LEVERAGING GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEMS (GIS) IN THE SELECTION OF

FINAL DISPOSAL SITE IN THE GREATER ACCRA METROPOLITAN AREA (GAMA)

Waste Management in GAMA

Introduction
With continuous population growth and increase in the standard of living, waste generation is
increasing in tremendous amounts. In the Greater Accra Metropolitan Area (GAMA) i this
problem is compounded by rapid urbanisation spurred by internal growth and migration in a
seriously constrained built environment. GAMA is a mainly urban area dominated by residential,
industrial and commercial activities that leads to generation of waste in large quantities. Between
2000 and 2010 the population of the GAMA area has increased from 1.9m to 3.6m (GSS, 2010).
At the same time the amount of waste generated has increased from 0.45kg per day to .080kg per
day (World Bank, 2010).
According to the recent Census, uncollected and the waste collected is often inadequately
disposed in dump sites. Communal solid waste containers, particularly common in low income
areas, are often overflowing due to the poor service provided by the MMAs and become mini
dump sites and the solids end up in drains. House-to-house collection by private contractors is
the common method for the more affluent areas of the GAMA, and is undertaken by a range of
service providers, including unregistered individual waste collectors, a large private company
and several smaller private companies. Accra urban dwellers generally think the city is dirty
mainly attributed to waste in the gutters and drains (World Bank,2012).
GAMA is currently facing a considerable challenge in the waste management of solid waste
along the value chain. This challenge stems from the fact that the generation of solid waste has
been increasing steadily over recent years, particularly in the urban areas while infrastructure and
resources to manage waste remain inadequate (Tsiboe and Marbell, 2004). As a result, the
various Metropolitan, Municipal Assemblies (MMAs) in GAMA are unable to cope with the
volume of solid waste generated. Out of the about 2500 tonnes of solid waste generated in the
GAMA, 75 percent is collected while the rest find its way into the environment. In spite of this
the 11 MMA spend between 75% - 82% of their funds on waste management (NESSAP,2010;
Boadi and Kuitunen 2003).
Whereas waste management in its entirety is seriously challenged, these problems have been
exacerbated by the absence of adequate final disposal site facilities that serve the GAMA area.
It should be noted that solid waste disposal in the GAMA has largely been by way of poorly
controlled dumping in any convenient place such as abandoned quarry sites, valleys, beaches and
drains (MLGRD ,2009) . These dumping sites, which are an eyesore and a major threat to human
health and the environment, are below standards.
Only a fraction of the solid waste collected from public containers and through house-to-house
collection is finally deposited in designated solid waste disposal sites. Although disposal sites are
intended to be operated as landfills, they usually become dumps due to poor operation and

management. As a result, MMAs in the GAMA that still have land available face serious
opposition from residents to have landfills developed nearby.
Over the past two decades the MMAs in GAMA have depended mainly un-engineered landfill
sites which are not properly located and have tended to be decommissioned in short periods.
In the face of increasing costs for waste collection, transportation and disposal in addition to the
ever more distant location of new disposal sites, the already poor collection performance may
deteriorate even further. Moreover, municipal solid waste disposal practices in the GAMA in the
past have not been environmentally friendly. This calls for a new approach that leverages on
available technology. There is a need for a deliberate planning process for selecting the best final
disposal technology and optimum site. In this direction Geographic Information System (GIS)
techniques, may lend itself especially in the search for the best place to locate final disposal site
that will be safe, efficient and sustainable.
The use of GIS has permeated almost every field in the engineering, natural and social sciences,
offering accurate, efficient, reproducible methods for collecting, viewing and analysing spatial
data. It is estimated that 80% of information have financial dimension. The incorporation of
spatial dimension into in decision making makes it possible to model the optimal location of a
final disposal site for the MMAs in the GAMA. site selection for a final disposal site involves
many considerations and variables that have spatial dimensions making it suitable for the
application of spatial models. GIS also provide a powerful data management framework with a
consistent, intuitive platform for organising and analysing relationships amongst the spatial
variables and information associated with those variables encountered in the selection of final
waste disposal site.
The purpose of this study is to isolate all the criteria for selection of a location for a final disposal
site for the GAMA and model them using those with spatial dimension to determine the optimal
location of Final Disposal Site that will serve all the 11 MMAs in the GAMA. The resultant
analysis yields easily understood graphical representation that could be visualised.
Definitions

Environmental sanitation is aimed at developing and maintaining a clean, safe and pleasant
physical and natural environment in all human settlements, to promote the socio-cultural,
economic and physical well-being of all sections of the population. It comprises a number of
complementary activities, including the provision and maintenance of sanitary facilities, the
provision of services, public education, community and individual action, regulation and
legislation supported by clearly mandated institutions (UNEP. 1996)
Solid waste management has to do with handling of solid refuse from their sources of generation
through storage, collection, transportation, recovery and treatment processes to disposal
Final Disposal Site
The term landfilling refers to waste disposal on land, whether it be the filling in of excavations
or creation of a landform above grade. Historically, all wastes in Ghana have been deposited on
land because landfilling is the cheapest and most convenient method of waste disposal. No
matter what programme of waste volume reduction and resource recovery is implemented; some

amount of waste and waste residue will always have to be disposed of in landfills. The output
maps of the modelling can then be used for making decision from an informed position.
GIS
GIS is a technological tool for effective and efficient storage, retrieval and analysis of spatial
and non-spatial data for evidence based decision making (Roy et al, 1992). GIS has the
capabilities to provide necessary physical input and intelligence for formulation of planning
proposals and to act as monitoring tool during implementation phase of any planning scheme
(Gupta et al, 2001). Spatial data management, analysis and presentation approaches facilitated by
Geographical Information Systems (GIS) can provide dynamic insight into location decisions.
GIS can be analysis could be done by combining different layers of spatial data. The output of
the analysis could inform decision making and location options for final disposal site in GAMA.
Maps, which are the natural products of GIS analysis, will provides a graphic illustration of the
options available for the location of final disposal site in the GAMA. It is a powerful decision
making tool.
Profile of waste management in GAMA

With a rapidly growing population and urbanisation, waste generation has also increased in
tandem and the profile of waste has also changed leading a complex scenario. Over the last
decade (2000-2010 ) population of the GAMA area has almost doubled . At the same time waste
generation per head has also doubled from 0.45kg to 0.80kg (World Bank,2012). Within the
same period waste generated by households and commercial entities have increased from 1500
tonnes per day to 1800 tonnes per day (NESSAP,2010) . At the same time the amount of waste
collected has only increased from 950 tonnes per day to 1400 tonnes per day with a household
coverage of 65% and 73% between the reference periods.
Table 1 : Selected Data on Solid Waste in GAMA

Description
Population,
MSW generated, kg/capita/day
MSW generated, tons/day
MSW collected, tons/day
Percent collected
Collection cost, US$/ton
Disposal cost, US$/ton
Total cost, US$/ton

GAMA (2010)
3,646,559
0.8kg
1,872
1,498
75%
10
3
13

Source: NESSAP,2010

In the GAMA area, the main component of waste stream for each of these could be classified into the
following:
Organics - food waste, garden waste i.e. leaves and sticks and wood.
Paper and Cardboard - newsprint, white office paper, mill scrap, corrugated cupboard and
paperboard.
Plastics and Rubber polythene packaging, PET bottles, UPVC/PVC /HDPE materials
Metals ferrous scrap such as household appliances, cans and i.e. iron/steel products and nonferrous scrap including aluminum, copper, lead, tin and precious metals.

Glass - clear glass, green glass, brown glass and other colored glass.
Textiles jute sacks, clothing, upholstery, embroidery and carpets.
Inerts and residues - ash from cooking etc, soil and stones
Miscellaneous - waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE), waste oils, batteries etc.

Figure 1 : Composition of waste in GAMA

11%
4%
2%
3%

4%

60%

8%

Organics

Paper and
Cardboard

Plastics and rubber

Metals

Glass

Textiles

Inerts or Residues

Miscellaneous (incl.
WEEE)

8%

Source: (NESSAP,2010)

The waste management value chain in GAMA comprises of the various MMAs which regulate the sector
through its byelaws, and also has the responsibility to provide a final disposal site MMAs also has
responsibility to address the waste management needs of special areas such as markets and lorry parks
and other commercial centres. Other players in the chain are private waste contractors who are allocated
zones by the MMAs to collect waste from household by charging approved tariffs.
Figure 2: Organizational logic for delivering of Waste Management services in GAMA
MLGRD

EHD

PPBME

Policy

Regional EH&SU

MMAs in GAMA

EH&SU

MPCU

WMD

Waste Contractors

Sub-Metros Zonal Councils

NGOs/CBOs Private Sector

Communities

Source : Authors Construct Based on NESSAP,2010

Solid Waste Collection, Transport and Disposal

Based on the generation rate of 0.8 kg per person per day and a population of 3.6 million, the
currently estimated solid waste output for GAMA could be in the region of 3,000 tons per day.
The various MMAs working mostly through private operators haul about 80%8 to three (2)
privately operated disposal sites. The back-log of the uncollected 20% over the period creates
the poor and un-aesthetic environmental conditions associated with most parts of GAMA. In the
face of increasing costs for waste collection, transportation and disposal in addition to the ever
more distant location of new disposal sites, the already poor collection performance may
deteriorate even further
Table 2 presents means of disposing waste by households in the GAMA areas. A large proportion
of proportion of households still continue to dump solid waste in unapproved ways even though
a lot of efforts have gone into changing this situation.
Table 2: Means of disposing waste by households in the GAMA
Method of solid waste
disposal
Collected
Burned by household
Public dump (Container)
Public dump (Open Space)
Dumped indiscriminately
Buried by household
Other
Source; GSS, 2012

No. of
Households
502,642
134,654
134,654
87,379
22,123
14,003
9,282

Share
(percent)
48.5
13
25.7
8.4
2.1
1.4
0.9

Waste collected from households and hotspots such as lorry parks and markets are transported
using different types of vehicles ranging from manually driven tricycles, donkey carts, small
trucks equipped with compactors, large trucks and large trucks equipped with compactors.
Tricycles and donkey carts allow access to areas with narrow lanes and small trucks to access
hilly regions with narrow lanes. Large trucks equipped with compactors are being used in places
like markets and corporate areas which generate large quantities of waste every day.
Transportation of waste is the most expensive exercise in the solid waste management chain due
to the lack of integrated planning in the situation of final disposal site.
Long distances travelled to dump waste using normal commuter roads which are prone to traffic
results in high expenditure on fuel and maintenance of the waste truck. In most instances MMAs
and private waste contractors travel in excess of 30Km to dump waste and make a round trip of
over 60km in slow moving traffic. Transportation is one of the most critical factors in modelling
an optimal location for a final disposal site given its proportional contribution of costs in the
waste management chain.

Crude, open dumping is the commonest practice in some communities in GAMA though the
increase in the uptake of household collection is improving the situation steadily
(NESSAP,2010). Where controlled-dumping is practiced, there have been reoccurring
environmental problems leading to closure of dumping sites in reaction to public outcry and
threat of closure of operations by nearby communities.
The MMAs in GAMA spend in the region 80% of its internally generated funds(IGF) on solid
waste management. Most of this funding was spent on collection and transportation .The current
disposal charge of Eighteen Ghana Cedis (GH 18.00) per tonne of refuse dumped at final
disposal site is an indication of the tremendous potential for cost savings that can accrue to the
MMAs in GAMA if alternative means of processing and handling the components of the solid
waste streams are identified, especially options for value-addition.
Final Disposal Sites in GAMA
The national policy on waste management lists the following as acceptable technologies for solid
waste disposal:
Sanitary landfill
Controlled dumping
Incineration
Composting
Recycling
In the GAMA area, waste disposal is done at two main approved facilities; the Accra Composting
Plant and the Kpong Engineered Landfill Site. Some MMAs in the GAMA also use the Nsumia
Waste Disposal facility which is located in the Nsawam Adoagyiri Municipality in the Eastern
Region. The Kpong Landfill site is able to process about 1000 tonnes per day while the Accra
Composting Plant at Adjen-Kotoku handles about 600 tonnes per day. Clearly these sites are quite
inadequate and expensive in responding to the growing needs of waste management in a sustainable
way across the GAMA. With the exception of Tema Municipality, all other MMAs are at least 30km
away from the Kpong landfill site making a round tip of 60km to dump waste. Similarly the Accra
Composting Plant is also about 20km on average from most of the MMAs in the GAMA that use it.
Prior to this development the MMAs in the GAMA used unapproved landfill sites which were mostly
un-engineered where dumping was done in excavated sites abandoned after quarrying activities.
There were massive public outcries over these dumping sites and within a space of a decade, at least
seven temporary dumping grounds were used within the precincts of the GAMA. The Achimota and
Pantang dumping sites were the last ones of the temporary dumping sites to be closed down.
Availability of final disposal site could be identified as a critical constraint in the management of
solid waste in the GAMA and the outlook is negative due to the risk factors enumerated. Given the
nature of urban spread development in taking place GAMA, which is characterised by uncontrolled
development and urban sprawl, the location of appropriate final disposal site is key in ensuring
sustainable waste management. Whichever waste disposal method adopted as part of the integrated
waste management system in GAMA as outlined in the acceptable technologies prescribed by the
national policy, will require a location that is optimal given the environmental and economic factors
that affect the location of such facilities. This could be achieved by leveraging spatial technology and
GIS to complement other decision making tools to find an optimal location for final disposal sites
that could handle the expected exponential growth in waste generation in the GAMA.

Landfills occupy the lowest stage in the integrated waste management, though it is a better
option than dumping the waste in open spaces. It relies on containment rather than treatment (for
control) of wastes. The purpose of landfilling is to bury or alter the chemical composition of the
wastes so that they do not pose any threat to the environment or public health.
The Environmental Sanitation Policy (Revised, 2009) promotes reduction, re-use, recycling and
recovery (4Rs) of all types of waste streams as a way of reducing the volume and cost of waste
delivered to final disposal sites.
Efficient planning for municipal solid waste (MSW) management systems requires accounting
for the complete set of environmental effects and costs associated with the entire life cycle of the
waste.
Objectives of the Study
GIS is a powerful tool that can integrate different types of spatial data and perform a variety of
spatial analysis. The main objective of this study is to select sites for an appropriate final solid
waste disposal in the GAMA using the integration of GIS through Multi-criteria Decision
Analysis(MCDA)
The objectives of this study are to:
1. identify and isolate the spatial criteria for the location of final disposal site
2. identify and evaluate possible suitable locations of final disposal sites
3. identify the effectiveness of GIS as a siting tool in site selection in the study area using
the given criteria
Rationale / Justification

GAMA is currently facing a considerable challenge in the waste management of solid waste
along the value chain. This challenge stems from the fact that the generation of solid waste has
been increasing steadily over recent years, particularly in the urban areas while infrastructure and
resources to manage waste remain inadequate (World Bank, 2012). As a result, the various
Metropolitan, Municipal Assemblies (MMAs) in GAMA are unable to cope with the volume of
solid waste generated. Out of the about 2500 tonnes of solid waste generated in the GAMA, 75
percent is collected while the rest find its way into the environment. In spite of this the 11 MMA
spend between 75% - 82% of their funds on waste management (NESSAP,2010).
If rapid urban population growth is maintained (3.1 percent annually), the urban population in
the GAMA would reach over 5 million by 2020 and 14 million by 2050 (GSS,2012). In addition
to permanent urban dwellers, a large floating population comes to the capital to trade or work
which results in the generation of solid waste imposing further pressure on the delivery of waste
management services. Existing landfills are unable to cope with the situation , with the
consequence that only about 50% of all the 3000 tonnes of waste generated daily are dumped at
approved final disposal sites (Rockson et al,2013).
GAMA's infrastructure development lags way behind the rapid geographical and population
growth that characterises the urban growth taking place and this is acute in the availability of
final disposal site. Over the last decade, MMAs in GAMA have used at least seven temporary
dumping grounds within the city perimeter to dispose solid waste, thus impacting public health

and the environment. While these problems are common to all MMAs in the GAMA and waste
flows across political boundaries, solutions are usually sought individually by each MMA.
It is in anticipation of an integrated and sustainable final disposal solution that this paper was
conceived to bring to the fore how GIS technology could be leveraged to model the optimal
location for final disposal site that will be economical efficient, environmentally sustainable and
able to remain in use over a 20-30 years horizon. In pursuit of an integrated final waste disposal
site solution, the use of new ideas and technology is vital especially in the selection of the type of
facility and the location of the facility. The use of GIS in selection the optimal location of a
facility has many advantages since GIS is able to bring all spatial determinants onto a platform
capable combining all spatial determinants such size of land to be used, distance from built-up
areas, land use, transport networks etc.

Study Area
GAMA encompasses a contiguous area made up of 11 MMA that straddle the highly urbanised parts of
the Greater Accra Region. It comprises the two Metropolitan Assemblies, Accra and Tema; and nine
Municipal Assemblies; Ga West, Ga East, Ledzokuku-Krowor, Adentan, Ashiaman, La NkwantanangMadina, Ga Central, Ga South and La Dade-Kotopon. It has a population 3,646,559 and covers a total
land space of 1,261 km (GSS PHC, 2012)
It is rapidly urbanising as a result of high population growth and migrations to take advantage of the
commercial prospect and by virtue of the location of the central government machinery in the
GAMA.GAMA contributes about 19% of the total urban population of Ghana and contribute even higher
proportion of waste in all urban areas. These metrics are expected to rapidly increase over the next few
decades and by 2050 the population will hit 14m. The GAMA area has the highest per capita waste
generation rate at 0.80kg per person per day. In addition, the GAMA area has large commercial centres
and industrial entities that generate large volumes of waste.
Location

GAMA is location stretches from Ga West, Ga East and La Nkwantanang Madina at the northern
part, where it shares boundaries with the Eastern Region; to Ga South in the Western Part,
sharing boundary with Central Region, Tema and Ashaiman in the eastern part and AMA and
LEKMA in the southern part near the coast. All the others are in the central parts of GAMA.
The GAMA area is a generally low lying area with isolated rolling hills towards the northern
with an average elevation of 20meter above sea level.
Physical Characteristics and Geology
Soil types in GAMA could be categorised into the following alluvial and marine mottled clays
derived from underlying shales; residual clays and gravels derived from weathered quartzite and
schist rocks, and lateritic sandy clay soils derived from weathered sandstone bedrock formations.
The GAMA is drained by the Densu basin, Lafa basin( including Mallam drains) ,Chemu
(including Dansoman and Manponse drains) ,Odaw basin( including Nima, Onyasia,
Mataheko ,Mukose,and Apenkwa drains),Osu Klottey basin, Kpeshie basin ( including Kordjor,
Napradjor drains) ,Mukwoe basin (including Nii Djor drain) and Songo basin NESSAP, 2010).
The eleven Metropolitan and Municipal Areas that constitute the Greater Accra Metropolitan
Area are managed by each of the 11 Assemblies as separate entities. The Metropolitan and
Municipal Assemblies derive their mandate from the Local Government Act of 1993 (Act

462).The structure of these Assemblies is also spelt out in the act. By this act, the Assemblies are
the highest political authorities mandated to govern their area and to provide basic Sanitation and
Waste Management services to support the social and economic development of the area.
Development of services and infrastructure in rapidly growing urban areas like GAMA requires a
coordinated approach among MMAs. Services and infrastructure such as final disposal site need
to be developed in a coordinated manner among the MMAs that constitute the GAMA since
water and waste flows across political boundaries. In addition, significant economies of scale
could result from an integrated planning and management of infrastructure and services in
GAMA. This is particularly the case for large sanitation investments, such as landfills, waste
recycling plants ,composting plants and septic sludge treatment plants, which cannot be
individually developed at each of the MMAs due to space and budget limitations and hence need
to be coordinated and shared. Application of GIS in this process will enhance the speed and reliability of
modelling an optimal location of a final disposal site.
Scope

The scope of this study will cover the 11 MMA that make ups the GAMA and will be concerned
mainly with the management of solid waste with particular attention to final disposal site.
Analysis will be limited to finding the optimal location for final disposal sites which could be
used by the 11 MMA with consideration of the spatial criteria for the location of final disposal
site.
Analysis will be restricted to the use of GIS processes and procedure utilising existing layers of
spatial data such as land use, soil types, built up areas, transportation routes and proximity to
surface water sources.
Regulatory Framework
The location of final disposal site is regulated and guided by some legal and policy directives.
Some of the main instruments
in the regulation of final disposal sites landfills include the
following:
Local Government Act 462
National Environmental and Sanitation Policy ,Revised (2010)
Environmental Assessment Regulations,1999 (L.I. 1652)
Guidelines on Issuing of Landfill Operating Licences
The Landfill Guidelines ,2002

Data and Sources of Data

This study is interested in locating the most suitable area for final disposal in GAM A using the
capabilities of GIS through spatial analysis. To achieve this different types of data were used
which were mainly shapefileii data of spatial layers.
The specific GIS data features classes (lines, points and polygons) applicable to the study area
were vector data which include layers such as
Transport
Hydrology
Land use
Built up areas (cultural features)

Hypsographic features (contours)

These feature class were combined in different ways in the GIS environment using
geoprocessing tools to generate new data forms suitable for the analysis. The data was projected
in the Leigon Datum 1977 for the ellipsoid Clarke 1888 based on the UTM WG84 range. Data
was acquired mostly from Ghana Statistical Service and the Survey Department.
Methodology and Design
Locational Models on GIS platforms are based on a broad spectrum of geospatial data that are
used for applications and spatial analyses at different levels. The examination and organization of
data into useful form produces information, which then enables appropriate analysis and
modelling for an output that allows prompt and accurate decision making.
The objective of this study is to select map options for a final disposal site in GAMA to address
the problem of solid waste management using an integrated approach , bearing in mind the
autonomy of each of the 11 MMA involved. GIS Spatial Analysis and Multi-criteria Decision
Analysis (MCDA) were the main tools used to define and analyse the optima location of final
disposal site options for the GAMA.
The analysis was designed to goal-seek using given parameters and criteria in the GIS
environment. The criteria identified were made up 7 different layers. Urban centres/ built-up
areas, Land use, Airports, Roads, slope/hypsography, Surface water, Industrial areas, Soil types
were used to identify the best location for final disposal site. A model was designed based on the
available data using the Spatial Analyst tool in ArcGIS 9.3iii
MCDA was used to assign weight to individual each individual layer in the location criteria
using pairwise ranking. An integrated function was designed using the criteria based on weights
to frame unions, intersections, clippings merging, and buffering and using the spatial analyst tool
to arrive at various location options. Various relationships were defined before all the interrelated
criteria were integrated.
Selection and attribution of weights was based on the criteria set out in the Environmental
Protection Agencys Guidelines on the location of landfills. As pointed out above Landfills
occupy the last rung of the waste management continuum therefore its location is as the least
preferred option will ; if accepted will work for most other waste management options. MCDA
was used to segment criteria into smaller understandable parts, analyse each part separately, and
then integrate the parts in a logical manner to yield the optimal options for the location of final
site based on a suitability criterion, which can serve as initial ranking of the most suitable
options.
Some limitation of the study included the non-use of satellite imagery or orthophoto which
would have added more details to the spatial layers especially the built environment layers.
Again the spatial data used dates back to at least 2008 with some going as far back as 2003. Also
the inability to use some external plug-inns in the ArcGIS suite for cost reasons was a constraint.

Considerations for Site Selection

Decisions to site final disposal site to serve a growing urban area like GAMA comes with
significant risk factors and therefore requires rigorous planning and considerations to ensure that
the negative effects associated with such a facility are curtailed. Such considerations are
important to ensure that the environmental and socio-economic effects of final disposal sites are
minimised.
In addition to minimising the negative effects of a final disposal site, consideration will have to
be given to other factors such as economy, efficiency, availability of lands and provision for
future expansion. The site to be developed should be:
Environmentally acceptable;
Socially acceptable;
Accessible to built-up areas
Technically and economically feasible;
Provide for simple, cost-effective design, which in turn provides for good operation
Population Growth, Urbanisation and Waste Disposal Needs
Waste generation in the proposed catchment area should be estimated from the existing
population and expected growth rate. Domestic solid waste production can be estimated as about
0.80 kg per person per day. To this should be added any extra quantities such as those arising
from major market and commercial areas serving other communities outside the immediate
catchment under consideration, and from any industrial activities. Population of GAMA is
expected to rise from the current 3.6m to 5m within a decade on account of heightened migration
and natural growth (GSS,2012). In the same vein urbanisation level among GAMA MMAs will
surpass the current 78% and reach in excess of over 90%. This will bring with it high levels of
consumption and increasing waste generation levels. The need for an integrated final disposal
site solution in a collaborative manner is urgent in the face of the urban sprawl and the
conversion almost every part of the GAMA into s residential settlement.
Environmental Considerations
Environmental factors relate to the potential threat to the physical environment, specifically
water resources. Factors such as topography, geology, hydrogeology, drainage, subsoil conditions
and adjacent land use should be carefully considered. Excavations close to (within 1.5m) or
intersecting the ground water table should be avoided as much as possible. Siting of landfills too
close to drinking, irrigation or livestock water supply sources should also be avoided.
Criteria Analysis

Location of
final disposal facilities need to be developed taking into account planning,
environmental, technical and financial issues. Without compliance to statutory regulations and
guidelines, the development of final disposal site will be below set standards. Full political
support, adequate finances and careful selection of potential sites and the appropriate level of
design, there is a risk of the facility not able to be sustained given the past experience of MMAs
in the GAMA where sites were closed down due to poor planning. The criteria for locating final
disposal site in this model considered factors that will enable the site to serve the purpose of
providing final disposal site for the growing needs of MMAs in GAMA.

All the criteria for determining the location of

final disposal sites could be grouped into
biophysical and socio-economic factors and constraints. The Biophysical factors and constraints
set of criteria deals with the physical and natural environmental issues that have to be taken into
consideration before a located is considered as suitable for siting a final disposal site. On the
other hand, socio-economic factors include conditions and characteristics of the built
environment, political environment, social organisation and economic considerations that
influence the location final disposal site. Among all the plausible factors that could be part of the
criteria that influences the choice of location of final disposal site, the ones which were selected
to be part of the MCDA were the one with strong spatial characteristics. Using a GIS system for
such an analysis requires spatial data that could be modelled .
The following criteria were considered as part of the modelling variables used in the MCDA for
the location of final disposal site in the GAMA;
Biophysical
Constraint Criteria:
The waste disposal site cannot be built on high grounds and hilly areas
Final disposal site must not be in Areas below the 1 in 50 year flood line. This eliminates
wetlands and flood plains where water pollution would result from waste disposal.
Areas in close proximity to significant surface water bodies, 300m for ponds lakes and
dams, 100 m for rivers.
The waste disposal site can only be constructed in areas which do not have an important
economic or ecological value
Areas where adequate buffer zones are not possible to be avoided.
Areas should have sufficient capacity (at least 1 hectare) to be used as a waste disposal
site for a prolonged time
Factor Criteria :
Areas with undulating to flat surfaces are preferable for locating final waste disposal
site. A terrain with a slope less than 20 degrees is recommended
The waste disposal site should preferably be constructed on areas with the least important
economic or ecological value
The waste disposal site should preferably be located within 20km from the limits of built
up areas in GAMA
The waste disposal sites soil should have a very low permeability (preferably 0.05
meters per day or less). Clay-rich soils (preferably more than 50% clay)are most suitable.
Place with high depth of soil is preferred. The greater the availability of soil, the easier
and more cost-effective it will be for the landfill to satisfy cover material requirements
for operation and control of nuisances.
Socio-economic
Constraint Criteria:

Final disposal site should not be situated less than 3000m from the end of any airport
runway or landing strip.
Transportation to the site should not be more than 30km from locations where over 50%
of waste is generated.
Avoid locations where resettlement will be required before constructing the facility.

Factor Criteria
The overall site transportation costs should be as low as possible.
The distance to the nearest residential area or any other land-use which is incompatible
with landfilling.
The area selected should lend itself to the development of future integrated transport
network as part of an integrated waste management infrastructure in the GAMA.
Land availability and/or acquisition costs. These are often dependent on present or future
competitive land-uses, such as agriculture, residential development or mining.
Possible incorporation of the site into a future regional waste disposal system. This tends
to make a site economically more attractive.
Once a waste disposal site is introduced, the land value of the surroundings and other
locations will change. The effect on the land-value should, if possible, not be very
negative for land that currently has a significantly high value.
.
Each criteria was expressed as layers in the GIS environment and modelled to reveal
relationships showing how their integration will yield the goal of the analysis i.e. three options
that could be used as final disposal site for the 11 MMAs making up GAMA. It must be noted
again that the layers were selected to conform spatial data requirements of GIS enabled MCDA .
GIS Enabled Spatial Multiple Criteria Decision Analysis

The MCDA was the main analytical tool used for the analysis . Multiple Criteria Decision
Analysis decision analysis is a process that combines and transforms geographical data (the
input) into a decision (the output). This process consists of procedures that involve the utilization
of geographical data, the decision criteria and the manipulation of the data and preferences
according to specified decision rules. MCDA is part of a growing GIS field called Spatial
decision support which is a semi-structured process that involves consideration of several spatial
variables which are analysed to arrive at an optimal solution (Eldrandaly et al., 2003). GIS as a
decision support tool, simplifies the search for suitable sites for a particular purpose because of
its capability of spatial feature extraction and classification.
The Application of GIS tools and techniques in decision analysis has revolutionised the way
spatial data is considered and utilised in making quick and efficient choices. Conventional
MCDA techniques have largely been non-spatial. (Fernandes et al ,2005). The assumption that
the study area is spatially homogenous is rather unrealistic because in many cases evaluation
criteria vary across space. The explicit presence and consideration of a spatial component bring a
new dimension to a decision equation that has a significant geographic dimension.
To obtain information for the decision making process, data is processed using MCDA as well as
GIS techniques. In this process multidimensional geographical data and information were
aggregated into one-dimensional values for the alternatives.

GIS enabled MCDA techniques and tools used in this analysis facilitated the support the
decision making process in selecting 3 optimal options for the location of final disposal sites
towards addressing the waste management issues of all the 11 MMAs in GAMA. Greater
effectiveness and efficiency in the spatial decision-making process was achieved. The output of
the analysis can be visualized as maps shown in the results and discussions.
Figure 3
Goal seek

3 Final Disposal Site Options

Criteria Definition

Biophysical Criteria
Socio-economic Criteria

Tools and Techniques

Data Layers

Transport;
Hydrology;
Land use ;
GIS MCD Analysis
Built up areas (cultural features); and
Hypsographic features (contours)
GIS Layers (spatial data variables

Spatial Data Integration GIS analysis and Review

/all Sites Rejected

3 Optimum Final Waste Disposal Site Selection Some
Accepted

Source: Authors Construct

Results and discussion
Results of the GIS based spatial analysis using the MCDA technique yielded maps that shows the various
location options suitable for the situation final disposal site. To arrive at the modelled conclusion, a
number of layers ( each representing the listed factors ) were assembled and analysed using GIS
techniques. Based on the importance of each constraint or factor criteria, an integrated model was done
using the layers to select the appropriate options for final disposal site within the GAMA.

As discussed above, the data layers considered include the following (not in order of
importance);
Transport;
Hydrology;
Land use ;
Built up areas (cultural features); and
Hypsographic features /slope (contours)

The constraints criteria discussed in the previous section were used eliminate not suitable areas while at
same time; consideration for the location of final disposal site within GAMA was based factor criteria.
Figure 1 presents the various layers employed in the analysis and their spatial distribution within
LaNMMA.

First: essential criteria (primary) the result are invalidate, the probability or their existence in
the study area, (Boolean analysis). Second: secondary parameters are the presence or
absence and the severity or lack of them, can have positive or negative effects of strong or
weak is the final decision for site selection (analytic hierarchy).
This criteria tree shows that the impact of the biophysical suitability is in the same level as the
environmental and economic criteria of the sites. All environmental and economic criteria are
costs to the objective: most economic location with least environmental impact, but the site
suitability is a benefit. The maps for these criteria can only be generated now that the
potential sites are known, as they depend on knowledge of the potential site.
For the site suitability criterion, one suitability map per potential site is produced, based on the
composite index map from the Design Phase. This is a simple step, where the suitability of
the areas in the composite index map that dont belong to the potential site is set to 0. Instead
of having the suitability as one value (by taking e.g. the average for each site), the spatial
aspect is preserved.

Maps

Final Disposal Site Options for GAMA

Proposals for landfill facilities need to be developed taking into account planning, environmental,
technical and financial issues. Without full political support, adequate finances and careful
selection of potential sites and the appropriate level of engineering sophistication, there is a risk
of the facility proving unsustainable. In this respect, six major steps need to be followed (see
figure 1.1).

.
Pollutants
Leachate
Gas methane and carbon dioxide
Litter
Odour
Dust and Noise
Birds, Insects and Rodents

Conclusions and Recommendations

Ghana reached middle income level in 2010 and, since then, the city of Accra has made much progress
towards sustainable waste management. It closed the last waste dump within the city, constructed a new
sanitary landfill, started operations at the new material recovery and composting facility, and is
encouraging the informal waste recycling sector. The City should now strive for 100% collection of
MSW, increase public awareness and participation in reducing littering, and stopping the open burning of
waste, that constitutes a major threat to public health through dioxin and particulate emissions.
Recommendations to the City
Develop and follow waste collection schedules and routes for various parts of the city so that the
public knows when to put out the solid wastes.
The Waste Management Department should employ independent reviewers to monitor and ensure
adequate service delivery by the various contractors to all parts of the City.
Increase the size of the shed provided for informal waste recyclers at the Tema landfill based on the
space requirements at Achimota dumpsite.
The best way to increase recycling is by asking citizens to help the city and the environment by
separating their waste into two parts: a) Materials designated by the City as recyclables (paper, metals,
certain types of plastics; generally, called the dry stream); b) the non-recyclable trash to be landfilled.
This source-separation of recyclables can be started at some of the more affluent parts of the city and

slowly expanded to cover the entire city. Small posters should be provided to households and businesses
with pictures of the items to be recycled and a slogan explaining that this effort by the citizens is
beneficial to the City and the environment. The recyclables set out by households and businesses can be
collected by informal recyclers and private collectors and brought to a Materials Recovery Facility, where
they are manually sorted and then baled to marketable commodities. Dealing with the dry stream is
much easier and productive than allowing the recyclables to be mixed with food and other trash and then
trying to separate them.

(i) Ground water levels of the potential sites were not measured because
of time limitations, costs and technical equipment required. Performing
Ground water level analysis will modify and improve the results.
(ii) Digital maps for the entire country (Uganda) can be used so as to select
landfill sites countrywide. Further Ground Truthing can then be done, so
that the output can be stored as a separate digital map for areas suitable
for landfills. In this, such areas can be reserved for waste disposal and not
compromised to other purposes or services.
Develop and follow waste collection schedules and routes for various parts of the
city so that the public knows when to put out the solid wastes.
The Waste Management Department should employ independent reviewers to
monitor and ensure adequate service delivery by the various contractors to all parts
of the City.
Increase the size of the shed provided for informal waste recyclers at the Tema
landfill based on the space requirements at Achimota dumpsite

i GAMA encompasses the two Metropolitan Assemblies, Accra and Tema; and nine Municipal Assemblies, Ga West, Ga
East,Ledzokuku-Krowor, Adentan, Ashiaman, La Nkwantanang-Madina, Ga Central, Ga South and La Dade-Kotopon.

ii Shapefile is a data format that is readable by most GIS applications. It reduces spatial
data in digital formats that could be displayed, manipulated and analysed.
iii A GIS software for displaying , analyzing spatial data and making output maps