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MICROORGANISMS (MICROBES)

The study of microorganism is called Microbiology, and the scientists involved in the study are
called Microbiologists.
Microorganism (microbes) are the oldest form of life on the earth - they have been here for 3.8
billion years. There are huge diversity among them. But, they have been classified (grouped) into five
major categories - Bacteria, Fungi, Viruses, Protozoa and Algae.
Bacteria are small uni-cellular (single-cell) organism, present everywhere on the land, in the
water, and also in the air. But, they do not have distinct nucleus (prokaryote). The nuclear material
(DNA) is present in the form of strand called nucleoid. They use binary fission (getting divided into
two) as the mode of reproduction. A moist and warm environment is good for bacterial growth. Their
growth is slowed down when the environment is dry and the temperature is either too high or too low.
Depending on shape the bacteria are classified into three categories i) Rods (also known as bacilli,
for example - Escherichia coli, found in human intestine); ii) Spherical (also known as cocci, for
example Diplococci, Staphylococci); and iii) Spirals (also known as spirilli, for example Spirillum,
Vibrios).
Based on need of oxygen for respiration bacteria are classified into two categories - aerobic
bacteria (needs oxygen) and anaerobic bacteria (does not need oxygen).
Fungi are multi-cellular organism. They are non-green plant-like organism that do not contain
chlorophyll. Because they lack chlorophyll (which is necessary for photosynthesis), they live either
as a parasites (deriving its nourishments from living organism) or as a saprophyte (deriving its
nourishments from dead and decaying organism). Some fungi are however also involved in symbiotic
(living together for mutual advantage) relationships. For examples, lichens refers to mutualistic
relationship between fungi and algae (or cyanobacterium). Here the fungus helps in absorption of
nutrients and provide protection, while algae prepares the food.
They reproduce via spores (tiny single-cell substance that grows into new organism/individual).
A large number of spores are released by a ripe fungus. These spores, being very light, travel through
the air (carried away by the wind) and germinates to produce new fungus after landing on suitable
food material. Yeast is also a fungus, but it doesnt reproduce by forming spores; it reproduces by
budding.
Most of the fungi are invisible to the naked eyes. For example yeast, bread moulds (Rhizopus
fungus) etc. But, there are fungi which can be seen through naked eyes as well. For example,
mushroom.
Algae are the group of simple plant-like organism. They are multi-cellular. Green-layer (called
Spyrogyra), often seen floating on the surface of a pond or a lake or in the stagnant part of a river,
are in fact algae. They contain chlorophyll and so just like plant they produce their own food by
photosynthesis. Some other examples are - blue green algae and sea-weeds.
Algae are important as primary producers of organic matters at the base of food-chain. They also
provide oxygen (released during photosynthesis) to other aquatic life.
Protozoa are both uni-cellular as well as multi-cellular. They are animal-like, just as algae are
plant-like. They do not possess cell-wall. They have cell-membrane which encloses protoplasm
(substance of a living cell - including cytoplasm, nucleus, and all other organelles such as
mitochondria). They carry out all the life-processes such as nutrition, respiration, reproduction,
locomotion and excretion and hence classified as animals. They are the most abundant animals in the
world in terms of number and biomass. Amoeba, paramecium etc. are typical examples of protozoa.
Virus is the smallest microorganism which is visible only through electron microscope. It is much
smaller than bacteria. Is does not show most of the characteristics of living organism. For example,
it does not respire, grow, excrete or move on its own. It is just capable of reproducing. But, it

reproduce and multiply only inside the other organisms like plants, animals or bacteria etc. Thus, as
long as viruses are outside the living cells, they behave as non-living things, but as soon as they
enter into other organisms they start reproducing, start behaving as living things.
The viruses are therefore considered to be at the border-line dividing the living things and the
non-living things.
The general characteristics of microorganism can therefore be described as mentioned below:
Some of them such as bacteria, some protozoa and some algae are unicellular, whereas the
others are multicellular.
They can survive under all types of environment, ranging from ice cold climate to hot springs
and deserts to marshy lands. But, air, water and appropriate temperature are three main requirements
for profuse microbial growth.
They are also found inside the bodies of animals, including humans, and plants. Some can
grow on other living organisms (parasites), some can grow on dead and decaying organism
(saprophytes), some can live symbiotically with others, and some can exist freely. Microorganisms
like amoeba can live alone. But, fungi and bacteria live in colonies (together).

BENEFICIAL ASPECTS OF MICROORGANISMS


Microbes carry out about 90% of the bio-chemical reactions that occurs on the planet earth. They are
useful in following ways
(i) In food and beverage industry:
Lactobacillus converts milk into curd.
Rennin is used in making cheese. It ferments the milk sugar into lactic acid. This lactic
acid separates the milk in solid curd (which is used in making cheese) and whey.
Bacteria also help in making pickle and many other food items.
Bacteria and yeast (various single-celled fungi that reproduce by budding,
commercially used as leavening agent) also help in the process of fermentation.
Fermentation is the process in which natural sugar (glucose) is converted into
alcohol in the absence of oxygen.
During this process sugar breaks down into alcohol and carbon dioxide is released.
Beer, wine and whiskey are made by the fermentation of cereals, fruit-juice and barley
respectively.
When fermentation of fruit-juice is carried out beyond the alcohol formation then
vinegar (5% solution of acetic acid) is formed.
Microorganism, particularly yeast, is used in making cake, bread, biscuits and other
bakery products. Natural sugar present in the dough releases CO2 during fermentation
which increase the volume of dough. When baked, the gas escapes thereby making the
bakery items soft and fluffy.
(ii)

In making medicine and vaccine:


Antibiotics:
Bacteria and fungi are also used in making medicines called antibiotics.

Antibiotics are substance that are produced by certain microbes to kill the other disease
causing microbes. Penicillin, Streptomycin (used treatment of tuberculosis, TB),
Tetracycline and Erythromycin are some examples of antibiotics. Antibiotics destroy
the bacteria by weakening their cell-walls so that white blood cells enter into bacterial
cells and kill them this process is called cell-lysis.
Penicillin is the first antibiotic discovered by Alexander Fleming in 1929 for which
he was awarded Nobel Prize in 1945.
Though antibiotics are used to kill disease causing microbes but it is necessary to take
certain precautions in taking antibiotics which are as below:
Antibiotics should be taken only on the advice of well-qualified doctor.
Antibiotics should be taken in right amount and at right time. Inappropriate (less
than required) doze of antibiotics make it ineffective. And excess doze may kill
the useful bacteria present in the body.
Course of antibiotics should be completed as per the prescription of the doctor.
The antibiotics are manufactured by growing specific microorganisms and are used to
cure a variety of diseases.
Antibiotics are even mixed with the feed of livestock and poultry to check microbial
infection in animals.
They are also used to control many plant diseases.
Vaccines:
When a disease-carrying microbe enters our body, the immune response of the body
gets activated. The body produces antibodies to fight against those foreign substances.
Antibodies are protein molecules produced in the blood by immune system to fight
against the antigen (any substance, a toxin or an enzyme, that stimulates an
immune response in the body, especially the production of antibodies).
The body also remembers how to fight those microbes if they enter again. So, if dead
or weakened microbes are introduced in a healthy body, the body fights and kills them
by producing suitable antibodies. The antibodies remain in the body and we are
protected from the disease causing microbes. This is the basic principle of working of
a vaccine.
Vaccines are therefore a suspension of dead or weakened microbes which mimics the
disease causing microbes. When vaccines are swallowed or injected into the body, it
learns and remembers which antibodies to produce and how to fight those disease
causing organisms. Thus the body is protected from any future attack of those germs.
Several diseases, including cholera, tuberculosis, smallpox and hepatitis can be
prevented by vaccination.
Vaccination is the protection of the body from infectious disease by administration of
vaccines. The process of administrating vaccine is called inoculation.
Polio drops given to children to protect them against polio (acute viral disease marked
by inflammation of nerve cells of the brain stem and spinal cord) are actually a
vaccine.
Edward Jenner discovered the vaccine for smallpox in 1798.

Vaccines for Child/Infants:


Polio
Rabies
Influenza
Yellow Fever
Hepatitis-A, Hepatitis-B
MMR (Measles, Mumps and Rubella)
Diphtheria, Tetnus and Acellular Pertusis (Whooping Cough)
BCG (Baculillus Calmette-Guerin the germ commonly used to inoculate against TB)
Mumps is a contagious viral disease causing fever and swelling of salivary (parotid) glands.
Rubella is a group of physical abnormalities (small head, cataract etc.) developed in an infant
due to maternal infection. It is also known as German Measles or 3 days measles.
Diphtheria is an acute contagious disease in throat and other air passage.
Tetnus (jawlock) is caused due to Clostridium Tetani bacterial infection which produces
nerve toxin that affects the brain and nervous system. This leads to stiffness in all the muscles
(muscle spasm) and serious breathing difficulties.
Yellow Fever is caused by falvi-virus which affects liver and kidneys. Liver damage results
in severe jaundice, yellowing of skin.
Rabies is deadly virus that attacks central nervous system and caused acute encephalitis
(inflammation of brain), transmitted to human most commonly by animal bites.
(iii) In agriculture:
Microorganism such as bacteria and algae enriches soils with essential nutrients required
by the plants for their normal growth and development. Due to this reason these microbes
are also called bio-fertilizers.
There are millions and trillions of tiny bacteria in the soil. These bacteria feed upon dead
plants and animals, and decomposes them into simple inorganic compounds such as
nitrates and oxides of nitrogen etc. These compounds act as nutrients for the plants.
Some bacteria such as Rhizobium which live in the root nodules of the leguminous plants
(gram, pea, bean etc.) can convert atmospheric nitrogen into nitrogenous compounds
which can be used by the plants for its protein synthesis.
Blue green algae can also convert atmospheric nitrogen into usable nitrogenous
compounds.
(iv) In cleaning the environment:
Bacteria and fungi also play an important role in decomposition of harmful and smelly
organic matters (dead and decaying plants and animals) into simple inorganic compounds
such as oxides and nitrate/nitrite of various elements. In fact decomposing microbes
contain enzymes that are able to digest plant and animal waste and convert them into
simple inorganic substances.
But, these microbes are not able to decompose some of the substances such polythene
bags, plastic toys, glasses, and aluminium foils etc.
(v)

Other beneficial uses of microorganisms:


Certain bacteria and protozoa are found in digestive system of some cattle like cow, goat
and sheep. These microbes help the cattle in digesting grass and leaves.

Tanning, a process to make leather from animal skins by treating with chemicals, is done
with the help of bacteria.
Some bacteria are also used in production of biogas. They decompose the animal wastes,
and the dead and decaying plants, to produce methane (in the absence of oxygen). Methane
is one of the chief constituents of biogas and is used as a fuel.

HARMFUL ASPECTS OF MICROORGANISM


Diseases:
Disease causing microbes are called pathogen.
Pathogens enter our body through the air we breathe, the water we drink or the food we eat.
They can also get transmitted by direct contact with an infected person and/or carried through
an insect/animal (called vector - vector means any organism that carries microbes are
responsible for transmission of disease).
Microbial diseases that can spread from an infected person to a healthy person through air,
water, food or physical contact are called communicable/contagious diseases. Examples of
such diseases include cholera, common cold, chicken pox and tuberculosis.
When a person suffering from common cold sneezes, fine droplets of moisture carrying
thousands of viruses are spread in the air. The virus may enter the body of a healthy person
while breathing, and thereby making the person more likely to get affected. It is therefore
advised to stay away from the person who is suffering from cough and cold.
There are some insects and animals which act as carriers/vector of disease causing microbes.
Housefly is one such carrier. The flies sit on the garbage and animal excreta. Pathogens stick
to their bodies. When these flies sit on uncovered food they may transfer the pathogens.
Whoever eats the contaminated food is likely to get sick. So, it is advisable to always keep
food covered. We should avoid consuming uncovered items of food.
Another example of a carrier is the female Anopheles mosquito which carries the parasite of
malaria. And Aedes mosquito acts as carrier of dengue virus.
Common Diseases due to microbes:
Virus: common cold and cough, influenza (flu), polio (inflammation of nerve cells of the
brain stem and spinal cord), chickenpox (rash of vesicles on the face and body), measles (red
spots followed by a rash on the face and body), hepatitis (inflammation of the liver) etc
Protozoa: malaria (paroxysm - sudden uncontrollable attack of chills and fever), diarrhoea
(frequent and watery bowel movement), and dysentery (infection of intestine marked by
diarrhoea) etc.
Bacteria: TB (tuberculosis), typhoid, cholera etc
Fungi: almost all skin diseases.
FEVER: Our body has average temperature of 98.6 Fahrenheit or 36.9C when it is
healthy. Some disease make this temperature rise and we call this as fever. Fever actually
helps us fight off sickness. It makes vital processes and organs in our body to work faster. The
body produces more hormones, enzymes and blood cells. As a result the temperature of the
body increases, blood circulation increases and we may breathe faster so as to quickly get rid

of waste generated in the body. It is important to get rid of the fever as quickly as possible as
it increases the consumption, and even destroys, some of vital proteins required by the body.
Diseases in Animals:
Several microorganisms not only cause diseases in humans and plants, but also in other
animals. For example, anthrax is a dangerous human and cattle disease caused by a bacterium.
Robert Kch (1876) discovered the bacterium (Bacillus anthracis) which causes anthrax
disease.
Foot and mouth disease of cattle is caused by a virus.
Diseases in Plants:
Several microorganisms cause diseases in plants like wheat, rice, potato, sugarcane, orange,
apple and others. The diseases reduce the yield of crops.
Red strip of sugarcane is a bacterial disease in plants.
Various mosaic disease in tomato, okra (bhindi) or tobacco is caused by virus.
Blight in potato or gram is caused due to fungi and/or bacteria (causes the plant to wither
without rotting)
Rust of wheat is also caused due to fungi.

Food-Poisoning:
Food-poisoning is a food-borne illness that occurs suddenly after a contaminated food
or drink is consumed. Typical symptoms of food-poisoning are nausea, vomiting, abdominal
cramp and diarrhoea.
Food poisoning takes place because the microbes growing on food sometimes produce toxic
substances. These toxic substances make the food poisonous causing serious illness and even
death.
Food-Preservation:
We can stop the food from getting contaminated/spoilt either by killing the microbes
in the food or by preventing their growth. The method/process to preserve and store food
items is known as food preservation.
Advantages of food preservations are:
i) It avoids wastage of foods
ii) It maintains the flavour and nutritional value of the food.
iii) It allows availability of seasonal food throughout the year.
iv) It facilitates longer shelf-life and thus helps in exports to other countries.
Common methods to preserve the food:
Pickling:
food is mixed with vinegar, acid in vinegar stops microbial growth
Drying:
microbes cannot grow without water
Salting:
microbial growth is inhibited due to saline and reduced moisture condition
Sugaring:
sugar reduces the moisture content which inhibits the microbial growth
Canning:
cooked food is canned and sealed to prevent microbial entry
Radiation:
radiation kills microbes
Preservatives: chemicals kills the microbes or prevents their growth (sodium benzoate)
Refrigeration: microbial growth is inhibited
Heating:
microbes are killed

Air-flushed packing: microbial entry is prevented


Dipping in edible oil: microbial growth is prevented
Pasteurisation: microbes are killed and further growth is inhibited
(Pasteurisation is a process of heating milk to about 70C for about 15 to 30
seconds and then rapidly cooling it. This process was discovered by Louis Pasteur)

NITROGEN CYCLE / NITROGEN FIXATION

The cyclic process of nitrogen being fixed into earth as nitrates/nitrites etc., used up by the
plants and then by the animals, and later returned to atmosphere is called nitrogen cycle.
Our atmosphere has 78% nitrogen gas. Nitrogen is one of the essential constituents of all living
organisms as part of proteins, chlorophyll, nucleic acids and vitamins. The atmospheric nitrogen
cannot be taken directly by plants and animals. Certain bacteria and blue green algae present in the
soil fix nitrogen from the atmosphere and convert into compounds of nitrogen.
Once nitrogen is converted into these usable compounds, it can be utilised by plants from the soil
through their root system. Nitrogen is then used for the synthesis of plant food/proteins and other
compounds. Animals feeding on plants get these proteins and other nitrogen compounds.
When plants and animals die, bacteria and fungi present in the soil convert the nitrogenous wastes
into nitrogenous compounds to be used by plants again. Certain other bacteria convert some part of
them to nitrogen gas which goes back into the atmosphere. As a result, the percentage of nitrogen in
the atmosphere remains more or less constant.

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