Markus B.

Hiitzeler, DMD'
RallKuhal, DMD"

In Vitro and In Vivo

Evaluation of a New
Opaque System for Metal
Ceramic Restorations

Carotin Fischer, DMD'"

lens fiicbee. DMD, PhD'-'
loig R. SIrub, DMD, PhD'-

This Study made an in vitro comparison of the shear tren^th in a corrosive

solution, the scanning electron microscopy of the processing steps, and the
x-ray povyder diffraction analyses of a newly developed opaque system
(Biopaque) with a traditional opaque-system (Opaque P). Clinically, two
traditional opaque systems (Opaque P and Vita-VMK-Paint-On 88 opaque)
were compared to Biopaque over a 4-year period. A total of 218 metal
ceramic units were plated for 29 patients. One hundred ten were veneered
with Biopaque, 50 with Opaque P, and 58 wiLh Vita-VMK-Paint-Qn 8, The
technical failure rate of the metal ceramic restoralions was 9,6%, and the
biological failure rate 5,5%. There was no significant difference of the shear
strength in a corrosive solution between Biopaque and the traditional opaque
system (Opaque), The x-ray powder diffraction analyses revealed that only
the base paste of Biopaque was a newly developed material. In this study,
[he new opaque system (Biopaque) showed the same in vitro and in vivo
results as the other conveniional opaque systems. However, at least 5 years
of clinical evaluation are necessary before this new opaque system can be
completely recommended, int Pm'ithodont 1995,8:142-149.

prosthodontic patients,' '' Technical failures include

loss of retention,' - ' fracture of metal components,"
and porcelain veneer fractures,' ' Fractures through
the porcelain or at the metal-metal oxide interface
are the result of a metal-porcelain bond that is
'Senior Lecturer, Department o Protitodonlic. AiherlLudwigs-Universily, Freiburg, Gerrnany; Ciinicsi Assistant stronger than the strength of the porcelain or metal
Professoi. Depnrlmcnt ol Stomsiotogy, Division of
itself." Adhesive failures occur when the bond
Periodontics, University of Texas lieahh Science Center, between the melal and porcelain is inadequate.'
Houston, Tex3i.
The application of the porcelain opaque layer is a
'Visiting Assiitant Professor, Department of Stomatoiogy,
crilical step in preventing adhesive failures." and
Division of Peiiodomics. University of Texas Heailh
the interface between the metal and opaque deterScience Center, i-iouston, Texas.
'"Assistant Professor, Deiiartment of Restorative Oenlistry,
mines the bond strength between these two comUniversity of Bern, Bern, Swilzeriand.
ponents. Additionally, tbe opaque layer masks the
""Product Manager, CENDRES & METAUX SA, iei/Bienne, metal, a l l o w i n g appropriate shades to be
Switzerland.
obtained."
"Professor and Chairman, Department of P'ostiiodomlcs,

he technical and biophysical factors involved

in the fabrication of fixed restorations are of
critical importance for the long-term prognosis for

Atbert-Ludwigs-University, Freiburg, Germany.

The traditional application of opaque porcelain

begins with the mixing of porcelain powders with
Reprint requests: Or Markus . Hurzeler, Department of
a liquid binder that commonly consists of distilled
Prosthodontics, 5cliooi of Dentistry, Albert-Ludwigs-University,
waer, alcohol, and glycerin." The creamy opaque
Hugstetlerstrasse 55, O-7906 Freiburg, Germany.
paste is applied to the metal substructure in a minimum of two layers. The first thin layer acts as a
Thii research project was supported iri part by DeTrey/
Dentspty, Dreieich, Germany.
wetting layer, and the subsequent layers fill in

The Inrernalional ]ourn,il of Praiihodontii

142

Eviiluation o Ntw Opaque System for Kestoratiors

irregularities and mask the metal.'"" The VitaVMK-Paint-On 88 opaque (Vita Zahnfabrik, BadSckingen, Germany) and Opaque P (DeTrey,
Dentsply, Dreieich, Germany] are two conventional opaque systems.
Recently, a new opaque system (Biopaque,
DeTrey, Dentsply) became commercially available. It has been described previously by
Krumbholz et al'- and Breuer." This opaque is a
paste that is directly applied to the metal surface
without mixing and condensing. It offers easy
application and reduced working t i m e . "
Additionally, uniform thickness and excellent
opacity can be attained with Biopaque,"

0,1 mol/L lactic-acid and 0,1 mol/L sodium chloride by a temperature of 37"C) for 30 days, a shear
test was conducted according to Schmitz &
Schulmeyer,'^ For this purpose, a standard machine
for mechanical testing (Zwick 1445, Neu-Ulm,
Germany) with a cross head speed of 1 0.5
mm/min was used. Differences of the shear test
values between the two opaque systems for each
metal were analyzed using paired ttests.
Scanning Electron Microscopy of the Processing
of Opaque Porcelaiti. For comparison of the surface morphologies of Biopaque and Opaque P,
samples of each step of processing were prepared,
using cast Degudent alloy plates. The porcelain
was fired according to the manufacturer's instructions. Samples were gold sputter coated and the
surfaces observed using a scanning electron microscope (Zeiss, DSM 950, Oberkochen, Germany].
The differences between both systems were
described qualitatively,

Shear tests according to Schmitz and

Schulmeyer" comparing Biopaque to a conventional opaque system revealed no significant difference between the two systems." Schwickerath and
Mosleh" demonstrated that a corrosive solution
influenced the bonding strength between ceramics
and various alloys.
Inasmuch as metal-opaque bonding influences
the strength of a system, shear test data are needed
to ascertain the quality of the adhesion between
these materials. Because the new opaque is processed quite differently than conventional
opaques, it is of interest to investigate differences
in the surface morphology of both types of
opaques. Opaque porcelain contains crystals having a high refractive index'" that disperses and
reflects light, masking the metal substructure and
preventing it from influencing porcelain color. To
distinguish the difference between opaque materials, it is necessary to ascertain which crystals are
used to mask the metal substructure.

X-Ray Powder Diffraction Analyses of Opaque

Porcelain, The different porcelain powders as
delivered by the manufacturer were used for x-ray
powder diffraction analyses (Powder Diffraction
System, Stoe, Darmstadt, Germany), The crystalline
components of the different porcelains were identified by the obtained peak patterns, using the
ICPDS data file,'"
In Vivo Evaluation
Patient Croups. Twenty-nine subjects (18
females, 11 males], between 22 and 63 years of
age, participated in this clinical study. Patients
were treated in the Department of Prosthodontics,
Albert-Ludwigs-tJniversity, Freiburg, Germany,
between 1988 and 1989, Prospective patients were
screened by questionnaire for problems that would
limit life expectancy, adversely influence evaluations, or cause risk to them or staff members. The
patients required at least two fixed restorations
(either single crowns or fixed partial dentures). In
addition, they knew that an experimental opaque
system would be evaluated in their mouth, and
received no remuneration for their participation.
The opaque system was randomly assigned by a
dice throw. A total of 218 units were placed, of
which 110 units were veneered with Biopaque, 50
units with Opaque P, and 58 units with Vita-VMKPaint-On 88, The metal ceramic units were then
divided into four groups, depending on the type of
metal substructure and the opaque system (Table
1], In all, 44 fixed partial dentures having 64 pontics and 55 single crowns were luted with either a
zinc phosphate cement or a glass-ionomer cement

The purpose of this investigation was (1) to compare Biopaque with a conventional opaque system
(Opaque P) using ihe above-mentioned in vitro
tests, and (2) to perform a clinical study comparing
two traditional porcelain opaque systems and
Biopaque over a 48-month observation period.
Materials and Methods
In Vitro Evaluation
Shear Test in a Corrosive Solution. Metal samples ( 6 x 6 mm) from two alloys, a high noble alloy
(Degudent U, Degussa, Frankfurt, Germany] and a
palladium-based alloy (Albabond E, Heraeus,
Hanau, Germany) were veneered using Biopaque
and Opaque P as an opaque system and porcelain
according to the manufacturers' recommendations.
Each group consisted of 10 samples. After storage
in a corrosive environment (solution of ISO 13912;

Number 2,1995

143

The International loumaf ol Prosthodontii

Ev.ilujtioii of New pjque System tor Reslorafions

Table 1 Distribution ot the Metal Ceramic Units at the

Beginning of the Study
Conventional opaque

Biopaque
Alloy with high
gold content

manufacturer's instructions regarding the specific

alloy used. Afler steam cleaning the framework,
the first layer of the base paste material was
applied using a small brusb (Fig 1). This layer was
then covered with powdering crystals (Fig 2) prior
to the first opaque firing. Upon completion of this
firing (Fig 3) in the second layer of opaque paste
was applied (Fig 4). Tbis paste is available in a
ihinner consistency and in eight different shades
following the Vita and Biodent shade guide systems. Because of this thinner consistency, the second paste is able to produce a minimal layering
thickness necessary to give an individual opaque
shading. This layer was covered by translucent
powder crystals (Fig 5) and fired at the same temperature as the first opaque layer (Fig 6).
Luting Procedures. In 12 patients, either the
glass-ionomer (Ketac-Cem Maxicap, Fspe) or the
zinc phosphate cement (Phosphacap, Espe) was
used as a luting agent. The cements were selected
using a randomized parallel design. In all otber
patients (17 patients), the restorations were placed
using a zinc phosphate cement (Harvard-Cement,
Richter & Hoffmann Harvard Dental, Berlin,
Germany). The cements were mixed and used
according to Ihe recommendations of the manufacturers.
Patient Examinations. Clinical examinations
were performed immediately after luting and at ftmonth intervals for up to 4 years. In each recall session, which was always performed by the same
examiner, clinical photographs were made and the
restorations and abutment teeth were evaluated for
any technical and biologic failures. The technical
failures included loss of retention, fixed partial denture fractures, and veneer fractures. Biologic failures
included secondary caries, abutment fractures,
endodontic problems, and periodontal problems.
Oral hygiene instructions were restated and a professional prophylaxis was performed. Radiographic
examinations were performed immediately after the
luting of the restorations and every 2 years. The preceding technical and biologic failures were calculated in percentages. The rate of technical and biologic failures were obtained by dividing the number
of each type of failures by the total number of units
restored or used for the different groups.

Palladiumbased alloy

Alloy with high

gold content

Palladiumbased alloy

on 147 abutment teeth. On each patient, at least

one restoration was made using a conventional
opaque and one using Biopaque,
Clinical Tooth Preparation. Abutment teeth were
prepared using shoulder, bevelled shoulder, or
chamfer finishing lines, depending on the location
of the teeth- Shoulder finishing lines were placed
on maxiliary anteriors and first premolars, bevelled
shoulder finishing lines on all other premolars and
molars, while mandibular anterior teeth received
chamfer preparations. All crown margins were
placed supragingivally with the exception of teeth
for which esthetics was a major concern (eg, maxillary anteriors and firsi premolars).
Impression Making and Fabrication of the
Master Cast. The impressions of the prepared teeth
were made using a custom tray {Paladisc LC,
Heraeus Kulzer, Wehrbein, Germany] and an elastomeric impression material (Permadyne, Espe,
Seefeld, Germany). Tissue was displaced using cord
(Gingibraid, Van R Dental Products, Oxnard, CA).
The master casts were poured with stone (Type IV;
Fujirock, GC Dental Industrial, Tokyo, Japan), the
casts were mounted on a semi-adjustable articulator (SAM, Prazisionstechnik, Munich, Germany),
and wax maxillomandibular records were made
(Moyco Industries, Philadelphia, PA).
Metal Casting Design. Metals substructures'"
were developed to 1) provide necessary porcelain
support, (2) ensure a uniform thickness of the
porcelain layer through complete contour waxing
and reduction, and (3) ensure adequate pontic
bulk. In the anterior area, the casting was reduced
in the embrasure areas to allow optimal esthetics.
In addition, either a high noble gold alloy
Degudent U, Degussa) or a palladium-based alloy
(Degupal U, Degussa) were used for the castings.
Metal selection was made by the patient.
Opaque Systems. Porcelain opaque P DeTrey,
Dentsply) and Vila-VMK-Paint-On 88 opaque (Vita
Zahnfabrik) were used as controls, and the
Biopaque (DeTrey, Dentsplyl served as the experimental system. The Biopaque kit contains two base
pastes for lighl or dark shades. Biopaque application to the metal framework was accomplished in
four working steps with two firings. The surface
conditioning of the metal framework followed

The International loiimal of Prosthodonlii

Results
In Vitro Evaluation
Shear Test in a Corrosive Solution (Table 2).
After storage in a corrosive environment, the
mean shear strength of Biopaque veneered probes

144

Voluni 3, ^

ilon of New Opaque Sysiem (or Resturaiion^

Fig 1 Application ot the base paste on the metai surface

with a paint brush.

Fig 2
paste.

Fig 3 Strong masking feature ot the Biopaque, apparent

atter the tirst bake.

Fig 4 Application ot the color paste

"Hi ^ P^i"' brush atter the first bake .

Fig 6

Fig 5 Application of the translucent

dispersing crystals.

on Albabond E decreased from 30 MPa to 8 MPa,

in comparison to 27 MPa to 11 MPa of Opaque
P. There was no significant difference between
the two systems IF < .001). With the high noble
alloy, the values for Biopaque decreased from 25
MPa to 22 MPa and remained stable with the
Opaque P (26 MPa). Again there was no signifi-

Number 2,1995

Application o the dispersing crystals on the base

145

Masked framework after the second baiie.

cant difference between the two opaque systems.

Scanning Electron Microscopy. After applying
and firing the first layer of the opaque, the surface
appeared rough but very dense, with few sites of
porosity visible (Fig 7a). After firing the second
layer, additional porosity appeared (Fig 7b). This
was probably the result of ceramic shrinkage. After

Tiie Iniernationai lournal oi Prosthodontics

on of New Opaque System br Rebturatiori!

Table 2 Shear Test in a Corrosive Solution (MPa)

Biopa que
Albabond E
Degudent U

Before

After

Before

Alter

30 4
25 3

022 2

27 3
26 4

C
26 2

"Values were counted as "0", tcause the ce

spontaneously betre the linal stiear tes I ing

'

'

--

'

'

the third layer, no porosity was apparent and the

surface appeared quite smooth [Fig 7c).
The appiication of the Biopaque system exhibited a completely different surface appearance. The
shape and size of the dark powder crystals is
shown in Fig 8a after application to the surface of
the metal previously covered with a thin iayer of
the base paste. After firing, those particles are sintered and show a slight contact, but a rough and
porous surface remains (Fig 8b), requiring very
thorough coating with the second layer of opaque
paste. This second layer of paste must be subsequently covered with transparent powder crystals
(Fig 8c). After firing (Fig 3d), the particles are sintered together much more intensely than those of
the dark powder crystals; they are rounded and
obviously had melted during the firing process.

Opaque P

" -

1 re-metal bond taiie

'.

X-Ray Powder Diffraction Analyses of Opaque

Porcelain. Figures 9a to 9e demonstrate the diffraction patterns. Whiie the base paste used in the
Biopaque system mainiy consists of rutile (TiO^)
and a small amount of SnO^ in a glassy matrix (Fig
9a), the dark powder crystals (Fig 9b) resemble
Opaque P (Fig 9c). Only zircon is missing from the
powder crystals. The diffraction patterns of the
Biopaque transparent powder crystals (Fig 9d) are
similar to the diffraction patterns of the dentin
material (Fig 9e), thus both materials have a similar
composition.
In Vivo Evaluation
After 4 years, six patients were lost from the
study. One man died 2 years after placement of
the prostheses, three patients (two women, one
man) were lost because they had moved from the
city and were unable to attend the annual examinations, and two males withdrew after placement
of the prosthesis. For the remaining 23 patients, a
total of 163 metal ceramic units were evaluated, of
which 82 were veneered with Biopaque and 81
with a conventional opaque. In total, 38 porcelain
metal ceramic fixed partial dentures having 47
pontics and 46 single crowns were examined over
the 4 year observation period.
The technical failures of the metal ceramic restorations were classified. Three (6.87ol out of the 44 metal
ceramic fixed partial dentures lost retention and
i-equired reluting; all three units had been luted using
Phosphocap and were reluted using glass-ionomer
cetnent. One fixed partial denture (2,3%) failed as a
result of an inadequate solder joint. This fixed partial
denture was veneered with Biopaque. The porcelain
veneer on one unit 10.5%) fractured. That unit was
fabricated using the palladium-based ailoy and was

Fig 7 Scanning eiectron microscopy ot the surface ot

Opaque P. (a) First layer after fjring, (b] second layer after firing, (c) third layer after tiring.

The Intern a liona i Journal o( Proslliodontics

146

Sysiem for Reslorliors

veneered using the conventional opaque (Opaque P),

The biologic failures were listed as follows: secondary caries on two abutment teeth (1.4%) and
four fractured abutment teeth (2.7%), all involving
restorations veneered using a conventional opaque
(Vita-VMK-Paint-On 881, Two endodonlic interventions (1,4%) were required on abutment teeth,
Periodontal failure was not recorded during the
observation period. Inasmuch as tbe incidences of
technical and biologic failures were too few for
statistical analysis, no interaction with tbe opaque
system could be determined.

ventional opaquing systems (Opaque P and VitaVMK-Paint-On 88). The shear test in a corrosive
solution revealed no significant difference between
Opaque P and Biopaque. The bond strength deteriorated significantly in both groups when a palladium-based alloy was used, Krumholz et al'-'
observed more frequent and larger voids at the
metal-porcelain interface when the Biopaque was
used, and recommended a slow heating cycle to
predry and preheat Biopaque. Recently, the problems with the formation of voids at the interface
between alloy and Biopaque base paste were
solved by changing the liquid medium for the base
paste from glycerin to 1,4-butandiol, which has
larger temperature intervals for the decomposing
reaction during heating and reacts less violently,'''
The scanning electron microscopy showed that
the Biopaque system covers the metal framework
very weli. However, because of the rough surface
that occurs after firing the powder crystals, it is nec-

Discussion
The study sought to evaluate whether a new
opaquing system (Biopaque) provided similar in
vitro results to a converflional opaquing system
(Opaque P), It also evaluated the biologic and
technical results of Biopaque as compared to con-

1 B Scannina electron microscopy of the surface of the Biopaque system, (a) Dark powder crystals before tiring, (b) dark powFigs
r crysia^s after firing, (c) transparent powder crystals before firing, (d) transparent powder crystals after tmng.
der cry

nber 2, 1995

147

The liilernaiional (ourniil of Proslhodontii

Evaluation of t-Iew Opaque System loi Restoraiii

Fig 9 X-ray powder

diffraction analyses of
the ceramics jsed (Lc leucite, Cr = cristobalite,
Zir
= zircon), (a]
Biopaque base paste,
(b] Dark powder crystals, (c) Opaque P. (d)
Transparent
powder
crystals, (e) Dentin,

0
h

7S-

so25-

^ *

j ^

5025-

H
"

_A_.

ti
^ 75a

h 1
j

o- r =

O-

5s

1
.IL

7S-

so25-

j;fl

- -

, ^ '

* ' ' *

_JI

/-JU-JI.

1^1 ^.\A, J

d
75
50
25
0

1 U

75
5O
23
20,0

Li

1 ^
^
30-0

.
.
^

4O.O

essary to thoroughly coat the unit with the subsequent layer. It was apparent that only the base of the
Biopaque system is a newly developed material.
Both types of powder crystals are similar to or identical to the materials used in the conventional porcelain systems. The mineral rutile used in the base
paste has a very high light refraction and, therefore,
is effective in masking the metal. For this reason it is
not necessary to add zircon to the dark powder crystals since the Opaque P acts in the same way as
rutile in the base paste. The x-ray diffraction analysis
proves that there are giassy phases in both types of
powder crystals in addition to several crystalline
components. Therefore, instead of calling those
materials "powder crystals," it would be more correct to call them "powder ceramic,"
In the clinical data, 3 out of 44 (6-8%] fixed partial dentures required reluting, Leempoel et al'
gathered data from a private practice and reported
1% of restorations lost retention during an observation period of 1 to 11-5 years, whereas Karlsson'
found loss of retention in 30 (12,6%] out of 2,38
fixed partial dentures over a period of 10 years, [n
the present investigation, it was obvious that all
loss of retention occurred on abutment teeth where
the Phosphocap system was used for the cementation procedure. The problems with this cement sys-

The International lournal of Prosthndontii

148

-I

5O,O

, ,

2 Theta

tem were already observed by Kern et al,'" who

found significantly increased marginal discrepancies when using Phosphocap as a luting system
compared to the the glass-ionomer cement system
(Maxicap, Espe], Potential problems with this material were not known at the inception of the study.
One fixed partial denture (2,3%] had a fracture
of the metal substructure. Similar results were
reported by Leempoel et al,'
During the 48-month study period, one porcelain veneer fractured (0,5%), Kerschbaum & Voss'
found 2,2% veneer fractures in 359 metal ceramic
crowns (high noble alloy) over an observation
period of 4,5 years, Coornaert et ai" obtained similar results. They examined 2,181 metal ceramic
units (high noble gold alloy] and observed 2,4% of
veneer fractures after 7 years, Moffa et a l ' evaluated the clinical performance of two base metal
alloys (a relatively high-strength, beryllium-containing nickel-chromium alloy, Verabond, and a
relatively low-strength, non-beryllium-containing
alloy. Alpha MS) with a gold-based alloy (Jelenko
"O"] with regard to veneer fractures over a 5-year
period. They reported no significant difference
between these two alloys and Alpha MS (P <
,0001), During the observation period, veneer fractures occurred in 3,4% of the restorations with

tivaluiition o New Opaque Syslem (or Resloralions

Alpha MS. Two abutment teeth had decayed surfaces (1.47(i) during the study period. This finding
is in accordance with the study of Leempoel et al'
that presented secondary caries in 1% of the abutment teeth over a period of 5 years.
The four abutment tooth fractures in this study
occurred in one patient. This patient had TM)
problems and the fractures may have occurred
because of bruxism.
Following final luting, two abutment teeth (1.4%)
required endodontic intervention through the
occlusal surface of the crown. Leempoel et al' found
similar results (1.0%) (601 abutment teeth) after an
observation period of S years, whereas Randow et
a!-' had endodontic complications over a period of
6 to 7 years in 7.4% of the abutment teeth.

laboratory technicians, especially Mr Siegbert Wilkowskr, for

the fabrication ot^ the crowns and fixed partial dentures.
References
1. Leempoel P, Eschen S, de Haan A, vari't Hoi M, Ar evaluation of crowns and bridges in a general dental practice, J
Oral Rehabil 19B5;13.515-528.
2. Karlsson S. A clinical evaluation of fixed bridges, 10 yeais
following insertion. I Oral Rehabil 1966:13:423-432.
3- Kerschbaum TH, Caa M. Longitudinale Analyse von festsitzendem Zahnersatz privatversicherter Patienten, Dtsch
Zahnarztl Z 1987:42:345-351.
4. Coornaert |, Adriaens P, DeBosver |. Lorig-term clinical
study of porcelain-fused-to-gold restorations. I Prosthet
Uent 1984:51:338-342.
5. Kerschbaum I h , Voss R. Cuss-und metallkeramische
Verblendkronen im Vergleich. Ergebnis einer Nachuntersuchung bei Teiiprothesentragern. Dtsch ZahnSrztl Z
977:32:200-206.
6. iVloifa ]P, lenkins WA, Ellison |A, iHamilton JC. A clinciai
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19B4;12:491-500,
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1977:137-141.
8. lochen DG, Caputo AA, Matyas |. Effect of opaque porcelain application on strength of bond to silver-palladium
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12. Krumbholz K, |anda R, Schilling W. Die Verbundfestigkeit
des Biopaque-Systems. Untersuchungen an diversen
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Schichtstarken sind Standard. Dent Labor 1990:38:373-374.
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Conclusions
This study compared the shear bond strength of a
new opaquing system with that of a conventional
opaque material and investigated the composition of
the opaque materials using scanning electron
microscopy. A clinical study evaluated units that
were veneered using the new material and two conventional opaquing systems. Within the limitations of
the study, the following conclusions may be made:
1. The shear bond strength of Biopaque and
Opaque P veneered on a palladium-based alloy
decreased significantly from baseline after storage in a corrosive environment. However, there
was no significant difference between the two
opaque systems.
2. No difference in the shear bond strength after
storage in a corrosive solution could be
detected when a high noble alloy was used as
the metal for the substructure in combination
with eitber Biopaque or Opaque P.
3. With scanning electron microscopy, specimens
exhibited a rough surface after firing of the
powder crystals. Therefore, the subsequent
layer requires thorough coating.
4. The x-ray powder diffraction analyses of
Biopaque demonstrated that only the base of
this system is a newly developed material.
5. Biopaque attained similar clinical results with
regards to technical and biologic failures as
compared to the two other traditional opaque
systems.
Acknowledgmetits
The authors greatly appreciate Dr Carlos Quiones for his
valuable advice and critical review of this manuscript and all

limber 2,1995

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