =-A) of odd order is zero.

|A| must be non-zero (i.e. A must be non-singular).

Quick Refresher Guide

AC = AD , doesnt imply C = D ,even when A

21. If A is a square matrix of order n then (i) |adj A|=|A|

Quick Refresher Guide

If A is a non-singular matrix, then all the row/column vectors are independent.

Solution of linear System of Equations:

For the following system of equations A X = B

A= Coefficient Matrix, C = (A, B) = Augmented Matrix

one or more solution (i.e. unique or infinite solution)

Quick Refresher Guide

Solution using Cramers rule:

In the above method, it is assumed that

Characteristic Equation and Eigen Values: