291

The Catholic Presbyterian (1879-1883) The Quarterly Register

(1886-1936) The Presbyterian Register (1937-1948) The
Presbyterian World (1949-1955) The Reformed and Presbyterian
World (1956-1970) Reformed World (1971- )

Volume 55, No 4
December 2005
ISSN 0034-3056
Editor
Odair Pedroso Mateus

Contents
Editorial ............................................................................................................................
Calvin, Calvinism and Ecumenism, Jane Dempsey Douglass .............................................
The true worship of God: social and economic themes in contemporary
Reformed confessions, Margit Ernst-Habib ......................................................................
Theology of grace and theology of prosperity, Arturo Piedra ..........................................
Reformed faith, justice and the struggle against apartheid, Dirk J. Smit ...........................
Communion and catholicity: Reformed perspectives on ecclesiology, Karel Blei ...............
Berith, covenant and covenanting, Lukas Vischer ...........................................................

Reformed World is published quarterly by the

World Alliance of Reformed Churches
150, route de Ferney, PO Box 2100, 1211 Geneva 2, Switzerland
www.warc.ch

President

Rev. Dr Clifton Kirkpatrick

Vice-Presidents

Mr. Helis H. Barraza Daz, Rev. Dr Henriette Hutabarat-Lebang,

Rev. Dr Gottfried W. Locher, Mrs. Marcelle Orange-Mafi,
Rev. Dr Ofelia Ortega, Rev. Prof. Lilia Rafalimanana

Geneva Secretariat

Rev. Patricia Sheerattan-Bisnauth - Church Renewal, Justice and Partnership

Ms. Jet den Hollander - WARC Mission Project
Mrs. Maureen OBrien - Finances
Mr. John Asling - Communications
Rev. Dr Seong-Won Park - Covenanting for Justice
Rev. Dr Odair Pedroso Mateus - Theology and Ecumenical Engagement

Copyright by the World Alliance of Reformed Churches, Geneva. Except where otherwise stated,
the writers of articles are alone responsible for the opinions expressed.
No article may be reproduced in whole or in part without permission.

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355
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Editorial

Calvin

John Calvins contribution to Christian witness in the economic and

social spheres was the theme of an international consultation held in Geneva,

November 2004. That consultation, which marked the publication in English of Andr
Bilers Calvins Economic and Social Thought, called upon the Reformed family to
take the opportunity of the 2009 jubilee to rediscover Calvin beyond the tenacious
stereotypes of Calvin.

Reformed World published the statement adopted at that consultation in its

March 2005 issue. It now publishes four articles prepared for that occasion. Jane Douglass
shows the continuity between the ecumenical impulses in Calvins life and thought
and the ecumenical work accomplished by WARC. Margit Ernst looks at how
contemporary Reformed confessions relate Christian faith and issues of social and
economic relevance. Dirk Smit helps us discern the universal significance and value of
the Reformed resistance to apartheid in South Africa. Lukas Vischer reflects on
covenant and covenanting in the Scriptures and in current church usage.

Communion

The WARC Executive Committee has recently restated the WARC

vision in the following terms: We are the World Alliance of Reformed Churches
consisting of Reformed, Congregational, Presbyterian, Waldensian, United and Uniting
churches. We are called to be a communion of churches joined together in Christ, to
promote the renewal and the unity of the church, and to participate in Gods
transformation of the world. The Dutch Reformed theologian Karel Blei provides a
brief overview of the Reformed understanding of communion, the central element in
the new WARC vision statement.

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Prosperity

This issue of Reformed World will reach its readers in all continents

by the time the World Council of Churches will be celebrating its ninth assembly in
Porto Alegre, Brazil, under the prayer theme God, in your grace, transform the world.
One of the merits of Arturo Piedras article is to reflect on grace out of a changing
religious situation in which evangelical popular religiosity is increasingly marked by
what is generally known as prosperity theology.

Odair Pedroso Mateus

The World Alliance of Reformed Churches and

the family of the late Georges Lombard,
with the support of the
Lombard Odier Darier Hentsch Bank, Geneva

. . . . . . . . . . announce

The Lombard Prize 2006

US$ 1,000
for the best essay on

Water, source of life:

socio-economic, theological
and interreligious perspectives
open to
young students preparing for the Christian ministry in
WARC related theological schools or
young pastors under 35 serving in one of the WARC
member churches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

For the conditions of submission please see

www.warc.ch
294

VOLUME 55(4), DECEMBER, 2005

Calvin, Calvinism and Ecumenism

Jane Dempsey Douglass

Jane Douglass walks the reader through some of the main ecumenical impulses
in Calvins work and life. She then goes on to demonstrate how the World Alliance
of Reformed Churches, in its self-understanding, programmes, and public stands
seeks to honour the ecumenical dimension of the Calvinian legacy. An emerita
professor of historical theology at Princeton Theological Seminary (USA), she was
the President of the World Alliance of Reformed Churches (1990-1997). She is the
author of Women, Freedom and Calvin (Philadelphia, Westminster Press, 1985),
among other books and essays on Calvinism and ecumenism.

Placing Calvin and Calvinism in

out of the Faith and Order movement, but

ecumenical perspective in the context of

the International Consultation on the

also out of the missionary movement and

the Life and Work movement. Today we are

Impact of Calvins Economic and Social

Thought on Reformed Witness presents a

deeply conscious of the fact that the church

has been and still is divided not only by

challenge, but a welcome challenge.

On the one hand, we can say that it is

classical theological disagreements or

questions of governance, but also by different

not common for ecumenical discussions of

Calvin to focus on Calvins economic and

visions of how the gospel relates to the social

order and how the church relates to the

social thought. Far more common are

discussions of Calvins christology, his

state, by differences of culture, by racial

segregation, by different attitudes towards

teaching on the Lords Supper or his

doctrine of the church. Yet each of these

womens roles, and by economic and class

differences.

topics in Calvins writings has a social

dimension which has not been widely

John Calvin himself is probably not

thought of as an ecumenical figure by

explored in ecumenical conversation and

which deserves attention.

modern people in the pews. His popular

reputation as a cold and divisive figure has

On the other hand, it should not be

strange to look for an ecumenical perspective

been shaped by his association with

Servetus death in Geneva, by his adamant

in this consultation if we remember that

the ecumenical movement grew not only

opposition to many aspects of Catholic

teaching, and his often severe criticism of
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the so-called spiritualists and of those who

modern ecumenical movement, believing

rejected infant baptism.

Calvins role must be seen in the

that Calvins theology supported their work.

This lecture will identify elements of

sixteenth-century context where state

toleration of religious dissent was

Calvins own thought and work which laid a

foundation for Calvinist engagement in

exceptional and where the various lively

streams of reforming activity within the

ecumenical work. Then it will suggest a few

of the ways in which Calvins influence may

church were often in conflict. Calvin

participated in that conflict, setting

be still visible in the modern ecumenical

movement and in the worldwide church

boundaries in consultation with other church

leaders to what he considered the proper

today.
First, however, a working definition of

understanding of the Christian faith. The

doctrine of the Trinity and the baptism of

ecumenism as it will be used here is in

order. In a general sense, ecumenism has

infants with all that meant for the

Christian society fell within those

been understood as a movement, inspired

by the Holy Spirit, in search of renewal and

boundaries.
Yet Calvin also resisted boundaries.

visible Christian unity. Evidence of such

movements can be found in many periods

William Bouwsma in his portrait of John

Calvin as a sixteenth-century person has

of church history, including the sixteenth

century.

helpfully analysed Calvins particular form

of sixteenth-century anxiety. He says that

Calvin believed that he was engaged

in such a movement. He had been caught

Calvin experienced two diametrically

opposite sorts of anxiety: the anxiety of the

up as a young man in reforming circles

within the Catholic Church in France

void [the abyss] and the anxiety of

constriction [the labyrinth], of nothing at all

where Renaissance scholarship was

encouraging the reading of the Bible in

and too much, of freedom and oppression.1

And so he constructed boundary systems to

the original languages, where Pauls

teaching about salvation by faith was very

recover his sense of direction and, on the

other hand, also tried to relieve the

popular, where a strong sense of moral

responsibility was leading to calls for

pressures with which such human

constructions constrained him.

reform of the church and of society. It is

not easy to see precisely when Calvin

So Calvin pressed against boundaries in

many ways. Historians and theologians know

moved theologically from Catholic

reformer to Protestant reformer. But

that Calvin had a broad and catholic

understanding of the one church of Jesus

Calvins attacks on the Catholic Church

must be placed in this context. He

Christ. Many heirs to his thought have been

active leaders and participants in the

understood the Holy Spirit to be at work

making the Church new, healing it of its

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infirmities, and he saw it as his task to

which Geneva became during Calvins years

participate in that reforming work.

Modern ecumenism, with its roots in the

as pastor. 5) Calvins ministry to the diaspora

of Calvinist churches all over Europe and to

late nineteenth and early twentieth

centuries, has grown out of the experience

religious refugees. 6) Calvins emphasis on

the Christian life as stewardship, service to

of Christians of many ecclesiastical

traditions and many nations working

the neighbour, mutual responsibility, marked

by obedience to Gods command for justice.

together as individuals and as churches to

witness to Christian unity in various ways:

None of these elements is unique to Calvin

in the sixteenth-century Reformation, except

in the global mission of the church; in the

attempt to reconcile different traditions

perhaps his sense of the scope of his ministry

to the diaspora and to the religious refugees.

views of doctrine, ministry and sacraments

in order to bring about full communion or

Yet the way in which the elements come

together has given a special character to

visible church unity; and also in the effort to

witness together to Gods justice in the world

Calvins ministry and has had a profound

influence on the subsequent Reformed

through daily work with a sense of Christian

vocation, and through the transformation

tradition, encouraging its engagement in the

ecumenical movement. Let us take up these

of social institutions to protect the dignity

of humanity and the health of the creation

elements one by one for consideration.

Calvins catholic view of the church

so that Christs reign of peace and justice

can be made more visible in the world. This,

Calvin was insistent that there is only one

church of Jesus Christ spread throughout

then, is the lens through which we will

attempt to see Calvin and Calvinism in

the whole earth. The church is catholic or

universal because all Christians are united

ecumenical context.

in the one body of Christ, which cannot be

sundered. Calvin followed Luther in noting

Foundations of ecumenism in
Calvins thought and work
Six elements of Calvins life and thought,
all shaped by his way of reading the Bible,
seem particularly relevant to this task. l)
Calvins catholic view of the church, together
with his belief that the true church can be
found under many forms of church order. 2)
His struggle against the idols. 3) His
reaching out to and engagement with some
churches of other traditions. 4) The
multinational and multicultural community

as the marks of the true church only two:

the Word of God purely preached and heard
and the sacraments administered according
to Christs institution. Where these can be
seen, there is surely a church of God. This
formulation is, of course, a protest against
the theology of the Roman Catholic Church
which would identify the true church
differently. It functions, however, to permit
a Christian to find the church of Jesus Christ
under many forms or structures.
There is Christian freedom to exercise
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human governance in the realm of decorum

and more just structures for church and

and order in the churchs life. In this realm

the church can accommodate itself to many

society. He did not understand that he had

left the church or created a new church but

cultures and can change as circumstances

and the needs of the church require. For

rather that he was helping to restore the

one true church of Jesus Christ of all times

example, though Calvin finds his presbyterial

order for the Genevan church consonant

and places.
Calvin emphasized the powerful bonds

with Scripture, he does not in principle

exclude the use of the episcopal office. The

of love created by membership in the body

of Christ. Especially in the context of the

office of bishop should, however, be

understood to be a pragmatic human

Lords Supper, he taught that one cannot

injure or offend any member of Christs body

creation to meet the needs of the times

and must be rightly used, as he thought it

without injuring and offending Christ

himself. He understood that Christian unity

sometimes was in the early church. Calvin

repeatedly points out that concepts of

requires mutual accountability and mutual

admonition discipline.

hierarchy and lordship of bishops over

presbyters are inappropriate in the

Calvin frequently described the church

as the church of the whole world, often using

governance of the church and contrary to

the Holy Spirits teaching (Institutes IV.4.1-

imagery from the Hebrew Bible of the reign

of God where people of all nations will come

4).
On the other hand, where one finds a

to worship on the holy mountain or of the

New Testament Pentecost experience. It

church bearing these two marks, the Word

of God purely preached and heard and the

seems that this was more a biblical and

eschatological vision than one rooted in any

sacraments administered according to

Christs institution, one should not forsake

practical strategy for world mission. Calvin

ended his sermons with a call to prayer

it or refuse to share in its worship, even if it

has some flaws. Calvin understood the depth

drawn out of the particular concerns of the

sermon. But then quite regularly the

of human sin, and he knew the church was

always sinful as well as holy.

sermon text also refers to a set concluding

prayer, too familiar to warrant repetition in

Calvin understood the reforming

movement in which he was engaged to be

full: May he grant this grace not only to us,

but also to all peoples and nations of the

evidence of the Holy Spirits renewing work

in his day, calling the church away from

earth, etc.2
Calvins struggle against the idols

superstition and oppressive human laws to

a new faithfulness to the Scriptures as Gods

contrast to this reaching out in unity,

Calvins struggle against the idols set him

word to the church, to a proper way of

understanding the churchs tradition, to new

against some other Christians. His struggle

is grounded in his reading of the first two

298

In

commandments of the Decalogue. The first

reassuring him that Calvins people are not

is the command to have no other gods. Calvin

believed that sinful humanity is constantly

revolutionaries, and that Book IV is full of

respect for government. Yet the final

creating other gods than the God of

Abraham and of Jesus Christ and giving them

climactic chapter of the Institutes proclaims

that obedience to God may require

the worship due to God alone. The

commandment not to make any graven

disobedience to rulers. This steely

monotheism in the tradition of Calvin has

images or worship them had for centuries

in the West been subsumed under the first

led to many confrontations between church

and state.

commandment, and Luther followed this

practice. Calvin argued that some in the

Engagement with churches of other

traditions Calvin reached out to leaders

early church separated the prohibition of

graven images as the second

of quite different Protestant groups,

searching for common ground. Perhaps he

commandment, and he much preferred to

do so. This, of course, gave it greater

had been influenced during his years in

Strasbourg by the enthusiasm of Martin

prominence.
Some early Reformers before Calvins day

Bucer for greater Christian unity. For

example, Calvin corresponded with Heinrich

had used the justification of idol-smashing

to destroy church art. Considerable

Bullinger, leader of the church in Zurich,

and even went to Zurich with his former

cleansing of churches in Geneva preceded

Calvins arrival. Nonetheless Calvins

colleague, William Farel, then pastor in

Neuchtel, to negotiate the Consensus of

emphasis on the spiritual nature of worship

led him to encourage the simplicity of

Zurich of 1549 on the Lords Supper. This

agreement, close to Calvins writing on the

worship spaces without visual distraction,

advice which many Calvinist churches,

Lords Supper, brought together the church

of Geneva with the churches of French- and

though by no means all,3 reflected till recent

years. Lutherans and many Anglicans could

German-speaking Switzerland in an
understanding of the Lords Supper, whereas

not accept this teaching.

What is more important for our purposes

they had previously been separated. It was

important to Calvin that there be

is Calvins emphasis on undefiled loyalty to

the one God, turning away from the

intercommunion among the Reformation

churches, that differences in opinion should

superstitions which sinful minds create and

from clinging to lesser goods than God.

not break the fellowship.

Unfortunately this agreement probably

Worshipping God alone may require

disobeying rulers who command what God

worsened relationships with the Lutherans.

There had been earlier disappointments.

forbids. Note that the Institutes begin with

a preface to King Francis I of France,

Calvin had written Luther warmly in 1545,

sending two treatises for his comment, along
299

with a letter to Philip Melanchthon, with

by. 4 To Parker in 1561 he suggested

whom he was acquainted. But Melanchthon

intercepted the letter for Luther as

renewing Cranmers earlier proposal for a

general meeting. There was interest but no

inopportune.
During Calvins sojourn in Strasbourg, he

consequent action.
Ties also developed between Geneva and

had been sent in 1541 among the citys

officially Lutheran representatives to the

two reforming movements which had

predated the Lutheran reformation.

colloquy at Regensburg with representatives

of the Roman Catholic Church. Whereas his

Relationships between the Reformed

movement and the Waldensians had been

more senior colleagues, Bucer and

Melanchthon, drafted formulas in hopes of

initiated by emissaries to Farel in 1530,

before Calvin came to Geneva. The

agreement with the Catholics, Calvin was

more critical of their ambiguity. He also

Waldensian movement began as a twelfthcentury reforming movement with some

criticized papal substitution of this colloquy

for the free and universal council that had

parallels to the early Franciscans, but the

Waldensians were declared heretics. Many

been so long anticipated.

Calvins wide correspondence included

fled to the mountains of Northern Italy to

survive the persecution. Calvin supported

the Anglicans, such as Archbishop Thomas

Cranmer and Archbishop Matthew Parker,

the increasingly close relations with the

Waldensians, sent pastors to them, and saw

and William Cecil, Queen Elizabeths chief

secretary of state. To Cranmer, who had

them increasingly identify themselves with

Reformed faith and church order. He worked

proposed a gathering of Protestant church

leaders to express their common Christian

to muster political support for them when

there was a massacre of Waldensians by

teaching, Calvin replied in 1552 that he

would cross even ten seas to further the

Francis I in 1545. During his Strasbourg

years, Calvin became acquainted with

unity of the church. He thought such a

general meeting to confess their common

leaders of the Czech Brethren, followers of

Jan Hus.

mind on the doctrine of holiness would be

the most suitable remedy for the disordered

Geneva during Calvins years:

multinational and multicultural
With

condition of the church. He suggested that

a serious and properly adjusted agreement

the Reformation, Geneva became a

remarkably international city. Refugees

between men of learning upon the rule of

Scripture would help churches otherwise

poured in, mostly from France, but also from

many other countries in western, central,

divided to unite. I think it right for me at

whatever cost of toil and trouble, to seek to

and northern Europe and from Italy. This

audience knows well the story of the citys

obtain this object. But I hope my own

insignificance will cause me to be passed

remarkably creative efforts to provide for the

refugees with limited resources, and also

300

the significance of the foundation of the

in Geneva. When he returned to Scotland

Academy of Geneva, precursor of the

University. It was established by Calvin in

in 1559, he organized a Presbyterian church

much influenced by Genevas experience.

1559 to supplement the instruction at the

collge with an advanced programme of

What did these Reformed churches take

from Geneva? Calvins theology, the Genevan

study in theology (taught by Beza and Calvin),

Greek, Hebrew and philosophy. The

liturgy in some cases, often the Genevan

Psalter frequently translated into other

Academy was intended to draw students

from all over Christendom, and indeed nearly

languages while retaining the special

Genevan Psalm tunes. Reformed churches

all the students in Calvins day came from

other countries. The Academy illustrates the

usually adopted Genevas pattern of

corporate ministry by pastors, elders,

strong international focus of Calvins

reforming programme, not just for Geneva

deacons, and doctors or teachers, though

often the doctoral office was omitted.

but for the church at large.

Heiko Oberman emphasizes that for

There was also the sense that the

churches shared a theological tradition,

Calvin, a refugee himself, and undoubtedly

for others, the refugee experience had a

despite different forms of expression. It was

customary for each of the national Reformed

theological impact. Calvin identified with the

stories in the Hebrew Scriptures of the exile

churches to have its own confession of faith,

a Reformed statement of a common

of the Jews and their persecution. He

understood in the light of widespread

Christian faith, but set in the particular

context of that churchs life. As evidence of

Christian experience of exile and

persecution that traditional claims that the

the conviction that they shared a common

faith, Theodore Beza helped organize a

suffering of the Jews through the ages was

evidence of their guilt and punishment could

project to create a Harmony of the

Confessions of Faith, published in Geneva

no longer be accepted. This insight led

Calvin and Calvinists to important new ways

in 1581, well after Calvins death.

In a preface to the catechism that Calvin

of thinking about Jewish-Christian

relationships.

prepared for the church in Geneva in 1545,

Calvin wrote to the pastors in East Friesland,

Calvins ministry to the Protestant

diaspora and refugees Calvin ministered

expressing the wish that there could be a

common catechism for all churches. He

from Geneva through his writings and

correspondence to Reformed churches

accepted that such a common catechism

was not likely. Nonetheless he urged that

across Europe. Some new churches

stemmed from refugee experience in

catechists take extreme care in their

teaching that even with variety, people will

Geneva. For example, John Knox had served

an English-speaking refugee congregation

all be directed to the one Christ whose truth

will allow us to grow together into one body.
301

To teach rashly and encourage dissension

law which is critical to Calvinist ethics, but

would be to profane baptism, which ought

to direct us to a common faith. Calvin said

which has been a cause of considerable

discomfort for Lutherans and some other

he had written in Latin, still used then as a

universal language, so that in a time of

ecumenical partners over the centuries. The

law teaches not only to worship God alone

confusion and division of Christendom,

there could be public testimonies of faith

but also to respect and serve the neighbour.

Calvin understood that every Christian is

enabling churches to recognize one another

and find mutual confirmation and holy

called to a vocation in the world where that

person could serve the neighbour. Worldly

fellowship. He believed catechisms are one

of the best means of sharing common faith,

possessions are a gift of God to be used in

stewardship for the needs of ones own

so he published the catechism of Geneva

for others also to use. We see here both

family but also of others in need. One can

in Christian freedom enjoy the beauty of

Calvins profound concern about common

teaching of one faith and also his awareness

creation and the taste of good food and wine

as gifts of God, but one must live in such a

that it will necessarily be expressed in

different ways in different churches.

way that all Gods people can also enjoy the

goodness of creation. This requires a simple

As part of Genevas international mission

to reform the church and renew the

lifestyle and sharing with the neighbour. The

only limit to our obligation to share is the

preaching of the gospel, the Company of

Pastors regularly responded to requests to

limit of our resources.

Calvin loved the Hebrew prophets, and

send pastors to serve other Reformed

churches, especially in France. One small

he thundered down upon the congregation

about those who exploit the poor, fail to pay

mission was even sent to Brazil, but it was

short lived and unsuccessful.

a living wage, or perform shoddy work. Calvin

lived with a biblical vision of the reign of

Calvins emphasis on service and justice

Though Calvin was as committed as Luther

God as a reign of love, peace, and justice.

The churchs task is to make that reign of

to the doctrine of justification by the grace

of Jesus Christ alone, nonetheless he

God increasingly more visible to the world.

And so Christians must reform not only

emphasized the importance of a disciplined

Christian life. One who has been saved by

church institutions but also society so that

justice will reign. The themes of Calvins

grace will, Calvin thought, out of gratitude,

desire to live in accordance with the will of

ethical teaching regarding social and

economic issues are meticulously laid out

God. How can one know that will? By turning

to the law, no longer out of fear but as a free

in Pastor Andr Bilers book, La Pense

conomique et sociale de Calvin, whose long-

person, out of gratitude.

This is the so-called third use of the

awaited translation into English we are here

to celebrate.5

302

As much as Calvin stressed the solidarity

of the world. So a process of outreach began,

of Christians within the body of Christ and

their need to serve one another, he also

resulting in the formation in 1875 of the

Alliance of the Reformed Churches

stressed the solidarity of all humanity made

in the image of God. Therefore any human

throughout the World holding the

Presbyterian System, the first of the world

being in need, however sinful or apparently

unworthy of help, lays an ethical claim upon

Protestant bodies. By the first meeting of

the General Council in 1877 in Edinburgh,

Christians to use whatever resources they

have to meet that need, because they share

there were 49 member churches from

Europe, USA, South Africa, Australia, New

the image of God and a common humanity.

Having explored these six elements of

Zealand, Ceylon, and the New Hebrides.

Contrary to many historians assumptions,

Calvins thought which help to create a

foundation for Calvins engagement in

the Alliance was not narrowly confessional

in its orientation. Christian unity was a

ecumenism, we turn now to explore how

those elements can be seen playing a role

primary concern7. They discussed whether

there should be a new confession presenting

in the later ecumenical history of the church.

a consensus of the Reformed confessions,

but it was not produced. The new journal of

The Reformed Alliance and the

modern ecumenical movement6
The ecumenical thrust in the foundation
and history of the Presbyterian Alliance
First we should reflect on the coming
together of the Reformed family in the
nineteenth century. Despite all that has
been said about the interconnection of the
Reformed churches in the sixteenth century,
by the mid-nineteenth century those
churches had drifted apart, spread to
European colonies in the New World and in
the countries of the South, and they did not
know one another well.
Still, some Scottish, Irish, and American
church leaders realized that this separation
was not normal for the Reformed family.
Part of the motivation for change was that
some of the churches were discovering each
other on the mission field on the other side

the Alliance was called The Catholic

Presbyterian.
The Alliance in its early years was
concerned about the relation between
mission and unity. It urged that the new
churches being planted, for example in Asia
and Africa in areas where there had been
no prior Christian community, should not
perpetuate the divisions of Europes
churches, that new churches should be
rooted in the indigenous cultures of the
nations where they will live, and that they
should be independent as quickly as possible
and join the Alliance in their own right.
These exhortations seem to reflect more
the Reformed heritage we have been
observing than the accepted missionary
strategy of the day.
Work for justice, human rights, and
religious freedom was also one of the themes
303

of the early years of the Alliance and has

We hear in this message the themes of

continued to be. America was denounced

for its treatment of its indigenous people,

Calvins struggle against the idols. Yet there

is also an unmistakable reappropriation of

slavery was condemned, and the rights of

workers in the newly industrialized countries

the sixteenth-century Reformed tradition

that the common faith must be expressed

were supported. Pastoral visits were made

to small evangelical groups in the Middle

anew in the particular context in which the

church is living. Barth and his colleagues

East and Russia which were experiencing

religious persecution.

knew this was a crisis which called for

declaring the faith. It is interesting that this

Early in the twentieth century, a powerful

theology came to dominate the Protestant

Declaration of Barmen, coming out of an

ecumenical confessing church movement

world, that of Karl Barth, a Swiss Reformed

theologian. Barth was very conscious of his

and not claiming to be a confession, has

been received as an official confession in

roots in the Reformation and his debt to

Calvin and also to Luther. In this context it

some Reformed churches.

Reformed people, including the

is appropriate to call attention to his role in

the German Confessing Church movement,

leadership of the Alliance, were deeply

involved in the movements leading up to

resisting the pressures of the government

to transform the church and its doctrine in

the formation of the World Council of

Churches (WCC) just after World War II. The

accommodation to Nazi teaching.

Participants came from Reformed, Lutheran,

Princeton General Council of the Alliance

in 1954 declared: We believe that the deep

and United churches.

The themes of the Theological

stirring among the churches and Christian

groups to surmount the barriers and to

Declaration of Barmen8 issuing from this

movement are Reformation themes: that

express the unity of the community of

believers in accordance with the mind and

the Christ revealed in Scripture is the one

Word of God to be trusted and obeyed; the

will of Jesus Christ, the Head of the Church...

is of God, not men, a sign of the Holy Spirit.9

insistence that Christ is lord of every area of

life, and there can be no other lords; that

Among the distinguished Reformed

leaders in the young WCC were the first

Christ acts as Lord in the church, which

belongs only to Christ, so the gospel cannot

general secretary, Dr. Willem Visser t Hooft;

Prof. Hendrik Kraemer, first director of the

be accommodated to politics and ideology;

that church offices are for service in the

Ecumenical Institute at the Chteau de

Bossey; and Madeleine Barot, secretary

community, not for domination; that the

state cannot become the single and

general and long-term leader of the French

CIMADE and first head of the WCC

totalitarian order of human life, nor can

the church become an organ of the state.

Department of Cooperation between Men

and Women in Church and Society.

304

Kraemer and Barot were laypeople.

Church of South India unites formerly

The Alliance decided to continue its role

in gathering the Reformed family and

Reformed congregations with others in a

structure which possesses the historic

working for its greater unity with the

understanding that it would fulfil as many

episcopate through its Anglican heritage.

Another type of united church is the

functions as possible through the WCC, such

as emergency relief services and interfaith

Evangelical Church of the River Plate in

Argentina, now a member both of the

studies, and that it would bring to the WCC

a Reformed theological witness in the further

Alliance and of the Lutheran World

Federation. United churches in Germany

search for wider Christian unity.

In 1970 in Nairobi the Alliance merged

and the Netherlands also come from

Lutheran and Reformed roots. All these

with the International Congregational

Council (founded in 1891) to become the

united churches provide an ecumenical

witness in the midst of the Reformed

World Alliance of Reformed Churches. Today

it has over 200 Presbyterian, Reformed,

fellowship. Most member churches, except

those too small to qualify, are also members

Congregational, and united member

churches in more than 100 countries on

of the WCC and other ecumenical bodies.

Division and reconciliation in the

every inhabited continent. About threefourths of these churches are located in the

Reformed family Given this tradition of

concern for Christian unity, it remains

countries of the South: Asia, Africa and

Latin America. Among them are churches

puzzling that movements to unite different

Reformed denominations within the same

of the Czech Brethren and the Waldensians,

reforming churches before Luther which

country are so uncommon. In recent years

the Mission in Unity project of the John Knox

have become part of the Reformed family.

About thirty WARC member churches are

International Reformed Center and WARC

has attempted to nurture greater unity

united churches coming from many

continents, and their membership is

among churches of the Reformed family

within a country.

explicitly welcomed. The Asian united

churches, such as the Church of South India

It must be said that some heirs of Calvins

tradition have placed more emphasis on

and the United Church of Christ in the

Philippines, seem to be to some extent the

rigorously pure doctrine and have often split

off to form new churches, holding back from

fruit of the Reformed concern not to

perpetuate the old divisions of Europe in

ecumenical engagement. They interpret

Calvins marks of the church more narrowly.

new churches. Bringing together people

from several Protestant traditions, they

There are cases where a young Reformed

church has been splintered by successive

continue to honour their Reformed roots

through membership in the Alliance. The

waves of ever more conservative Reformed

missionaries from abroad. A recent
305

handbook of Reformed churches worldwide

The confession is on the one hand a

resulting from an exhaustive search

organized by the John Knox International

biblical and gracious statement of the heart

of Christian and Reformed theology, and on

Reformed Center identifies many more

Reformed churches than are members of

the other hand a devastating indictment

and repudiation of the situation in South

the Alliance, often quite isolated.

One situation where church division was

Africas racially segregated churches,

including Reformed churches. the Church

proper, I believe, was the struggle over

apartheid in South Africa. It was tragic that

as the possession of God must stand where

He stands, namely against injustice and with

descendants of Calvin played a large role in

creating the apartheid system that the state

the wronged; that in following Christ the

Church must witness against all the powerful

then enforced. The wider Reformed family

took the position that theological

and privileged who selfishly seek their own

interests and thus control and harm others

justification of apartheid by two churches

so deformed the gospel that their teaching

We believe that, in obedience to Jesus Christ,

its only Head, the Church is called to

was heresy, and church fellowship was

impossible. It has taken the global Reformed

confess and to do all these things, even

though the authorities and human laws

family and a host of ecumenical partners

supporting the courageous resistance from

might forbid them and punishment and

suffering be the consequence. Jesus is

within the Dutch Reformed family in South

Africa to bring about repudiation of the

Lord.10 As in the Declaration of Barmen,

which it echoes, we see the struggle

heresy and restored fellowship.

We should take note of the Belhar

against the idols. We also see a passion

for social justice as part of Christian

Confession of the Dutch Reformed Mission

Church in South Africa, adopted a few

obedience and witness. Once again the

common faith has been reconfessed at a

months after the WARC 1982 declaration of

status confessionis. Here one finds powerful

moment of crisis in the very particular

situation in which that church was living.

restatement in that painful situation of

Calvins teaching on the unity of the church,

Today the Dutch Reformed Mission

Church has merged with the former black

on the lordship of Christ as the only head of

the church, on the solidarity of all humanity

Dutch Reformed Church of Africa to form

an interracial Uniting Reformed Church

in one human nature, on the reconciliation,

love, and mutual responsibility which mark

in Southern Africa, with the Belhar

Confession among its confessional

the true churchs life, on the freedom for

varieties of gifts and languages and cultures

standards, and the new church has invited

the white Dutch Reformed Church to join

to enrich the one visible people of God, and

the call for justice to roll down like waters.

them. Unification discussions continue,

but they are not easy.

306

The usefulness of Calvins theology

in bilateral dialogues

distance on the grounds of their Calvinist

The significance of Calvins theology for

theology. The examples cited above suggest

that if the dialogue between the World

todays ecumenical movement has been

recognized in the Reformed bilateral

Alliance and the Roman Catholic Church is

successful in helping to resolve long-standing

dialogues. Since the 1960s the Alliance has

been engaged in bilateral dialogues with all

theological differences between us, this may

also be of service to other Christians not

the world Christian bodies and also some

traditions, like the Pentecostal one, which

presently part of the usual ecumenical

circles. This dialogue may serve as a

have no organized world bodies. Calvin would

probably be pleased at the progress already

bridge...11
Cardinal Cassidys suggestion reminds us

made in Lutheran-Reformed dialogue, with

full communion now established in Europe,

that there are followers of Calvin who

understand him differently than do the

North America, and some other localities,

and regular, strong cooperation between the

members of the Alliance. These Calvinists

are in several denominations: some

LWF and WARC at the world level.

Another of the long-standing dialogue

Reformed churches, some Baptist churches,

and some churches loosely described as

partners has been the Pontifical Council for

Promoting Christian Unity, and new

non-denominational. His suggestion also

underscores the serious relevance of

opportunities for joint Catholic-Reformed

cooperation have emerged. At a special

ongoing study of the theology of John Calvin

today both within the circle of those who

Catholic-Reformed conference held at

Princeton Theological Seminary in 1996,

claim his influence and with our ecumenical

partners.

Edward Idris Cardinal Cassidy, then

responsible for that council for Christian

Other Catholics have also been calling

for a greater presence of Calvins voice in

unity, spoke of challenges ahead, one of

which is broadening the circle of the

ecumenical dialogue. George Tavard, writing

in 2000, finds the past Catholic-Reformed

ecumenical movement to make it more

comprehensive and inclusive. He suggested:

dialogues disappointing in results, partly

because of Calvins absence from the

...the dialogue between the World Alliance

of Reformed Churches and the Catholic

pointed to statements which had been

made by evangelicals outside the Alliance

debates. He judges the unofficial dialogue

since 1937 between French-speaking
Catholic, Reformed, and Lutheran pastors
known as the Groupe des Dombes far more
penetrating and substantive, where Calvins
voice is detectable. Their documents often

and outside the mainstream of the

ecumenical movement who defend their

take the form of an invitation to conversion,

a form close to the heart of Calvins own

Church may have significance far beyond

the constituencies they represent. He then

307

theology. Tavard has been teaching and

the Reformed contributions to an ongoing

writing about Calvin.12

The Franciscan theologian, Dennis

ecumenical discussion of justification. The

World Alliance declined simply to sign the

Tamburello, author of the book, Union with

Christ: John Calvin and the Mysticism of St.

Joint Declaration on the Doctrine of

Justification by the Catholics and Lutherans

Bernard, has published a small article

entitled Christ at the Center: The Legacy

but agreed to participate in a broader further

conversation which also includes the

of the Reformed Tradition. He speaks

warmly of how he has come to appreciate

Methodists. The Reformed were particularly

concerned about the connection between

many aspects of Calvins thought, especially

his emphasis on the centrality of Christ, his

justification and justice. One of the Reformed

theologians participating is Anna Case-

sacramental theology including a doctrine

of the real presence and a conviction that

Winters, who comments:

the Eucharist is the bond of love connecting

the sacraments to social justice , his
pervasive doctrine of the Holy Spirit, and
his teaching that Christians express their
gratitude to God by loving their neighbours.
He thinks Calvins important teaching on
the Christians union with Christ has not
been fully appreciated by the Reformed
tradition, and that neglect has led to
misrepresentation of Calvins thought and
to Reformed dogmatism. He comments on
how difficult it is to persuade those who do
not read Calvin that he is not a rigid
dogmatician but a Christian of deep
spirituality and a biblical theologian. The
old caricature of Calvin dies hard, he says.
But Tamburello believes that Calvins
articulation of the twofold grace of Christ in
human beings is one of the most significant
contributions of Reformed theology to the
church. He refers particularly to Institutes
III.16.1 as a fine balancing of justification
and sanctification.13
This teaching of Calvin is in fact one of
308

The place where the issue of justice

has arisen most clearly in the recent
ecumenical dialogues that I have been
privileged to be part of is in the discussion
of the Joint Declaration on the Doctrine
of Justification. The Roman CatholicLutheran-Methodist-Reformed
conversation a quadrilateral, if you
will! found the Reformed voices asking
about the connection between justice
and justification. Reformed folk generally
celebrated and affirmed the doctrinal
agreement achieved in the JDDJ and
pressed to ask about implications. For
me, the Reformed insistence on holding
justification and sanctification together
as a two-fold grace (Calvins duplex gratia)
is where connection naturally arises. It
seems to me that we have carefully
balanced the matter of forgiveness of sins
with that of renewal of life. The latter is
not about our works (!) but about Gods
work in us as we grow day by day, more
and more into union with Christ
(Institutes III.2.24).
This growth in grace, grounded in our
justification, issues in transformed life
individual and social. The matter can also
be connected, as Gabriel Fackre does
with our affirmation of Gods sovereignty

over all of life. Thus to be justified is to

grow into living justly. To me it seems a
logical even necessary connection. In
those same conversations Russel
Botman raised the issue of relevance.
How does an agreement on justification
make a difference? His concern was that
it may not, unless we get to the matter
of justice.14

confessing stance, covenanting together for

justice in the economy and for the earth,
declaring their faith and reinforcing these
same theological points around the Councils
theme, That all may have life in fullness
(Jn 10.10). The solidarity of the human
family and Gods special concern for the poor

United confessing in the search for

and for creation are emphasized as requiring

resistance to an unjust economic order

justice Many Reformed people have come

to believe that the severe problems of world

imposed by empire. Echoes of the Barmen

and Belhar Confessions call for faithful

economic injustice today as the result of

economic globalization, where poor nations

resistance despite the consequences. Jesus

is Lord!

of the South are experiencing lifethreatening suffering, constitute for this

Reformed initiative has thus been

encouraging much wider ecumenical

generation a confessional situation.

The General Council of the Alliance in

participation in this work for economic

justice, as it did earlier with the concern

Debrecen in 1997 called for a process of

confession where the churches would study

for the rights of non-human creation and

the programme for Justice, Peace and the

this issue to see what action they must take.

Once again we recognize the struggle against

Integrity of Creation.
I will conclude by reporting with pleasure

the idols, an insistence that no realm is

outside Gods governance, and so one

that the Accra confessing statement is

sparking much ecumenical interest in a far

cannot argue for the absolute autonomy of

the markets. Gods call for justice includes

corner of the world, that is, in California

(USA). A group of about forty grass-roots

the economic realm, as Calvin certainly

believed. The Alliance invited the Lutheran

activist leaders from many Christian

traditions, Catholic and Protestant, gathered

World Federation and the World Council of

Churches to share in this process of

in an inner-city Presbyterian church in Los

Angeles to discuss the Accra declaration

confession, and they, too, have taken up

the matter, becoming partners in this

and decided to find a way to set up

partnerships which would allow them to

ecumenical effort. The Lutheran World

Federation has recently produced its own

live out together the commitment to

economic justice exemplified by that

statement on economic justice.

The 2004 General Council of the World

document. A Faith and Order group of a

council of churches has studied the

Alliance of Reformed Churches in Accra

called for the churches now to take a

document. At a seminary in northern

California, a year-long seminar led by
309

Catholic theologian Rosemary Ruether will

that it is used emphatically. Christ cannot

be studying the declaration.

be divided. Faith cannot be rent. There are

not various baptisms, but one which is
common to all. It cannot but be our duty to
cherish holy unity which is bound by so many
ties.15

A short Calvinian conclusion

A final word from Calvin: Each time
we read the word one, let us be reminded

Notes
William J. Bouwsma, John Calvin: A Sixteenth Century Portrait (N.Y.: Oxford University
Press, 1988), p.47.
2
Lukas Vischer has brought together several helpful quotations of Calvins teaching in his
book, Pia Conspiratio: Calvin on the Unity of Christs Church, Geneva: John Knox
International Reformed Center), 2000; Lukas Vischer, Pia Conspiratio. Calvins legacy and
the divisions of Reformed churches today, www.warc.ch/dt/erl3/12.html.
3
Paul Corby Finney, ed., Seeing Beyond the Word: Visual Arts and the Calvinist Tradition
(Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 1999).
4
L. Vischer, pp.29-30.
5
Andr Biler, Calvins Economic and Social Thought. Geneva, WCC-WARC, 2005, 545pp.
(Editors note)
6
For an extensive bibliographic survey on this topic see Odair Pedroso Mateus, The World
Alliance of Reformed Churches and the Modern Ecumenical Movement A Selected,
Chronological, Annotated Bibliography, Geneva, WARC, 2005, 143pp.
7
Cf. Odair Pedroso Mateus, Towards an Alliance of Protestant Churches? The Confessional
and the Ecumenical in the WARC Constitutions (I), Reformed World, 55(1), March 2005,
pp.55-70.
8
Theological Declaration of Barmen, www.warc.ch/pc/20th/. (Editors note)
9
L. Vischer, The Ecumenical Commitment of the World Alliance of Reformed Churches,
Reformed World, vol. 38, no. 5 (1985), p.262.
10
The Belhar Confession 1982 in Preparatory Documents for the WARC Consultation in
South Africa, Geneva: World Alliance of Reformed Churches, 1993; cf. also Confession of
Belhar, www.vgksa.org.za/confessions or www.warc.ch/pc/20th/ (Editors note).
11
Edward Idris Cardinal Cassidy, Ecumenical Challenges for the Future: A Catholic
Perspective, The Princeton Seminary Bulletin, 18 (1997), pp.26-7.
12
George H. Tavard, The Starting Point of Calvins Theology (Grand Rapids: William B.
Eerdmans Publishing Co., 2000), pp.vii-viii.
13
Dennis Tamburello, O.F.M., Christ at the Center: The Legacy of the Reformed Tradition,
The Bulletin of the Institute for Reformed Theology, 4 (2004), pp.1, 3-6.
14
Letter from Anna Case-Winters to Jane Dempsey Douglass, Oct. 26, 2004.
15
Commentary on Eph 4.5 in L. Vischer, Pia conspiratio, p.13.
1

310

VOLUME 55(4), DECEMBER, 2005

The true worship of God:

social and economic themes in
contemporary
Reformed Confessions
Margit Ernst-Habib
The Reformed principle of confessing the faith in this time and place does not
prevent contemporary Reformed confessions from sharing a common concern as to
how the Christian faith is related to issues of social and economic relevance,
argues the German theologian Margit Ernst-Habib. She approaches these
contemporary faith statements from the perspective of classical theological topics.
Ernst-Habib taught Systematic Theology at Columbia Theological Seminary, Decatur
(USA). She published recently A Conversation with Twentieth-Century Confessions
in Joseph Small (ed.), Conversations with the Confessions, Louisville (USA), Geneva
Press, 2005.

Believers truly worship God by the righteousness

they maintain within their society.
Calvin, Commentary on Matthew 12.7
God is in a special way the God of the destitute,
the poor and the wronged.
Belhar Confession (1982)

Between these two quotes lies a gap of

The God Calvin had encountered in the

more than four centuries, two continents

and contexts that could hardly be more

Scriptures and experienced in his time of

persecution and exile, but also in his time

diverse. And yet, a common faith theme

spans this gap: the God described and

as a (more or less) powerful authority in

Geneva, was not a removed, neutral and

confessed here is a God who cares

particularly for those who live on the

uncaring God, but, as he emphasized over

and over again throughout his enormous

margins of society, politically and

economically.

work, a sovereign God who governs the whole

universe and the communal and private lives
311

of all human beings, who brings about a

even tenets of the Reformed faith in these

reform of the religious as well as the secular

realm.

documents is an important and exciting, yet

almost impossible task.

Because of this theo-logy Calvin

displays a strong sense of responsibility to

The characteristic principle of confessing

anew in tempore et in loco (in this time and

the world; a sense that four centuries later

is mirrored in the Belhar Confession.

this place) has not kept many, if not most of

these confessing churches, though, from

Surprisingly, to many outside and inside the

Reformed tradition for whom Calvin is

sharing at least one concern: how the

Christian faith is related to issues of social

tantamount to powerful establishment and

Calvinism just a synonym for Capitalism,1

and economic relevance. Some of those

confessional statements have even been

the theme of social, economic, and in recent

times even of ecological justice continues

written on the background of imminent

social, political or economic problems most

to be of particular relevance and importance

for Reformed churches, finding a significant

prominent among them the Theological

Declaration of Barmen (Germany, 1934) and

expression in one of the central places of

the faith and life of these churches: their

the already mentioned Belhar Confession

(South Africa, 1982).

confessions and statements of faith.

One of the characteristics of churches of

These issues could be studied in a variety

of ways, yet to me it seems that one of the

the Reformed tradition throughout the

centuries has been the fact that they are

most informative and intriguing ways to look

at the question at hand is to begin with the

never satisfied with their inherited

confessional statements or even a collection

doctrinal roots and the contexts of where

this discussion is located. Related to central

of statements. Indeed, the last century has

seen something like a revival of

theological doctrines, those parts of the

confessions are not just incidental and

confessions in many parts of the Reformed

world: there about 50 new statements

subjective add-ons; or, to use a classical

term, they are not adiaphora (things that

issued by churches of the Reformed tradition

from all over the world.2

do not make a difference) that could be

understood and implemented arbitrarily, but

These confessions differ considerably in

almost every respect. They do not share a

belong to the main corpus of the faith

Reformed Christians confess today.

common set of theological doctrines, they

use various languages and styles, they

Within contemporary confessional

statements, we find at least six different,

emphasize a wide range of themes, and they

come from churches with backgrounds as

though interrelated approaches, and one

confession may actually use several of them

diverse as one can imagine. Finding

something like a Re-form-ed identity or

within the same document. Roughly

generalizing, we see the confessions relate

312

the discussion to christological and

trinitarian arguments; to the context of the
doctrine of sin; to Christian life and
discipleship; to ecclesiology, and to the
reflection upon the world as the secular
realm of Gods reign. These are the main
sections of this article.
The last section will deal with three
rather specific issues, which cannot be
excluded from our considerations although
they are not based on one theological
doctrine: the whole Confession of Faith of
the Presbyterian-Reformed Church in Cuba;
b) the understanding of Gods preferential
love; and, finally, c) the WARC processus
confessionis and the Accra Confession.
The limited space of this article allows
for no more than a brief discussion with
only a few examples from the actual texts,
intending to provide the reader with starting
points for her or his own research into the
subject matter.

1.The christological context

Quite often, the discussion of social and
economic issues is incorporated into a
trinitarian context, but still bears a more
pronounced christocentric emphasis. The
confessions insist that we know what justice
and injustice are only in God who has
already liberated humankind in Christ from
all powers of injustice. The following two
statements from Korea and the United
States emphasize the Christian God as the
One who is active in the world, and whose
promise of the Reign of God has already
become real and revealed in Christ.

[Jesus] became a friend of the poor,

the oppressed, the sinners, the outcasts
and the estranged. He lived a life for
them, and he withstood all the evil
powers of injustice and of falsehood to
the point of death. Jesus Christ stands
at the right hand of God. He himself
sets the standards for this world and
effects history.3
Jesus involvement in the human
condition is Gods involvement. His
compassion for all kinds of people is Gods
compassion. His demand for justice,
truth, and faithfulness is Gods demand.
His willingness to suffer rejection is Gods
willingness. Jesus love for the very people
who reject him is Gods love.4
The Broederkring of the Dutch
Reformed Church (South Africa) declared on
the background of the theological heresy of
apartheid in 1979:
We believe that God reveals Himself
in his Word as the One who throughout
history in his relationship to men binds
Himself to his own justice in order to
make the world a place to live in. His lifegiving Word became man in Christ Jesus,
through whom He breaks the power of
injustice. We believe that God gathers
for Himself in this world a new people
who consist of men and women He has
liberated from oppressive powers
through Jesus Christ. As Gods property
the church must be busy standing where
God stands viz. against injustice and with
those who are denied justice.5
The sovereignty of God, one of the major
themes of classical Reformed theology and
confessions, is no longer expressed in rather
metaphysical or ontological ways. Instead,
313

Gods majesty, justice and mercy are

known as the trinitarian God through Gods

articulated in a context of Gods powerful

engagement in the world with a particular

work in the world Gods being and acting

cannot be separated. And it is the trinitarian

focus on the life and ministry of Jesus.

Where the traditional confessions kept

God who commands and equips us to

actively participate in this world and all its

silent, modern ones try to describe who Jesus

Christ is, in his time and for our time. Those

struggles for freedom and justice. The

Statement of Korean Christians (1973),

descriptions call for a newly defined imitatio

Christi (imitation of Christ) of all believers:

written by a group of both theologians and

laypeople who belong to a wide range of

the decision about Jesus identity is a

decision about the community to which one

Protestant denominations suffering in a

situation of persecution and imprisonment,

belongs.6
The Brief Statement of Faith of the

uses a trinitarian structure, and the issue of

justice figures prominently in each of the

Presbyterian Church (USA) from 1990 uses

explicit biblical language and metaphors to

three articles.

explain who Jesus Christ is and what the

Reign of God he ushered in is like. It calls
every believer, within the PCUSA and
beyond, to spell out concretely what it
means to confess Christ to be fully human,
fully God. Jesus proclaimed the reign of God:
preaching good news to the poor and release
to the captives, teaching by word and deed
and blessing the children, healing the sick
and binding up the brokenhearted, eating
with outcasts, forgiving sinners, and calling
all to repent and believe the gospel.7
It becomes clear in the course of this
confession that following Christ also means
concrete social and political action not
because of our own theological and political
agendas, but because of the revelation of
full humanity in Christ.

2.The trinitarian context

The God confessed in modern
confessions is a God who has made Godself
314

We believe that, just as Jesus then

lived with and for the oppressed, the poor
and the outcasts in Judea, so we must
now live with the oppressed, the poor
and the outcasts and share their fate.
()
We believe that God, the Lord and
Judge of history, commands us to pray for
the freedom of oppressed people and of
those who suffer innocently for their
neighbours.
We believe that the Spirit summons
us to active participation not only in the
renewal of our own personality but also
in the creation of a new society and a
new history. He is the Spirit of the
Kingdom of God who commands us to
fight for social and political
transformation.8
It is not only the life and ministry of Jesus
which inform us about the true Christian
worship and life, but the trinitarian God who
effects not only the renewal and
sanctification of individual lives but also the
recreation of history and of the universe.9

In a similar way, a document from South

know our sin, individually and communally.

Africa confesses the trinitarian God in and

for its context. The aim of A Declaration of

Many contemporary confessions emphasize

the understanding that sin is not only an

Faith for the Church in South Africa10 is to

express the response of that [Christian] faith

individual rebellion against God, but that it

always has a social and communal side, too,

to an urgent, specific and contemporary

problem in the Church and in our

and that liberation from sin also includes

those two sides. The Evangelical

society.11 But even though it is specifically

written against the ideological heresy that

Presbyterian Church in Chile confessed in

1983:

insists on the separate identity of racial

groups as a supreme value and ideal,12 it
can only be read and understood as one
voice of and for the una sancta ecclesia.
We believe in the Father, who wants
all his people to live together as brothers
and sisters in one family. We believe in
Jesus Christ the Son, who became
human, to break down every separating
barrier of race, culture or class. He
summons both the individual and
society, both the Church and the State,
to seek justice and freedom for all and
reconciliation and unity between all.
We believe in the Holy Spirit, who gives
the church power to love and serve all
people, to strive for justice and peace, to
warn the individual and the nation of
Gods judgment.13

3.The doctrine of sin

I believe that sin is a real force which

radically disrupts our relationship with
God; it manifests itself personally and
socially; it turns both our desires and our
deeds towards egoism, destruction and
death. I believe in God the Son, who
rose from the dead, triumphantly
asserting the power of the God of life
over life-negating forces of oppression
and injustice, both personal and
corporate.14
The Presbyterian Church in the Republic
of Korea phrases this understanding
comparably: Mans evil, universal and
individual, is the origin of corruption and
depravity. It manipulates the individual, and
as a social power it permeates the whole
human community and destroys Gods
creation.15

Unlike the first two approaches, the third

uses the form of a negative approach. In

The Presbyterian Church in Canada

Christ and through the power of the Holy

Spirit, we know what God does not want.

explicitly includes what liberation

theologians from Latin America and other

We know where we fall short of what we are

created for in the image of God; where we

regions have long since claimed; that is, our

sin affects every area of created life and has

have turned justice into injustice,

stewardship into exploitation, unity into
segregation and domination. In short, we

a structural or systemic component:

Because we are sinful the societies
315

we live in are sinful. There are no

exceptions: every system is flawed. We
are part of the evil of the world, of its
violence, neglect, injustice.16
With vivid words, these statements
demonstrate one common theme in
Reformed confessions: every confession of
sin is first of all a confession of our sin, the
sin of the church, and not judgment on the
sin of others. Accordingly, the Evangelical
Protestant Church of Djibouti proclaims the
mercy of God, even for those who are
responsible for the sufferings of the victims
of political oppression, economic disasters,17
or all ideological domination as well as
for the sinful individual believer: I believe

that destroys the earth and perforates the

sky. I believe in a God who sees all that
and who cries about it. But I also believe in
a God who laughs because, despite
everything, there is hope.21

4.The Christian life

Since God has already liberated us from
the power of sin, both individually and
communally, in the religious as well as in
the secular realm, the Life of Love22 can
and has to reflect this liberation, as the
Presbyterian Church in the Republic of
Korea emphatically emphasizes:

18

in the mercy of God also for me: often I

denied my brothers, deaf and blind to their
sufferings, I may have even participated in
their oppression.19
The already mentioned Brief Statement
of Faith (PCUSA) adds yet another
dimension to the confession of sin. On the
background of the global ecological crisis, it
defines the results of sin as follows: Ignoring
Gods commandments, we exploit neighbor
and nature, and threaten death to the planet
entrusted to our care. We deserve Gods
condemnation.
In a more poetic style, the Creed of Hope
20

of the Waldensian Evangelical Church of

the River Plate (1997) describes the
ecological crises as a result of human sin,
but also their hope in a compassionate God:
I believe in a God who watches the world
today attentively, who sees the dirty
water and the death of the fish, the pollution
316

The new man in the Spirit follows

the example of Christ in becoming the
friend of the weak and the fighter against
the oppressors and their oppressive evil
structures; he sacrifices himself for the
sake of the oppressed and organizes
forces who also wish to support the
oppressed. Life in the Spirit means a life
dedicated to sharing in the suffering and
resurrection of Christ.23
In our global world and economy, the
Declaration of Faith of the Presbyterian
Church in the United States urges us to
newly define who our neighbor is, and how
our lives are intertwined with those living
far away from us.
We believe Christ gives us and
demands of us lives that recognize all
people in all cultures as our neighbors
on this planet. Christ teaches us to go
beyond legal requirements in serving and
helping our neighbor, to treat our
neighbors needs as our own, to care

passionately for the others good, to share

what we have. It is part of our discipline
to live in simplicity, avoiding greed and
luxury that threaten our neighbors
survival.24

ecclesiology also displays a specific

Our Song of Hope, issued in 1974 by the

Reformed Church in America, describes the

of human life.
The Confession of 1967 is built upon the

new life of the believer, entitled Our Hope

in Daily Life.

main theme of reconciliation, which is

understood to be the heart of the gospel in

As citizens we acknowledge the

Spirits work in human government for
the welfare of the people, for justice
among the poor, for mercy towards the
prisoner, against inhuman oppression of
humanity. We give thanks for Gods
work among governments, seeking to
resolve disputes by means other than
war, placing human kindness above
national pride, replacing the curse of war
with international self-control.25
In a more general way, two documents,
one from Europe and one from Latin
America, conclude their respective
statements with a call to active social and
political discipleship:
Devoted to the values of social justice,
of peace and of tolerance, Protestants,
along with others, denounce the dangers
of idolatry and infringement of human
rights wherever it is necessary.26
It is our responsibility to identify
ourselves with all people and to serve
them; to fight against those forces which
oppress human beings and bar the way
to their full realization as children of
God.27

5.The mission of the church

Following these lines, modern Reformed

accentuation. The church is not understood

as an entity separated from the world, but
as Gods instrument for Gods reconciling
mission in and for the world and all aspects

any age.28 In this context, the ministry of

the church is understood as the ministry of
reconciliation. The United Presbyterian
Church defines four specific social and
economic problems and crises through
which God calls the church to act and that
are particularly urgent at the present
time;29 namely, racism, peace, poverty, and
family life. Regarding the issue of poverty,
the Confession of 1967 asserts:
Because Jesus identified himself with
the needy and exploited, the cause of
the worlds poor is the cause of his
disciples. The church cannot condone
poverty, whether it is the product of
unjust social structures, exploitation of
the defenseless, lack of national
resources, absence of technological
understanding, or rapid expansion of
populations. A church that is
indifferent to poverty, or evades
responsibility in economic affairs, or is
open to one social class only, or expects
gratitude for its beneficence makes a
mockery of reconciliation and offers no
acceptable worship to God.30
It is obvious, that the ministry of
reconciliation of the church cannot be
understood as some sort of churchs agenda
317

which could easily be changed, because it is

rooted in christological convictions: The life,
death, resurrection, and promised coming
of Jesus Christ has set the pattern for the
churchs mission. The church follows this
pattern in the form of its life and in the
method of its action. So to live and serve is
to confess Christ as Lord.31
This mission of the church cannot be
understood without the work of God who is
actively engaged in world and church, and
who calls and sends the church to become
part of Gods own mission. To follow this call
of God can lead a church to become a church
under the cross, to suffer all sorts of
persecution for its confession of faith.
In the midst of a collusion of several super
powers in their own country, the
Presbyterian Church in Taiwan dared to call
upon its own members to get rid of a
psychology which is concerned only with
the preservation of its own existence and a
salvation that has to do only with the
individual;32 and it claimed:
The church should become the
servant of justice and truth; the aim of
the churchs existence is to communicate
the message of Gods love, and because
of this the church must, in the spirit of
real love, get involved in the actualities
of modern society and through service
seek to change the conditions of society.
The world today is full of the fear of
injustice and war. The church cannot,
here and now, keep silence, sitting by
and watching the world sink into ruin;
besides participating in the spreading of
the gospel and leading men to repent
and believe in the Lord, it must express
318

concern for the whole nation, for society,

and for the whole of mankind.33
In general, Reformed churches
emphasize that the ministry of the church
includes caring for the individual as well as
for society, and wherever one part is missing,
the mission of the Church is defective,34
as the Plan for Union of the Joint
Commission on Church Union in New
Zealand declared in 1971.

6.The world
Even more emphatic than the classical
confessions, contemporary texts do not
make a division between a sacred and a
secular realm, on the contrary, Gods
primary concern is with the world. The
world and its history constitute the arena
of Gods concern. 35 For example, the
doctrines of reconciliation and salvation
are not limited to the discussion of
personal and individual reconciliation, but
are also discussed in a communal, even
global sense; they are rightly understood
only in the perspective of Gods completion
of history.
It does not come as a surprise, then,
that modern confession can even include
a whole section on The World as does,
for example, the Confession of the Church
of Toraja (1981). After confessing that the
world and everything that is in it is the
good creation of God,36 this documents
claims that
The life of mankind is out of balance,
and this is especially clear in the
distinction and difference of socio-

economic position, which has been

legalised in the various structures of
society, both traditional and modern. The
socio-economic structures which cause
injustice need to be taken down and
renewed by the power of the Holy Spirit
so that they may be in accordance with
the will of God.37
As a consequence of our sin, Gods good
creation has become a hopeless world.38
In this context, the traditional
understanding of the gubernatio Dei (Gods
government of the world), the trust in Jesus
Christ as the hope of Gods world39 has to
be confessed anew:
This world, with all the institutions
in it, which has been put into disorder by
sin, is constantly loved, cared for and
governed by God in His faithfulness. God
has liberated and renewed, and is
liberating and renewing, this world in
Jesus Christ, towards its fullness in the
new heaven and earth.40
The Christian God is confessed in
modern Reformed confessions as the one
who watches the world today attentively41
and who is at work, especially in events
and movements that free people by the
gospel and advance justice, compassion, and
peace.42 Since Jesus Christ is Lord over all
life, individual, social, national and
international,43 Christian life and hope and
hope for and in the world is to be understood
in this broad perspective too.

7.Three special issues

a.The Confession of Faith of the
Presbyterian-Reformed Church in Cuba

(1977) This provocative faith document from

Cuba is the endeavour of a church to testify
to the significance that the Gospel of Jesus
Christ has today for the Church in Cuba,44
while the particular characteristic of it lies
in the fact that it expresses the faith of a
Reformed Church which has consciously
embraced the goals of the socialist
revolution.45
The Cuban confession is not only unique
in that it is, to my knowledge, the only official
statement of faith of a Reformed church in
a socialist society, but also in that it explicitly
assumed that the Marxist-Leninist
revolution may lead church and society closer
to the fulfilment of Gods plans for humanity.
The Presbyterian-Reformed Church in Cuba
claimed that in doing so, it comes
dangerously close to the radical
secularization taken on by God in Jesus
Christ, and runs the same risks that He did
of misunderstandings, sufferings and
crucifixion.46
It is impossible to summarize adequately,
in a few lines, this lengthy document and
its theological arguments with respect to
social and economic issues. A few quotes
relating to its three underlying fundamental
principles may suffice to give a first
impression of this challenging document.
The first principle, the so-called
anthropocentripetal criterion,47 declares
that the absolute centrality of the human
being is given in Jesus Christ: Faith in Jesus
Christ obligates the Church to place the
human being in the center of its interest
and concern, and to consider him as a
319

parameter to judge all things, especially to

evaluate its own doctrinal teaching, its
specific ecclesiastical structures and its
particular mission as the Church.48
The second principle, the criterion of
historical impetus, relates terms such as
salvation and liberation no longer
exclusively to individual and private
salvation, but also to the socialeconomical reconstruction of the human
being:49
Salvation for Scriptures means the
reconstruction of the human being as
co-heir of all things; that is, of those
goods which, in faithfulness to his
vocation as econome, he has, with his
work, co-created or recreated. Salvation
is also, thus, the History of the
Reconstruction of his being in
community. () The Scriptures teach
us that salvation necessarily includes
the emerging of a new fraternal
solidarity that is made concrete in a
community of goods where private
property is abolished in order for all of
us to be able to enjoy the goods
produced.50

Church should cease existing for, by and

in the human being, it would cease being
the Church of Jesus Christ, the Son of
God and Our Older Brother.51
b.Gods preferential love Up till today,
one of the most fiercely and passionately
debated statements of modern Reformed
confessions, not only in its own church but
in the broader ecumenical discussion as
well, is the following statement of the Belhar
Confession:
We believe that God has revealed
Himself as the One who wishes to bring
about justice and true peace among men;
that in a world full of injustice and enmity
He is in a special way the God of the
destitute, the poor and the wronged and
that He calls his Church to follow Him in
this.52
This sentence that reminds the reader
of one of the central claims of Latin
American liberation theology namely,
Gods preferential option for the poor
would be completely misunderstood, though,
if it is interpreted in this context only. 53

The ecclesiocentrifugal criterion as the

Theologians from the Dutch

Reformed Mission Church have

third principle defines the ministry of the

church solely as participating in the

maintained emphatically that they are

convinced this sentence deals with

liberation of human beings:

nothing less than the heart of the

Christian faith in and confession of God

The church recognizes that sacrificial,

solidary and unconditional Love is
necessary for it to be the Church of Jesus
Christ; and, espousing the cause of
human dignity and decorum in every
moment and in whatever place, as its
only reason for being it participates
fully in human Redemption. If the
320

himself. 54 The description of God we

find here, then, is again not adiaphora;
on the contrary, it deals with a central
conviction of who God is and what God
does, based on biblical data. Many
Reformed churches around the world

sentence quoted even found its way into

the 2004 Accra Confession (see below).

particularly those from the Northern

hemisphere, to consider all potential
consequences for their own faith and life, if
they agree to this perception of Gods love
in Christ. The text is also helpful in that it

While the Belhar Confession received,

for many reasons, immense ecumenical

concentrates on the mercy of God, offered

on the cross not only to those who suffer,

attention, a second remarkable faith

document from the African continent that

but also to those who are responsible for

the sufferings of the oppressed. Thus it avoids

deals with a similar understanding of God

has been, to my knowledge, virtually ignored.

opposing the victims to the oppressors in a

Manichean manner and locating the

In 1984, the Evangelical Protestant

Church of Djibouti issued a new confession

revelation of God exclusively with the victims,

as happens in many contemporary texts.59

with the title I believe in the Mercy of God.55

This small international church is

The third paragraph of this confession

then includes each individual believer, in

particularly sensitized to the fate of refugees,

especially those from Somalia and

that it confesses faith in Gods mercy also

for me, although I denied my brothers, deaf

Ethiopia. 56 The first paragraph sets the

christological background for all following

and blind to their sufferings, I may have even

participated in their oppression.. On this

statements: I believe in the mercy of God:

He came to share the condition of the

background, the doctrine of sin and the

doctrine of justification and sanctification,

poorest, who are victims of political

oppression, economic disasters, or all

Luthers insistence on Gods forgiveness pro

me, are defined in a new and challenging,

ideological domination.57
Following this line of argument, the

and at the same time traditional, way:

have discussed this statement; some

accepted it as a confessional statement
for their own catechesis, and the

church then declares its own understanding

of Gods preferential option for the poor:
Through the birth of Christ I discover that
the refugees are our brothers and that the
Lord loves them of all people first and
foremost.58
What Belhar had called the special way
is here expressed in terms of Gods
preferential love. Both statements remain
challenging and thought provoking. The
christological foundation of the Djibouti
confession urges all churches, and

Christ forgave me on the cross, also

me, and as the Resurrected One, he
comes to me and calls me to follow him.
Through His Spirit, he gives me back the
hope to share and the courage for
service. 60
c.The WARC Processus Confessionis and
the Accra Confession No survey of social
and economic themes in Reformed
confessions can be concluded without at
least a brief, though inevitably inadequate,
reference to these two topics. Since the
321

September 2005 issue of Reformed World

deals with some theological aspects of the
Accra Confession, 61 it does not seem
necessary to extensively engage in this
subject. A few remarks and observations may
suffice.
In 1997, the 23rd General Council of the
World Alliance of Reformed Churches invited
its member churches to begin a process of
recognition, education and confession (the
so-called processus confessionis) with
respect to the increasing urgency of global
economic injustice and ecological
destruction. 62 After seven years of
discussions, ecumenical consultations, and
studies, the 24th General Council in Accra
brought together many of the themes
discussed in this article declaring:
Speaking from our Reformed tradition
and having read the signs of the times,
the General Council of the World
Alliance of Reformed Churches affirms
that global economic justice is essential
to the integrity of our faith in God and
our discipleship as Christians. We believe
that the integrity of our faith is at stake
if we remain silent or refuse to act in the
face of the current system of neoliberal
economic globalization and therefore we
confess before God and one another.

churches, interest groups, and agendas, this

document is not easily read. Lacking a clear
theological structure, it may seem to the
uninformed reader more like a collection of
separate faith affirmations and rejections
than a coherent text, which does not
necessarily constitute a disadvantage,
though. Yet on the background of what we
have learned from contemporary Reformed
confessions, there may be one theological
theme that could serve as a key to this text
and its interpretation.
This key is found in the description of
who God is, in the theo-logy of this
document. Taking up and extending the
formula used in the Belhar Confession, the
Accra text confesses: We believe that God
is a God of justice. In a world of corruption,
exploitation, and greed, God is in a special
way the God of the destitute, the poor, the
exploited, the wronged, and the abused (Ps
146.7-9). God calls for just relationships with
all creation. In Christ we recognize what
kind of covenant this God of justice has
made: Jesus shows that this is an inclusive
covenant in which the poor and
marginalized are preferential partners, and
calls us to put justice for the least of these
(Mt 25.40) at the centre of the community of

This declaration of what traditionally is

life.
Without wanting to water down any of

called a status confessionis is then followed

by a list of faith affirmations and rejections,

these challenging and indisputably biblical

statements and their consequences for

including a confession of sin, and closing

with a Covenant for Justice. As with many
documents from gatherings as huge as the
General Council with its various member

Reformed churches and Christians, I would

like to bring the confession of the Evangelical
Protestant Church of Djibouti and its
understanding of God into the debate. As

322

discussed above, this faith document

maintains that God, indeed, came to share
the condition of the poorest, of those who
are the victims of all forms of oppression;
that God loves them of all people first and
foremost. Yet at the same time, it insists
that God is not only a God of justice, but
also a God of mercy a central biblical term
that is, as far as I can see, completely absent
from the Accra Confession.
The confession of Djibouti reminds us
that Gods justice is merciful, and Gods
mercy is just; and this reminder may be
helpful for our efforts to implement the
commitments made at the WARC Accra
General Council in our churches. If we
agree with what contemporary Reformed

confessions in general, and the Accra

confession in particular have claimed, this
implementation is a serious and crucial
matter of faith for all churches today, and it
needs to become a living instead of a written
commitment. In this context, Calvins advice
for a just Christian life and the true worship
of God is still valid:
For it [i.e., the knowledge of Christ]
is a doctrine not of the tongue but of
life. It is not apprehended by the
understanding and memory alone, as
other disciplines are, but it is received
only when it possesses the whole soul,
and finds a seat and resting place in
the inmost affection of the heart.
(Institutes III.6.4)

Notes
In one of his most well-known books, The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism
(1904-5), Max Weber had argued that Calvinist ideas played a decisive role in creating the
capitalistic spirit. This disputable understanding proved to be enormously influential, even
up till today.
2
Lukas Vischer collected and edited most of the confessions up to 1982. See L. Vischer
(ed.), Reformed Witness Today - A Collection of Confessions and Statements of Faith
issued by Reformed Churches, Bern, Evangelische Arbeitsstelle Oekumene Schweiz, 1982.
The German edition offers a slightly different collection: Reformiertes Zeugnis heute:
Eine Sammlung von neueren Bekenntnistexten aus der reformierten Tradition,
Neukirchen-Vluyn, Neukirchener Verlag, 1988. In 2000, Henry Mottu and others published
in a collection of contemporary Reformed confessions several texts that were not included
in Vischers volume: Confessions de foi rformes contemporaines: Et quelques autres
textes de sensibilit protestante (Labor et Fides: Geneva, 2000).
1

323

Our Confession of Faith (1976), a document written by a group of theologians from

different Protestant denominations in Korea, most of them in the Reformed tradition.
Vischer, Reformed Witness, p.90 (see footnote 2).
4
A Declaration of Faith of the Presbyterian Church in the United States (1976). Vischer,
Reformed Witness, p.232 (see footnote 2).
5
Vischer, Reformed Witness, p.22 (see footnote 2).
6
William C. Placher and David Willis-Watkins, Belonging to God: A Commentary on A
Brief Statement of Faith (Westminster/John Knox Press: Louisville, 1992), p.55.
7
Printed in Placher/Willis-Watkins, pp.23-5; here: p.23.
8
Vischer, Reformed Witness, p.88 (see footnote 2).
9
Ibid. (see footnote 2).
10
Adopted by the General Assembly of the Presbyterian Church of Southern Africa in 1986,
and amended in 1993 and 1994.
11
From the preamble; Vischer, Reformed Witness, p.27 (see footnote 2).
12
Ibid. Some of the resistance in the Presbyterian Church against this document was
based on a reaction against the Declarations exclusive concern with sociopolitical issues.
Douglas Bax in an introductory note to this confession; Vischer, Reformed Witness, p.25
(see footnote 2).
13
Vischer, Reformed Witness, pp.27-8 (see footnote 2); text slightly amended so that it
corresponds to the actual version.
14
I believe in One God the Fount and Future of Life, printed in: Hans-Georg Link (ed.),
Confessing our Faith Around the World, vol. 4: South America, pp.66-7 (my italics).
15
New Confession (1972); Vischer, Reformed Witness, p.76 (see footnote 2, my italics).
16
Living Faith. A Statement of Christian Belief (1984). Not in Vischer, Reformed Witness;
but included in the German edition, pp.132-154; here: p.136.
17
The French original reads: victimes des accidents conomiques.
18
I believe in the Mercy of God (1984); printed in Mottu, Confessions, p.263 (see footnote 2,
my translation).
19
Ibid. (see footnote 2).
20
Willis-Watkins and Placher, pp.23-4.
21
Mottu, Confessions, p.239 (see footnote 2, my translation).
22
From the New Confession of the Presbyterian Church in the Republic of Korea; Vischer,
Reformed Witness, p.80 (see footnote 2).
23
Ibid., p.81 (see footnote 2).
24
Vischer, Reformed Witness, pp.261-2 (see footnote 2).
25
Vischer, Reformed Witness, p.224 (see footnote 2); for this article, the confession is
quoted in its later amended version using inclusive language.
26
The Confession of Faith of the National Protestant Church of Geneva (1992); Mottu,
Confessions, p.123 (see footnote 2, translated from the French by Judith J. Guder).
27
I believe in One God ; Creed of the Evangelical Presbyterian Church in Chile; Link,
Confessing Our Faith, p.66.
28
Vischer, Reformed Witness, p.205 (see footnote 2).
29
Vischer, Reformed Witness, p.213 (see footnote 2).
30
Vischer, Reformed Witness, p.214 (see footnote 2).
31
Vischer, Reformed Witness, p.211 (see footnote 2).
32
Our Appeal (1975), Vischer, Reformed Witness, p.101 (see footnote 2).
33
Vischer, Reformed Witness, p.105 (see footnote 2).
3

324

Vischer, Reformed Witness, p.431 (see footnote 2).

WARC, Confessions and Confessing in the Reformed Tradition Today, Studies from
WARC No. 2, p.16.
36
Vischer, Reformed Witness, p.56 (see footnote 2).
37
Ibid. (see footnote 2).
38
Our Song of Hope; Vischer, Reformed Witness, p.222 (see footnote 2).
39
Ibid., p.223 (see footnote 2).
40
Confession of the Toraja Church; Vischer, Reformed Witness, p.57 (see footnote 2).
41
Creed of Hope, Chile, Mottu, Confessions, p.239 (see footnote 2, my translation).
42
A Declaration of Faith, USA; Vischer, Reformed Witness, p.256 (see footnote 2).
43
Plan for Union, New Zealand; Vischer, Reformed Witness, p.429 (see footnote 2).
44
From the preface; Vischer, Reformed Witness, p.168 (see footnote 2).
45
From the introductory note to this confession; ibid., p.167 (see footnote 2).
46
Ibid., pp.189-90 (see footnote 2).
47
For the discussion of the fundamental principals see the introductory note to this
confession; ibid. pp.166-7 (see footnote 2).
48
Ibid., p.169 (see footnote 2).
49
Ibid., p.180 (see footnote 2).
50
Ibid., pp.180-1 (see footnote 2).
51
Ibid., p.171 (see footnote 2).
52
Not printed in Vischer; Reformed Witness, but included in the German edition. The
English text may be found in G. D. Cloete and Dirk J. Smit (eds), A Moment of Truth. The
Confession of the Dutch Reformed Mission Church 1982 (Eerdmans: Grand Rapids, 1984),
pp.1-4; here: p.3 (my italics).
53
For a discussion of this sentence and its background, see D. J. Smit, In a Special Way the
God of the Destitute, the Poor, and the Wronged, in: Cloete and Smit, A Moment of Truth,
pp.53-65.
54
Ibid., p.59. See also p.58: That which is expressed in the confession is simply the basic,
historic biblical and Christian conviction that God is the help of the helpless.
55
Printed in: Mottu, Confessions, p.262 (see footnote 2, my translation).
56
Cf. Mottus introductory note to this confession; ibid., p.264 (see footnote 2).
57
Ibid., p.263 (see footnote 2).
58
Ibid. The French original reads: Par la naissance du Christ, je dcouvre que les rfugis
sont nos frres et que le Seigneur les aime, eux, en priorit (see footnote 2, my translation
and italics).
59
Ibid., p.264 (see footnote 2, my translation).
60
Ibid., p.263 (see footnote 2).
61
Reformed World, Vol. 55, No. 3, September 2005.
62
All quotes from Covenanting for Justice in the Economy and the Earth, Accra 2004
Proceedings of the 24th General Council of the World Alliance of Reformed Churches,
Geneva, WARC, 2005, pp.153-160.
34

35

325

VOLUME 55(4), DECEMBER, 2005

Theology of grace and theology

of prosperity
Arturo Piedra

As the World Council of Churches holds its world assembly in Brazil under
the theme God, in your grace, transform the world, Arturo Piedra argues that the
interest of Latin American churches in the reflection on grace is encouraged by an
atmosphere of anti-grace that dominates the world, in which a single economic
system produces and imposes a reality of anti-grace, and disgrace. This is the soil of
prosperity theology, whose message seems very different from the altruistic love
(agape) and grace referred to in the New Testament. A church historian from Costa
Rica, Piedra teaches at the Latin American Biblical University, San Jos, Costa Rica.
His works include Evangelizacin Protestante en Amrica Latina (2 volumes).

At first glance, it seems absurd to address

theology of grace in times when everything

two theologies so far from one another in

time and so different in their theological

acquires a material significance. The

theology of grace and classical theology in

suppositions. Perhaps, one should recall first

that the importance of the subject is

general, has been so devalued that it has

lost its original significance, and

precisely in the great differences both

theologies demonstrate. The objections

consequently, its current relevance. Of

course, to speak of a crisis in theology,

would be understandable of those who

disagree with a study of prosperity theology

whatever it may be, is not the same as

declaring a crisis of God or of the grace of

side by side with the theology of grace,

instead of contextual theologies of liberation

God. Indeed, the crisis and death of these

theologies offer a great opportunity to

that so thoroughly questioned the historical

efficacy of classic Christian theology, with

rediscover God.
The theology of prosperity, with its great

its centrality of grace.

The context in which this subject is

appeal for the poor, highlights the crisis of

traditional theology and of rich biblical

chosen theology of grace/theology of

prosperity demands emphasis not so much

concepts such as grace. This crisis,

nevertheless, does not set sail with the

on current theologies, as new or old as they

may be, but rather on the absence of a

appearance of a new theology more popular

than academic, but rather has been present

326

throughout the history of the church,

The theology of prosperity also has a

primarily after the official recognition given

the church by Constantine.

heavyweight biography, although different

from the other theology. There is no denying

This work addresses the challenge to

official and academic theologies by popular

the strength and influence of leaders such

as K. Hagin. K. Copeland, Frederick Price,

beliefs in the Christian faith, as is the case

of the religious ideas arising from the

Charlie Capps, Ray and Lynda McCauley,

Reinhard Bonnke, Bryin Jones, Stanley

theology of prosperity.

Sjoberg, Hans Braterud, David Yonggi Cho, J.

Wimber, E. Paulk, and P. Wagner, among

Theology of grace
The failure to recognize the context that

others. Since Kenyon,2 who is part of the

prehistory of this movement in the 1940s,

provoked the interest in this subject,

especially placing in the same plane the

and Hagin, the authority of strong figures

has marked prosperity theology. Their critics

theology of grace and the theology of

prosperity, would lead to bad conclusions.

in the evangelical sector even consider that

their authority has put them on a pedestal

From a theological plane valid questions

of infallibility3 from which they threaten

their critics, now not inspired by political

like the following can issue forth: How does

grace, such a central part of classical
Christianity, relate to a religious thinking

power, as Augustine and the Protestant

reformers were, but rather by spiritual

characteristic of a new popular Protestant

religiosity? What difference does it make to

power.
The comparison of both theologies, and

compare the theology of grace, which evokes

such emblematic figures as Augustine,

the questions thus raised, evoke the reality,

sometimes ignored, of the tension which

Thomas Aquinas, Luther, Calvin, Bonhoeffer

and Barth, with the theology of prosperity?

marks the history of the Christian church

between an official theology, defended by

It cannot be forgotten that the subject of

the theology of grace in classical theology is

ecclesiastical hierarchies, its clergy and its

theologians, and the religious thinking that

conditioned biographically by the weight of

the emblematic figures mentioned above

feeds the religious practices and devotion of

the common believer. It is a fact that within

that established the path, in the West, of

the theology of grace.1 However, the great

Christianity there have always operated two,

or more, churches, and two, or more, parallel

merits of these figures did not suffice to earn

the authority and prestige they enjoyed in

theologies which mutually ignore and

exclude each other. The official theology,

life; their ideas did not gain ground by means

of persuasion, but rather through the

administered by the hierarchies, has looked

for every means to control, even destroy,

strength of civil power and repressive

structures.

popular religious beliefs. At the present time,

one of the differences in this tension with
327

respect to the past is rooted in the fact that

being favourably disposed to what one sees.

the theology of prosperity comes forward in

a moment of great cultural confusion, in

The idea of hen seems to be one of favour,

with a particular tint of gratitude (Ex 23.21,

addition to the crisis which affects

traditional theology.

11.3, 33.12-17). Adding to that, Paul mentions

more than one hundred times the term

Historically, academic theology 4 has

resisted taking seriously popular religiosity

grace (charis), always in the singular form to

signify, fundamentally, the merciful love of

and recognizing the challenges issued to

theological knowledge. This has helped to

the Father that is in Christ.6

To speak of grace is to refer to the

make it very difficult today for institutions

of theological education, regardless of their

essence of the gospel of Jesus Christ,

inasmuch as Christianity is above all a

theological emphasis, to recruit students, in

contrast to the great appeal the theological

dispensation of grace. So central is grace in

the Christian tradition that almost no

schools and institutes of some churches that

promote prosperity theology seem to

aspect of doctrine can be treated without

reference to it.7 However, the truism that

possess. For that reason, it speaks well of

the Theological Commission of the Latin

for Christians is the idea of Christianity as a

religion of grace cannot overlook the origin

American Council of Churches to call for

the study of an expression of popular

of grace. The term charis, the same as the

term agape, expresses a notion of goodness

religiosity, such as that called prosperity

theology. 5 However, attending to this

that was unknown throughout GrecoRoman theology and ethics.8

preoccupation does not have greater merit

than the one marked by the common sense

Karl Barth defined grace as divine

movement based on the idea that human

of an organization of Protestant churches

that understands as one of its main tasks

beings belong to God and God to human

beings.9 In Latin America, theologians do

serving its affiliates, in this case, in the

exposition and interpretation of the

not have difficulty narrowly identifying grace

with the essence of God. It is said that God

different currents of the contemporary

religious scene.

is all grace and not so much that God has or

demonstrates grace. 10 Others note that

Originality of grace Christian theology

has revolved around the term grace, the

grace points to a new human conception in

all its dimensions, from the relation between

meaning of which is unique. The origin of

the concept of grace does not come from

the sexes to that which establishes races

and nations.11

the profane Greek, but rather the

Septuagint, from the ordinary translation of

Devaluation of grace No sooner does

Christian theology and its subsequent

hen, from the root hanan, the meaning of

which is looking favourably upon oneself,

supremacy gain ascendancy over other

religions than the church begins to define

328

its weapons against its dissidents. The

that previously was alive and real, into a

security given it by Constantine consolidated

the exclusive nature of Christianity, and

system of doctrines with little practical

significance for the believers. Thus the way

consequently,
the
rejection
of
interpretations from the Christian legacy

was clear in modern times for the reduction

of religious language and faith to a ghetto

that were not in accord with the vision of

the ecclesiastical authorities. The

language. In the face of such empty

semantics, the worlds response, as noted

consequences were obvious: grace, which in

the Pauline version identifies the absolute

by this theologian, could not be more than

a yawn.15

goodness and mercy of God for those

undeserving of it, was transformed into a

The responsibility for the death of so rich

a theological language as that of grace

dogma that no one could question, and in

which the clergy and theologians were part

cannot fall solely upon those who

rediscovered it, but rather on successive

of the class defending religious and civil

order.12

theological generations. Moreover, Aquinas,

Calvin, Luther, Barth, Tillich, and others

The theological tensions helped to

define a treatise of grace that served to

were known not only for their systems of

thought but for their ability to bring theology

exclude: the anti-Jansenist context and the

controversy between the Dominicans and

to life.16 However much it may want to talk

about the abstract character of Christian

the Jesuits, expressed in De Auxilis, about

effective grace and predestination, provoked

doctrine, later theology contributed much

to dislodge the grace of God from existential

the formulation of a new treatise of grace

that defined that which could or could not

questions and with it the devaluation and

irrelevance of the concept and message of

be done without it. 13 Hence, the

proclamation of the mercy of God in the

grace. In the European context, where

Christian theology was born and developed,

human experience was compared with a

conglomeration of esoteric propositions,

today, according to Packer, grace is less

important than the heating system of the

elaborated more by condemning errors than

by translating and animating the Christian

church or the bank balance at the end of

the year:

experience.14
The Protestant experience was no
different than the Roman Catholic. As soon
as the reformers Luther, Calvin and Zwingli
defined the path of grace in the face of the
power of the law, the philosophical and
theological reflections of their followers,
mostly intellectuals, translated the language

Their conception of grace is not so

much debased as non-existent. The
thought means nothing to them; it does
not touch their experience. Talk to them
about the churchs heating, or last years
accounts, and they are with you at once;
but speak to them about the realities to
which the word grace points, and their
329

attitude is one of deferential blankness

It is not to be wondered at, therefore,
that faith in grace is a rarity today.17
The above outlines, in part, the scarcity
of historical and theological identity of the
Christian tradition and Latin American
Christianity. If for Protestants this mistake
is worrisome (although the historic was not
a central aspect for the Protestant pioneers),
for the Catholic church the situation could
be a little different, given the importance
attached to the historical tradition. Here
voices are heard that warn of the loss of
historical identity in sectors of the clergy. F.
Martnez mentions the problem of the
negligible ascesis and will of students of
theology to understand the historical
debates that defined Christian theology. For
this Catholic theologian, to overcome this
deficiency requires something more than
the help offered by the didactic resources of
the academy which hinders students from
entering into the marrow of the sciences.18

of Churches (CLAI), as stated in one of its

recent documents, is based on what is a
growing worry in the churches.20 This does
not mean that the interest of the churches
is the study of theology for its own sake, or
in the theoretical study of grace as a central
crux of Christian theology. Instead, the
interest in this subject of grace is encouraged
by an atmosphere of anti-grace that
dominates the world today, in which a single
economic system produces and imposes a
reality of anti-grace, and disgrace:21
[T]he selection of the subject also has
to do with the reading of kairos, the
present time of God in Latin America.
First, because in the world the prevailing
culture has become very hard, nothing
gracious or gratuitous; it would seem that
we are, we exist, if we are in the productive
process. Huge sectors of the population,
millions of human beings, are
marginalized by our current competitive
system, because they cant survive with
the rules of the game that are stacked
against them.22

To agree with this observation is not difficult,

if one takes into account the abuse that

Thus, the reflection about grace in our

popular education has suffered with the

creation of a cadre of facilitators that is

midst, more than reviving classical

discussions about the theology of grace,

efficient, not so much for the promotion of

serious reflection, as for the production of a

demands an analysis of what impedes or

promotes the manifestation of the grace of

climate of opinions. In fact, Paulo Freire

brushed off his critics who wanted to

God in todays world. To speak of grace then,

demands a consciousness of the experience

attribute this type of pedagogy to his

educational model.19

of dis-grace.23 Hence, the important thing to

recognize is that the stage of a theology of

Grace and disgrace

The attention
paid to this subject by the Theological

success, like prosperity theology, is marked

Commission of the Latin American Council

message, according to some of its critics, is

330

by degrees of suffering, 24 although its

very different from the altruistic love (agape)

Principally, it must be recognized that

and grace referred to in the New

Testament.25

this theology is part of a neopentecostal

religious package, born in the United States,

It is not a question then of speaking of

grace in abstract terms, but rather about its

that gained strength in Latin America

beginning in the 1980s. It includes a

reality and the factors which promote or

deny it, in a juncture where material success

combination of doctrines that run from

spiritual warfare, the fivefold ministry, and

and individual realization are transformed

into the goal and purpose of the human

the discipleship of the twelve, to the

restoration of worship and an aggressive

existence.26 And the most worrisome, as was

recognized in Korea in a debate about

programme of church growth. Writers who

approve of the movement present it as part

prosperity theology, is the materialist

obsession of Christians themselves. 27

of a third wave of neopentecostalism that

manifests itself in every denomination; the

Avoiding this pressure is no easy thing, given

the strength, as Bruggemann says, of the

first wave is classic Pentecostalism and the

second the Roman Catholic charismatic

totalitarianism of a liturgy of productivity that

movement. 29
Right now, there is so much talk about

[O]nly values those who participate

in the gains of production and
consumption of consumerism, which is
governed by a triad made up of money,
power, and sex. The liturgies that sustain
that ideology are those of sports and the
entertainment industry, that specialize
in subjects of power, success, wealth, and
pleasure in unlimited forms It is not
necessary to add that this ideology hides,
and in that way denies, the existence of
those who are not productive.28

prosperity theology that its description and

definition risk becoming a caricature. Also,

Prosperity theology
The name of prosperity theology
basically alludes more to an emphasis on
material wellbeing as a blessing from God
than a school of religious thought. The
preachers of these doctrines begin
intentionally to identify themselves within
a theological scheme that its critics first
called theology of prosperity.

the increase in the literature that questions

it could increase the subjectivity of its study.
The defenders of this movement opine that
the portrait drawn by its critics is full of
exaggeration and fallacies. Those who have
embarked on its study with negative
preconceptions confess to have found
something very different, not only on the
level of theological ideas but also on account
of the emblematic figures of this theology.30
The religious current of prosperity is
framed by the teaching of the sons of the
king, which supports the idea that following
and applying the divine royal ordinances is
sufficient for a prosperous material life:
The sons of the King have the right
to receive special treatment because
331

they enjoy a special first-hand living

relationship with the heavenly Father
who made all things and is still their
Lord.31
As the desire of God is to give material
prosperity, Glora Hagin (wife of Kenneth
Hagin), affirms that it is also His will that
the Christian church will eventually take

For the last few decades the Christian

community has been embroiled in
controversies over the issue of the socalled prosperity theology, which is
considered a new teaching by many. The
church has been sharply divided between
the ardent followers of prosperity
theology and those who severely frown
upon it and call it heretical.37

possession of all the money in the world.32

Schuller can say that only stupidity can

To all of this, the interest students and

professors of theology have put in this

make people, for humble motives, decide to

choose poverty instead of prosperity, small

religious current must be added. The Latin

American harvest in terms of analysis of

gains instead of great successes. More than

humility, it is something dumb, concludes

the theology of prosperity has been

abundant, especially in theses in theological

this author.33 Many within this theology are

sure that material prosperity is what God

seminaries. The quality of some of these

works has even merited their publication.38

offers now. In Latin America, the Peruvian

Juan R. Capurro, (currently out due to moral
scandal), 34 has written directly of the
goodness of this current, as well as the Costa

This theology is a whole religious

movement, the most visible form of which
is dominated and driven by strong men,
by newly minted prophets and apostles. The

Rican Yamil Jimnez, among others.35

Another figure who heartily defended

emphasis on prosperity is the tip of the

iceberg, the more visible and successful side

this theology was Jim Bakker, the creator

and director of the defunct programme, PTL,

which, according to this theology, God is

disposed to give to all Christians. It is a

who also for reasons of moral scandal was

isolated from the movement. Today, the

movement that some call the gospel of

wealth, health, and happiness.39

Protestant churches, almost to a

denomination, have something to do with

The ideological underpinnings of this

theology are bound up in the North

this theology. A survey in Bolivia that

analysed the impact of this theology

American idealism and philosophical

optimism of the 19th century, although its

emphasized the popularity of the gospel of

prosperity in the last few years in Latin

formal origin largely developed in the United

States, primarily in the 1950s. In that time,

America.36 In Korea, in a similar event, the

the teaching and leadership of W. Kenyon

were essential, and were quickly popularized
by Kenneth Hagin. In fact, Hagin is now one
of the most respected figures of the
movement and one of the major shapers of

importance of this movement and the

polarization

it

has

generated

ecclesiastical circles was recognized:

332

in

promoters of prosperity theology through his

but also because of the way, direct or

biblical training centre,

headquartered in Oklahoma.

Rhema,

indirect, that power is addressed. The direct

emphasis of this religious discourse makes

The roots of this theology are related to

the incomparable framework of the

it easily understood as a product of the

highly individualistic and egocentric and self-

economic boom after the Second World

War. 40 After the 1960s, the ideas of

centred culture of the late twentieth century

Western capitalism.46

psychologist Norman Vincent Peale,

especially his book, The Power of Positive

In Latin America, the major influence of

this theology comes from Benny Hinn,

Thinking, will be a great influence on the

prominent personalities of this theology.

another of the more emblematic figures of

prosperity theology at the global level. Among

One example is Robert Schuller, purveyor of

what is called possibility thinking, for whom

the best known preachers circulating the

continent propagandizing the vision of this

individual material progress depends on a

positive mental attitude.41 In this respect,

theology are Claudio Freidzon from

Argentina and Cash Luna from Guatemala.

the discourse of the theology of prosperity

differs little from New Age writers like

Moreover, they have representatives in each

country, whose authority, in some countries

Deepak Chopra.42
The early history of prosperity theology

more than others, surpasses even that of

the
evangelical
alliances
and

in the United Status has three pillars from

the Late Rain43 movement of the 1940s:

confederations.
Korean and

William Branham, Oral Roberts and Gordon

Lindsay.44 Much of the strength of these

Prosperity theology has two well-defined

spheres of influence. One is represented

groups is based on the use and acquisition

of radio and television media, as well as the

by the North American preachers while

the other comes from South Korea. From

importance given to music at religious

events. Thus, to say that prosperity theology

the Asian nation, David Yonggi Cho,

founder of the largest local church in the

is eminently a mass media entertainment

phenomenon is not far from the truth. Its

world with more than 700,000 members,

has distinguished himself. Cho created a

critics note this aspect in the eagerness to

acquire enough Christian television stations,

philosophy of prosperity based on laws,

the verifiable application of which he

programmes and satellites to saturate the

airwaves, as a necessity to conquer the

believed to have demonstrated: the law of

tithing, the law of sowing and heaping,

world.45
All theology is the daughter of its own

and the law of the echo. The destitution

of many Christians does not fit within his

time, not only because of the objective

conditions that exist to make it attractive,

scheme; they are, according to him,

perpetual beggars.47

US

differences

333

It must be considered that there is also

a strong African and Latin American
experience of prosperity theology, although
in both regions there is a notable
dependency on the North American
heritage. One of the most distinguished
South African students of K. Hagin is Ray
McCauley, who founded one of the largest
local congregations on the continent of
Africa Rhema Church with more than
9,000 members.
The Koreans, notwithstanding, aspire to
be original and distinct from the AngloSaxon origin of prosperity theology. It is
asserted, for example, that the teachings of
Cho, although they are basically identical to
those of Hagin and Schuller, are much more
balanced.48 Theologians close to Pastor Cho
point out that his perspective on material
success differentiates him from the North
Americans. The North Americans, according
to these Koreans, leave out the teaching
that prosperity should be used to build the
kingdom of God, and not as many Christians
perceive it, that is to say, to obtain a luxury
car, a big house, and to lead a sumptuous
life.49 Kee Wang, a Korean and defender of
the movement, justifies himself with
respect to the critical commentaries of
Gasque, declaring that the matters in
question correspond more to the North
American version:
Dr. Gasque understands prosperity
mainly in terms of financial success
which I assume derives from an American
point of view. According to the Korean
value system, the term prosperity
334

implies not only financial success and

physical health but also achievement of
social status including even their
childrens wellbeing, which includes
fame, promotion, and academic success.
Hence, his understanding of prosperity
theology cannot, I suppose, be properly
applied to Korean Churches.50
For the Koreans, the North American
deficiencies were made abundantly clear in
the scandal and fall of the televangelistic
promoters of prosperity theology, Jim Bakker
and Jimmy Swaggart.51 It is interesting how
recent statements by Bakker seem to prove
the Koreans correct: I cheated millions of
people who were looking for material gain,
while I had lost the truth of God in my own
life. Bakker also recognizes that his
religious message was a form of the gospel
of Disneyland:
For at least half of my ministry, I had
presented a Disneyland gospel, in which
the good guys always get rich, the bad
guys are defeated, and everyone lives
happily ever after. I lived in, and
attempted to promote, a spiritual
fantasyland, where Gods people are
always blessed materially, physically, and
of course, spiritually.52
Another of the major activists of this
theology, Peter Wagner, also confirmed the
Korean thesis of the North American abuses
in recognizing that at one point the line
between prosperity given by God and
unrestrained avarice had somewhat
vanished. 53
The recovery of the term prosperity
For as many critical analyses that may be
written about prosperity theology, and for

as many debates as may be undertaken

step when they recognize that the biblical

among Protestant sectors, some theologians

recognize this current as something positive,

perspective on prosperity requires that

wealth be associated with relief for the poor

having made it clear that material prosperity

on earth is a biblical reality that deserves

and the weak.58 Some of these theologians

also recognize that the reign of God,

careful study. The final statement on the

debate about prosperity theology in Korea

preached by Jesus, looks to the total

restoration of humanity and the

was put in these terms:

environment:

A distinction should be made

between prosperity theology and the
biblical teaching on prosperity. The
former expression refers to a
contemporary theological teaching which
stresses that God always blesses his
people materially, with wealth and
health, as well as spiritually when they
have a positive faith and are obedient to
him.54
From this viewpoint come affirmations
like that of W. H. Cook that prosperity
theology has allowed us to find in the Bible
what was unknown to us.55 For this reason,
a Korean theologian critical of this theology,
David Sang Bok Kim, laments that this
subject has been left in the undisciplined
hands of prosperity preachers who are not
scholars, and consequently create too many
problems for the church because of their
inaccurate, erroneous interpretation of the
Scriptures.56 In his mind, the erroneous and
imprecise interpretations of the Scriptures
demonstrate the seriousness with which
the subject should be addressed: Isnt it
about time that the trained theologians
became involved in a systematic study of
the earthly blessings promised in the
Scriptures?57 The Koreans take another

We have already said that the saving

power of the kingdom of God which Jesus
has brought, manifests itself concretely
in the restoration of individual
wholeness, social shalom and ecological
health, as the people of God live by the
kingdom ethic. It is easy to see how the
lives of Gods people lived in obedience
to Jesus double command of love for God
and neighbour would promote a fair
distribution of wealth, preventing the
suffering of the materialistic
dehumanization on the part of the
wealthy as well as the suffering of hunger
on the part of the poor, how it would also
lead to social justice, freedom and peace
So, the salvation of the kingdom of God
is already real here and now in its
comprehensive sense, not just in
comforting our souls for our eventual
salvation in the next world, but removing
our existential sufferings. Thus, the
salvation of the kingdom of God that
Jesus has brought does also mean
deliverance from poverty, illness and
oppression.59
It is interesting to question how these
theologians raise, in the Korean reality,
beyond theory, the social contradictions that
divided the nation into two Koreas, and how
they respond to the permanent state of
social strike of the workers in South Korea.
335

The same questions are raised for the

very beginning. It is even claimed that this

prosperity theologians in the United States

who recognize that their theology is not

and other denunciations of different

Pentecostal churches contributed to the

founded in a political conservatism. Earl

Paulk illustrates it in the support he said he

decline of the movement. 64 Among the

errors pointed out on that occasion are

gave to Martin Luther King, Jr. and to the

movement they led to secure justice for

the following:
1.An overemphasis

blacks.60 One would have to analyse what

possibility the future could hold for a popular

imparting, identifying, bestowing or

confirming of gifts by the laying on of

theology that understands structural power

in its concrete form, as much in its individual

hands and prophecy.

2.The erroneous teaching that the

implications as in the creation of the

conditions of an undignified life for the

Church is built on the foundation of

present-day apostles and prophets.

enormous majority of the global population.

For now, it is interesting that Peter Wagner61

3.The extreme teaching as advocated

by the New Order regarding the

recognizes, despite his doubts, the validity

of Walter Winks concerns about the
structural origin of social injustice.62
Christianity in the light of prosperity

confession of sin to man and deliverance

as practised, which claims prerogatives to

theology The similarity in the liturgy and

the Pentecostal origin of the majority of its

the impartation of the gift of languages as

special equipment for missionary service.

leaders make some identify prosperity

theology with some Pentecostal subgroup,63

5.The extreme and unscriptural practice

of imparting or imposing personal leadings

which would be applicable if what is

understood by Pentecostal is a way of

by the means of the gifts of utterance.65

This position of the US Pentecostals

worshipping. However, if one is talking about

Pentecostal groupings, it is an entirely

that remains, even today, among the

leadership circles, provoked the leaders

different matter. The classic Pentecostal

denominations are perhaps those that have

of the Late Rain Movement to denounce

what it called apostasy of the other

suffered most from the neopentecostal

competition of prosperity theology. In

denominations. It is understood that some

of them dreamed of a new movement that

addition, there is the confrontation between

sectors of classic Pentecostalism and this

would come to substitute the apostasized

Pentecostals.66 Another of the pioneers

new neopentecostal tradition in their same

origins. In the United States, the Assemblies

of neopentecostalism in its Late Rain

version announced Gods rejection of
denominations for their Babylonian
foundation. 67

of God made pronouncements, in 1949,

against the Late Rain movement from its
336

relative

to

human agency that belong only to Christ.

4.The erroneous teaching concerning

The critique of classic Pentecostalism

Christian tradition and history of theology

does not entail a recognition of other

Protestant traditions, but rather, of a type of

is quite negative. Nothing different can be

expected if one takes into account that their

charismatic churches of an independent ilk.

In this context, Deiros and Mraidas

reading of Christianity has little connection

with the Christianity known to date. For

prediction that the Christianity that will

dominate in the future will be of a

one of its critics there is no doubt in this

regard, as he considers that prosperity

charismatic-pentecostal
type
is
68
understandable. For these leaders of a

theology is a movement whose teachings

are not found before 1950.72

Baptist background, who have fully entered

the world of theology of prosperity, the crisis

The critique of the rest of the churches,

on the part of the leadership of prosperity

that
confronts
the
traditional
denominations will be resolved with the

theology, reassures them when they

evaluate their recent gains and compare

charismatization of the structures: those

of the third wave are being transformed into

them with those of traditional

Protestantism. The substantial successes

true poles of attraction for many believers

unsatisfied with a frigid spirituality and a

in numerical growth of the churches of this

ilk have generated such extreme arrogance

lack of commitment on the part of their

traditional churches.69 Such a perception

that religious figures like Bob Jones and Hill

of the rest of the churches is shared by other

representatives of prosperity theology, like

Elijah, Peter, or Paul himself, experienced

such satisfaction.73 Evident also in relation

Earl Paulk, who recognizes himself as a guide

of sheep without shepherd, a pastor of so

to this is the optimism of another of the

emphases of this theology: spiritual warfare.

many people wounded by the religious

traditions.70 Paulk does not hide his negative

In this arena, its proponents believe they

are creating a new science, a spiritual

assessment of the rest of the churches:

science, an unexplored area, and for a long

In Gods sheepfold there are people

who are hungry for Gods truth and word.
However, how many congregations sleep
every Sunday for a lack of true revelation
from God! How many seminaries have
ceased to produce results for the
Kingdom of God for not having provided
the truth.71
The evaluation that the most famous
representatives of this theology make of the

Cain have come to think that not even

time, according to them, ignored by

missiologists:
Our assumption is that God has not
revealed all there is to know in the
spiritual area any more than He has in
these other areas. We, therefore, need
to experiment in this area and, like
scientists who work in other areas,
develop and test theories in order to
gain greater understanding. 74

337

To the evangelical critique that frames

his criticism of some usually unassailable

them in a world of esoteric possibilities, they

simply respond that these issues are not

Pentecostal
doctrines
is
also
understandable. Such is the case, for

addressed as before. 75 As far as the

observation that their practices cross the

example, of the rapture of the church, a

doctrine that Earl Paulk, son of a

border into animism, it anticipates the need

to lose fear even to accept that the animists,

Pentecostal pastor and onetime pastor in

this tradition, directly disqualifies as a

upon occasion, understand better certain

things of the spirits.76 In this sense, Paulks

modern heresy accepted as truth although

Satan has introduced it into the minds of

viewpoint is applicable that the Bible, as a

book, is a closed canon, but not the

the people to lull them to sleep.80

The criterion of historic identity is not a

revelations to which it refers. 77 In the

incursion into the spiritual world, there is a

problem for prosperity theology, because

some allege to accept the legacy of Martin

strong appeal to a very particular practice of

prophecy:

Luther, John Wesley, and Pentecostalism

in their origins. However, it is made clear

Prophecy opens for us a door to a new

divine relationship and dimension.
Prophecy opens roads that had not been
opened previously. A prophet is the only
way for God to inform this generation of
a new and great revelation.78
With that said, the criteria of biblical
fidelity and identity or historic orthodoxy
are problematized as characteristic of a
healthy theology. The defenders of prosperity
theology pride themselves that their ideas
have a sound biblical foundation, although
they recognize that they apply an innovative
reading of the Bible. One of the writers of
this theology warns his readers of his novel
emphasis: You should be prepared for some
surprises. Upon studying biblical principles,
you will notice that many of the thoughts
that had always seemed to you sensible and
correct, are totally erroneous from the
perspective of God.79 From this viewpoint,
338

that the charismatic movement that they

represent crosses the dividing lines that
allow the Spirit of God to be part of all the
Church and not only of a few.81 Likewise,
they admit that their ideas and practices
were not absent in Protestant fathers like
John Wesley and Jonathan Edwards.82 Deiros,
in his capacity as a church historian, has
even tried to demonstrate that some of the
emphases of this movement were present
in the first five hundred years of
Christianity.83
The strength of every religious
movement is rooted, in great measure, in
its capacity to enthuse and attract people
to its ranks. In this case, the preachers of
the message of prosperity have undoubtedly
gained much, every time their major
exponents have very large local churches,
which is very significant in this movement.
This incorporation of the initiated has

overvalued the self-esteem of their leaders,

making them think that Christianity had
never before been spread as it is today.84
Their optimism for achieving the
evangelization of the world in their
generation, revives the same dream of the
great Protestant missionary of the first
decades of that century, John Mott.85
The consciousness of breaking the
boundaries in every area of the Christian
faith is expressed clearly in the subtitle of
Deiros and Mraidas book: History and
Beliefs of the most impressive religious
movement of all time (emphasis mine).86
The gains in local churches and the creation

We have the power to complete Gods

plan of restoration for the heartThe
future of the wicked is dark, but the future
of Gods children is bright. The hour has
come for the church to enter into
covenant with God to help Him complete
His work on planet earth. Our
assignment is clear. God has given us
the Holy Spirit and empowered us to do
His work. Now the challenge to us is
moving ahead boldly in the power of God
to accomplish the greatest task ever
given to mankind the establishment of
the kingdom of God on earth.89
It is obvious that their evangelical critics
are not impressed by either the rate of

a spiritual transformation that was to come

at the continental level: There are certain
indicators that such quickening is about to
occur and that Latin America will be

growth or the optimistic reach of this

movement. For them, it is no more than a
fictitious and deceitful religious happening
that highlights the very grave crisis
Christianity has faced throughout its history:
a series of powerful and growing acts of fraud
that are subtly changing biblical

transformed into one of the axes of global

Christianity before the end of the century.87

interpretations and undermining the faith

of millions of people.90 Hanegraaff has no

Mentioned among their gains is the

preaching of the gospel in traditional hostile

doubt that this movement has submerged

Christianity in a crisis of proportions

areas. For example, the fall of Communism

and the Soviet Union are uplifted as a divine

without parallel.91
The criticism of prosperitys material

response to a plan of seven years of prayer

proposed by the director of Open Doors in

conformity
One of the issues that is
perpetually raised about prosperity theology

1984. These experiences encourage their

aspirations of the spiritual conquest of Islam,

is the ambition of its promoters for money.

The objection has merit, in great measure,

Buddhism, Hinduism, New Age, and the

materialistic apathy of the west.88 Others

due to the emphasis on economic covenants

that mark the marathons on their radio

in the movement dare to speak of the

possibility of reaching a major commission:

and television stations and that fully appear

in those that Enlace 92 periodically

the establishment of the Reign of God on

earth:

undertakes in Costa Rica. Their evangelical

critics attribute to them a dependence on

of an international network of
megachurches has also convinced them of

339

goods of the world, and a lack of care for

healing, good health and riches in this world

the spiritual life:

if we follow certain principles, and a life of

happiness without unnecessary sufferings.96

Christianity is in crisis because

Christians have turned their gazes to
transient earthly fantasies, instead of
taking hold of eternal heavenly treasures.
This is not our final habitation; we are
simply sojourners on a way to another
realm. 93
Prosperity theology rejects this objection,
adducing that the church needs to recover
the biblical focus on material blessings that
God promised to his children here on earth.
They attribute the ignorance in this area,
on the other hand, to the bad influence of a
religion that can only offer goods on the
other side of death and life on earth: God
did not destine you to misery, scarcity, and
need, says one of the promoters of this
theology. God called you to bless you. You
should know that. It is essential that you
know it. The interest in wellbeing here
on earth, far from being a matter that
94

shames or bothers these preachers, is a fact

accepted with complete honesty. The option
for a theological teaching that puts great
emphasis on prosperity in the present life,
more than on the life to come, is not
hidden.95
The preoccupation that links Christianity
with the concrete problems of life obliges
this theology to reinterpret all its basic
doctrines of the Christian faith. Expiation,
which always has been read as the defeat
of sin in spiritual terms, is presented by this
theology as an act that guarantees divine
340

The salvation that God brings through

Christ, says another of their theologians,
offers many contributions to the problems
of life:
Poverty and oppression are real
sufferings, only too real to millions of
people in the world! Then, has salvation
in the kingdom of God that Jesus Christ
has already brought into this world
nothing to do with deliverance from these
forms of suffering? Has it only to do with
the soul in the next world, as some forms
of Christian theology have taught on the
basis of a mixture of Jewish eschatological
dualism and Hellenistic ontological
dualism?97
Prosperity theology, with this focus,
distances itself from the Pentecostal
rejection of the world and raises the
possibility of the installation of the Reign of
God on earth. This also writes a new page
about the relationship of Christianity with
the world, a page very, very different,
according to Young Hoon Lee, from that of
the Pentecostals: The Pentecostals
rejected society because they believed it to
be corrupt, wicked, hostile, and hopelessly
lost, while society rejected the Pentecostals
because it believed them to be insanely
fanatical, self-righteous, doctrinally in error,
and emotionally unstable.98
Classic theology that has dominated
Christian thinking and the life of the church
as much in its place of European origin as in
the other continents, has, for several

decades now, been questioned for its

preached by the church does not wade into

superficiality with respect to existential

concerns and questions. The appearance of

the dailyness of the people and the

community. Prosperity theologys critique of

contextual and liberation theologies is

narrowly related to that incapability of

traditional theology does not differentiate

itself, at least in theory, from the impression

traditional theology to loosen the moorings

of the defence and repetition of the doctrine.

of Comblin, that when grace produces

resignation it cannot be the grace of the

The theoretical precision and clarity of the

Christian doctrines have retarded the

God of life.102 Or with Barth, when he affirms

that the god that we oblige to castigate

reinvention of Christianity for new

generations. In this sense, prosperity

and compensate in a better after life is

no-god, it is the god of this world, made in

theology seems to overcome the pattern of

spiritual blame and forgiveness that so
marked the theology of grace and that had
little relationship to the concrete reality of
humanity.
Seen simply, prosperity theology seems
to make its own the critiques of traditional

the image of man.103

The theoretical similarity of criteria in

theologies suggested by contextual and

liberation theologies. Its mentors would not
have a problem sharing the impression of
Barth in that Christians have been
summoned to live in the power of his
grace.99 Neither would they have difficulty
assuming the criteria of this theologian with
respect to the idea that those who take
refuge in the grace of God are free of the
curse of sin. 100 Or with those in classic
theology who think that the grace of God is
above all a liberation from the powers of
evil.101 On the other hand, they would be
on the side of the theologians of liberation,
although they ignore, of course, their
commitment to social justice and the
interest in a political system that protects
the least favoured in society. This new
current accepts that the message of grace

both religious discourses has meant that

some evangelicals see certain positions of
prosperity theology as a theology of liberation
of the right.104 However, what is certain is
that there exist many similarities between
some of the theological presuppositions of
this current and those of liberal theology,
but not of Liberation Theology. Such an
assessment is understandable because the
critique of traditional theology is
devastating, although made without a
systematic historical horizon, or without
interest in questioning unjust, structural
economic conditions. Hence, when speaking
about the empowerment that the grace of
God gives in the victory over death and the
curse, prosperity theology assumes it, but
with its implications in the here and now,
although on a strictly individual level.
For their part, sympathizers and
representatives of the thinking of contextual
and liberation theologies have joined with
conservative voices that see in prosperity
theology a serious deviation from the major
341

biblical principles. Obviously, this agreement

had been central in the Christian faith, had

is not intentional, since theological

conservatism in the past issued almost the

a language resurrection, redemption,

sacrifice, satisfaction bound in strict

same argument to destroy those who worked

for a more equitable society in terms of the

religious captivity. The richness of the Jesus

of the Gospels, and the biblical narrative in

distribution of wealth and political power.

To assume that prosperity theology was

general, was supplanted by the strength of

doctrines of metaphysical meaning and

theoretically at the same level as

contemporary theology with respect to

language. After Constantine, and with the

help of influential theologies like that of

questioning the Christian inheritance, does

not impede recognizing that it had also been

Anselm, with his schema of blame,

condemnation, and pardon, the church

at the level of the central criteria that

dominated classic theology. Among them

elaborated a message of salvation with a

retrospective gaze towards Golgotha, toward

are the conceptions of God and Christ, that

for Barth are vital in undertaking a healthy

a spiritualized cross interpreted in such a

way that Jesus and his work appear like

biblical theology. In order for a theology to

be truly Christian, Barth would say, it must

pieces in a museum. Thus it happened that

the doctrine of expiation, so essential in

carry forward and complete the definition

and exposition of God.105

Christianity, was reduced by the theological

manuals to little more than the perfect

As much as it agrees with the critique

made against classic theology, prosperity

obedience of Christ.107 Resurrection, from

this perspective, is understood only as

theology reduces the grace of God to the

gains, more material than human, of those

spiritual utility, almost Gnostic, which does

not contemplate its implications on the

who seek God. Hence, God loses autonomy

and liberty in the face of a religious

defeat of death in all arenas of earthly life,

and not just in spiritual life and sin.

conscience that tells God how and when

God must be faithful to Gods promises. In

Contemporary theologians have been

pointing out these deficiencies of an
insufficient interpretation of the faith:

the words of Barth, the catastrophe of

religion impedes God from saying the
definitive Yes and No.106
On the other hand, the anthropology
that sustains these preachers helps to
obscure the oneness of God and Jesus Christ.
However, the christological problem was also
a weakness of classic theology. The
effectiveness of Christs work was stagnated
in a doctrine of expiation that, although it
342

For too long already, Christians have

interpreted the cross in a unilateral
fashion, the way Anselm did, so that they
only see in it a doctrine of satisfaction.
We see that man Jesus, and those who
were crucified with Him, as puppets
controlled by a vengeful God who chose
the cross for his own divine
satisfaction108
The above issue was pointed out by

Bonhoeffer when he made the distinction

explicit,

between redemption as a myth and the

hope of redemption: The myth presents

approved.111 The authenticity of grace ends

up being corrupted, causing Christianity to

the resurrection in a mythological manner,

that only reaches a real meaning after

practically cease to exist.112 It is appropriate

to mention Bonhoeffers warning here, when

death Redemption means the salvation

of a persons soul from anguish, fears, sin,

he points out the danger of following a

doctrine of grace, without being members of

and death, but only appears after the

tomb. 109

a church that follows Jesus Christ:

The christological weakness is also

present in prosperity theology. Jesus is not
understood as the beginning and end of all
theological reflection, as Barth claims:
Theology must begin and end with Jesus
Christ and not with general principles.110
Finally, using Barths thinking, one could
argue that this has also been a problem for
all traditional theology and Latin American
Christianity. The ethics that ought to
characterize all theology did not surpass in
the case of Protestantism the individual
moral factors (microethics) or the
alternatives of the liberal elites, which did
not deem it necessary to question the origin
and legitimacy of the economic power of
the minorities.
The issue is that grace, even though
classic theology offered few answers to
existential concerns, was left, with time, as
a theoretical issue, very distant from human
reality and from the human groups which,
at this time, the theology of prosperity is
winning. It has been hard for the church to
avoid the error of imprisoning grace in the
moulds of theological language. This has
resulted in a theology that is limited to
administering a thinking already elaborated,

structured,

and

officially

Blessed are those who, having

recognized this grace, can live in the world
without losing themselves in it; those
who, in following Jesus Christ, are so sure
of the heavenly homeland that they truly
feel free to live in the world. Blessed are
those for whom following Jesus Christ is
nothing more than living grace, and for
whom grace consists of nothing else but
in following. Blessed are those who have
become Christians in this sense, those
who have experienced the mercy of the
word of grace.113

Critique against prosperity

theology
All movements are subject to evaluation
and criticism by those who believe they have
serious weaknesses, be they in their biblical
theological foundations or in their methods
of disseminating ideas. Within the
ideological framework of the singular system
that predominates today, there is regret
about the increasing closure of spaces for
dialogue in which one could agree or disagree
with intelligence and respect. The state
universities that were in the habit of being
the conscience of the people and the
vanguard of new ideas are today invaded by
ideological and social indifference. However,
the development of a mature Christianity
343

requires a serious critique that evaluates

reading using untraditional stances about

the religious offerings from different

perspectives. Furthermore, the search for

the person of God, of Christ and the Church,

just as about sin and being humans

the truth should not be frightened by the

discussion and healthy confrontation of the

(anthropology):

ideas. Critique, nevertheless, will have to be

constructive and, in this case, also offer
alternatives to the many followers of new
theologies that seek in them answers to
very existential questions.
The threat that prosperity theology
represents to the traditional theological
sphere has been a determining factor in
the publication of a series of materials that
question it. In the United States, this
movement has been under severe criticism
from those who believe it inspires a good
dose of heresy and apostasy. Moriartys work,
The New Charismatics (1992), and
Hanegraaffs Counterfeit Revival (1994) are
part of those critical works that have been
most recognized in Anglo-Saxon circles.
Regrettably, neither of these works has been
translated into Spanish, although
Hanegraaffs Christianity in Crisis has
circulated widely in Latin America.114 From
the United States also comes to us the
translation of critical works like Hunt and
MacMahons La seduccin de la cristiandad
(1988) and Hunts Ms all de la seduccin
(1994). 115
Prosperity theology represents, perhaps
without its promoters proposing to do so, a
reading (for many people an innovative and
scandalous one) of the most important
doctrines of Christianity. There are many
reactions provoked by a theological re344

In recent years, multitudes who name

the name of Christ have adopted a
widely distorted perception of the true
meaning of being Christian. Perhaps,
even more alarming, millions have been
put off from seriously considering Christs
demands because they perceive
Christianity as a fraud and Christian
leaders as conartists.116
The same writer sees prosperity theology
as a gospel of avarice that is bilking
multitudes and corrupting the Bible. 117
Theologian Gasque also understands it as a
swindling of the humble sectors of society
that seek to get out of their material misery:
Sadly, many of the poor people who are
frequently in the audiences of the prosperity
evangelists, are being offered false economic
hopes, just as mainly invalids and physically
handicapped people are offered the false
hope of perfect health by some of those
same preachers ... I wonder how many
people have been turned away from God by
the failure of their financial dreams, that
were implanted in their minds by the
preachers of prosperity, to materialize.118
Hanegraaffs questioning is still deeper,
comparing this movement to a cancer
provoked by a diet or fast food Christianity;
a Christianity of agreeable appearance but
without substance, although with the
strength to expand itself: The purveyors of
this carcinogenic diet have utilized the power

of the airwaves, as well as a plethora of

The critiques that have provoked the

attractively presented books and cassettes

in order to induce their victims to eat
These groups, according to this author, are
capable of investing great sums of money in
order to meet their objectives:

debates around prosperity theology often

contain a high degree of indignation that

Those who are promoting this

cancer occupy many of the most
powerful platforms within Christianity.
They control vast resources and are
willing to spend millions of dollars if
they were confronted. The interests are
so large that those who are
precipitating Christianity to this crisis
seem to be willing to do and say virtually
anything necessary to quiet the
opposition and silence public
demonstrations. 119
Tom Stipe, a pastor whose active
participation in this movement ended
disappointingly, compares the gravity of
the crisis with the end of the Middle Ages
that gave birth to the Protestant
Reformation:
The urgency of biblical correction is
never more pressing than now. Back
in 1517, a huge contingent of the
church had fallen to the ruse of a carnal
monk named Johann Tetzel. He conned
the believers of his day into purchasing
indulgences to guarantee escape from
purgatory. An outraged Martin Luther
nailed his ninety-five theses of dispute
on the Wittenberg door, challenging
the brokerage of salvation through the
exploitation of peoples spiritual
insecurities and illiteracy. Perhaps we
have come again to such a dark age
with the insurgence of false
revivalism. 120

can be well- or poorly-founded. Here it is

appropriate to emphasize that indignation,
as one Catholic theologian has pointed out,
can be the consequence of a positive action
of moral growth and of a sense of
responsibility and justice.121 However, there
is also the danger for it to be an heterophobic
indignation, a negative reaction of one who
cannot respect the opinions of others,
considering them exotic and strange:
It could be that our patience is
becoming exhausted, that all-important
virtue for walking together and searching
together. It could be that we already do
not tolerate ourselves, that we dont
tolerate each other, that we dont
tolerate difference. This indignation is
dangerous, since it transforms itself into
intolerance.122
The critical response to this movement
comes from theological fronts that rarely
have agreed in their understanding of the
Christian faith. On the one hand are those
preoccupied by a populist use of religion that
results in lulling to sleep and alienating
people from the social problematic that
affects them. From this perspective, it is an
intellectual sacrifice to accept a discourse
that presents poverty, not as a social
problem, but as a curse of spiritual origin.
Any use of the Bible that points to this
argument will always be insufficient. It can
be recognized that individual moral
behaviours produce poverty, but it is very
different to ignore the social realities of
345

injustice that have destined to misery and

popular religiosity, without beforehand

poverty huge groups of the world population.

Hence, the difficulty understanding

analysing what is good and able to be

rescued. The difference of perspective of

expressions of prosperity theology like the

following:

both answers is clear and, in fact, both foci

distance themselves from one another.

If God were moved by the need of man,

there would not be millions dying of
hunger in India, Somalia, Bangladesh,
and many cities in Latin America. If God
were moved by the need of man, there
would be no droughts in Ethiopia,
Rwanda, and many other regions of the
planet. 123
Notwithstanding, to ask for a social
conscience of this type could be very
ambitious in a worldview that, far from being
historical and personal, is above all
metaphysical. It is clear that reducing the
poverty of nations to external forces of
nations and individuals is also limited. Some
of the critics would have another perception,
if this theology had a more real
understanding of social problems.
On the other hand there is the critique
of those who base themselves on a limited
understanding of the healthy doctrine and
tradition and who, without wanting to
sometimes, end up believing that they are
the exclusive representatives of a
theological vision. The problem, suggested
by critics of this trench, is dogmatism and
heterophobics, which means, intolerance
that labels people and ideas that do not fit
into the inherited schemes of reflection and
celebration of the faith as heretical and
apostate. Also, this perspective has
historically rejected anything that smells of
346

As is clear, the conditions that existed

previously to oppose contextual and
liberation theologies do not function today
against the theology of prosperity. On the
one hand, the opposition to the first
theological currents was fed by the Cold War
environment and national security positions
that contributed to undermine ideological,
political, or religious options that questioned
the established order. In this respect, there
is no problem because the religious
worldview of prosperity theology, especially
its vision on wealth and power, is completely
inoffensive and non-critical of the neoliberal
proposal that currently dominates the world.
On the other hand, todays ideological reality
does not allow the winners of the religious
sector in the 1970s and 1980s (if it is
possible to speak in such terms) to repeat
the same tactics to weaken the theology of
prosperity. Today it is necessary to work
harder at the level of arguments and
knowledge.
The conditions that yesterday allowed
the exclusion of religious dissidents, due to
various interests, are not the same of the
religious world that today is under the
influence of prosperity theology. In addition,
those who in past decades dominated
religious circles do not enjoy today the same
privilege. In this new century, there is
suspicion about the persons who have

traditionally been against ideas that appear

temptation of relating the success of these

to present some threat to the official

religious emphases: the dialogue with the

new groups with the depletion of a religious

model that does not respond to current

Roman Catholic church, the acceptance of

Pentecostals, the opening to the charismatic

generations.
One of the limitations of the critics of

movement, the theologies of liberation, and

today, the theology of prosperity.

this prosperity theology or prosperity gospel,

as some label it, is that they are practically

Thus, the question is raised about the

quality of the contribution of those who think

monolithic. They are not capable of

capturing the interest of those to whom they

like the leader of a denomination who once

said: In my life I have seen thousands of

allude, and worse, some of the studies exhibit

great ignorance of the sources of the current

changes, and I have been against every one

of them124 The evidence shows that the

questioned. 125 The first weakness was

alerted to at the 1999 Congress in Bolivia

positions of these sectors, ready to

demonize new emphases, are increasingly

that analysed the theology of prosperity.

Here it was recognized that the absence of

less understood by Protestants, much less

accepted. There is a fatigue and resistance,

the objectionable party only produces partial

objectives: with regret we recognize that

although more tacit than open, towards the

evangelical leaders who in the past,

obviously this absence limited dialogue and

impoverished the contributions on this

ventured to say which movement was false

and which true, and thus, which should be

issue. 126 It is obvious that those who

promote this vision need to be heard and

accepted or rejected. Leaders who in the

past easily exercised the power to exclude,

read more, although without a doubt, the

leadership of this movement has enough

should value today the opportunity to learn

while they are a minority.

reasons to not respond to the critiques of

their adversaries and above all to not attend

Likewise, it must be considered that

these new movements that are so attractive

meetings where the issue is debated.

The great exceptions when critics and

to people can be seen as illness or symptom.

Its critics only see it as an illness, and

defenders of the theology of prosperity

accept to discuss their position cannot be

understand it to affect and alter the best

principles of the gospel of Jesus Christ. But,

left unmentioned. Notable, for example, is

the dialogue provoked in 1994 by the World

it is ignored that this movement is a

symptom of a church that has not known

Evangelical Alliance in Korea on the theme

of theology of prosperity and theology of

how to respond to the questions and

immediate needs people and Christians

suffering.127 A similar event took place in

the United States, invited by the Evangelical

have been encountering for several decades.

In this sense, it is difficult to avoid the

Missionary Society, on the theme of spiritual

power and missions.128 At the former, fifty
347

theologians came together; in addition to

critics of the theology of prosperity, also
present were representatives of the
movement led by David Yonggi Cho, one of
the symbols of this movement. Among the
interesting presentations, the one by Young
Hoon Lee, In defence of prosperity theology
stands out.
At the meeting in Korea, one of the
participants asked that in addition to the
critique of bad theology there should be an
effort to build a theology of prosperity and of
suffering that could guide Christians in their
daily lives. 129 At the bottom of this
observation is the call to transcend the
framework of critique and to try to respond
to the aspirations people have here and
now of a dignified life. Obviously, it is
recognized that sometimes we have more
capacity to critique than to build, but this
does not mean a devaluation of critical
evaluations, especially serious ones, of a
movement that raises many questions.
Finally, it cannot be left unrecognized
that the critique of the theology of prosperity,
in the United States as in Latin America,
has the disadvantages or advantages
characteristic of an indignant reflection:
Because the indignant reflections
have all the advantages of the
spontaneous and passionate, and all the
inconveniences too of the spontaneous
and passionate. The advantages are
direct language, uncapped sincerity, the
boldness to say things without any sort
of calculationThe disadvantages are
the partiality, the exaggeration, the loss
of the sense of proportion and wholeness,
348

the subjective visions and the total lack

of a sense of humour, so important in
life.130

Conclusion
The above allows us to summarize, as a
conclusion, some of the premises that have
guided us. It is undeniable that this theology
of prosperity is highly popular in an
important population of various social
sectors. However, it is illusory to believe that
the poor receive answers to their problems
following the prosperity laws offered by this
movement.
Religion on this subject could not go
beyond what it has always proposed,
knowing that a change in religious attitude
demands a series of patterns of moral
order that, at last, wade into the
improvement of material life. Protestants,
as with other religions, have always said
that abandoning vices that hurt health
and consume economic resources (liquor,
drugs, marital infidelity) promotes personal
and family wellbeing. However, the
theology of prosperity goes further than
this micro-ethical framework when it
proposes overcoming poverty and illness
through spiritual ways. There is no arguing
that a healthy religiosity foments a
healthy life, but what can be questioned
is the tendency to resolve in a
metaphysical and esoteric manner material
problems that require material solutions.
A multitude behind a religious or political
movement does not guarantee the
authenticity of the ends sought. Hence, the

suspicion of those who see the theology of

limit the influence of the theology of

prosperity as one more method to mock and

deceive the poor. A critical analysis of a

prosperity and of any other new religious

dissidence will no longer be a viable resource.

religious movement so popular in every

church must outline a difference between

Dialogue, not the persecutory practices that

were applied against contextual and

the multitudes who search for answers to

their concrete problems and a sector of the

liberation theologies, is what will make the

difference. Inquisitory procedures directed

leadership which offers, in exchange for

economic sacrifices by the poor themselves,

by anointed hierarchies no longer have

yesterdays attractiveness. Consequently,

an easy solution to all existential problems,

especially poverty and illness. It is difficult

persuasion and dialogue, anchored in a

biblical theological argumentation, will be

in these times to assimilate the idea that

beyond education, which has traced an

determining factors in the debate on the

integrity or lack thereof of the theology of

important dividing line between

humiliating poverty and a relatively

prosperity.
Finally,

dignified life, spiritual methods exist that

seek to resolve problems whose origin is

deficiencies and eliminating one, as bad as

it may be believed to be, is not possible on

in social inequalities.
On the other hand, it is clear that the

the basis of the goodness of another. The

great theologians of grace, Catholic and

main critique of the theology of prosperity

is from evangelical sectors, especially in

Protestant, committed big errors that led

them to not heed and to marginalize those

the United States. In Latin America there

does not yet seem to be a negative

who did not think like them. The history of

the Christian church is witness of the

consensus, with respect to this theology,

between alliances and federations of

permanent apparitions of the Ariuses who

upset Athanasius, the Pelagians who

evangelical churches and pastors. In some

countries, several of the leaders of this

bothered Augustine, the Muntzers who

troubled Luther, and the Servetuses who

movement of prosperity are the visible face

of Protestant and Evangelical Christianity.

agitated Calvin. 131 Today, in contrast to

yesterday, the dissidents will have to be

Another central idea is the

ineffectiveness of every intolerance to

recognized and valued as part of Gods people,

even if it entails debating with passion the

weaken the theology of prosperity. The

application of alterophobic measures to

foundations of their biblical and theological

assumptions.

every

theology

has

its

349

Notes
L. Boff, Gracia y liberacin del hombre. Madrid, Trotta, 1978, p.41.
William Essek Kenyon (1867-1948). Pastor and writer. Founder of the Dudley Biblical
Institute in Massachusetts that later came to be the Bethel Biblical Institute. He was a
pioneer in evangelistic radio preaching and as a product of this ministry founded, in 1931,
the church of the air of Kenyon, known later as the Baptist Church of the New Covenant.
He wrote 16 books that had a great influence on Pentecostal and Charismatic sectors. His
critics question the quasi-Gnostic tendencies in his theology. Stanley M. Burgess and Gary
B. McGee, eds, Dictionary of Pentecostal and Charismatic Movement: Grand Rapids,
Zondervan, 1988, p.517. Figures of prosperity theology like Kenneth Hagin y Kenneth
Copeland recognize the influence of the ideas of the preacher in their religious estimations.
Some of prosperity theologys critics, for example, Hanegraaff, even hold that Hagins ideas
are in great measure a plagiarism of Kenyon.
3
Dave Hunt, Ms all de la seduccin: regreso al cristianismo bblico. Grand Rapids (USA),
Portavoz, 1994, p.41.
4
It is understood that academic theology is that which is taught in theological seminaries
and schools of theology of universities.
5
This work was part of a discussion promoted by the Latin American Council of Churches
(CLAI) whose documents were published in Israel Batista (ed.), Gracia, cruz y esperanza en
Amrica Latina. Quito, CLAI, 2004, 258pp.
6
Ch. Baumgartner, La Gracia de Cristo. Barcelona, Herder, 1969, p.33.
7
R. W. Gleason, La gracia. Barcelona, Herder, 1964, p.21.
8
J. I. Packer, Knowing God. Downers Grove (USA), InterVarsity Press, 1973, p.116.
9
K. Barth, Church Dogmatics, II/II, Edinburgh, T. & T. Clark, 1957, p.10.
10
L. Boff, op. cit., pp.18, 68.
11
Jos Comblin Gracia in I. Ellacura, and J. Sobrino, Misterium Liberationis: conceptos
fundamentales de la teologa de la liberacin, II, San Salvador, UCA Editores, 1991, p.80.
12
L. Boff, op. cit., p.41.
13
R. W. Gleason, op. cit., p.13.
14
L. Boff, op. cit., p.36.
15
This is the estimation of Gerhard Ebeling, cited in William J. Carl III, Preaching Christian
Doctrine. Philadelphia, Fortress Press, 1984, p.19.
16
William J. Carl III, ibid., p.3.
17
Packer, op. cit., p.117.
18
Felicsimo Martnez Daz Nuevas Generaciones de telogos/as? Estudiantes de Teologa!
2002. Photocopy of the document. 2002, p.6.
19
Freire questions the temptation of the spontaneity that disrespects the critical capacity
of the students, leaving them free to themselves. Entrevista Pablo Freire, Rosa Mara
Torres in Concepcin y metodologa de la educacin popular, (Vol. I). Editorial Caminos,
Havana, 2004, p.598.
20
Gracia, cruz y esperanza. CLAIs document of the Comisin Teolgica Latinoamericana.
Without year or publication and location, p.6.
21
Ibid., p.29.
22
Ibid., pp.17 and 18.
23
L. Boff, op. cit., p.19.
24
Bong Rin Ro (ed.), In the Midst of Suffering is Prosperity Theology Scriptural? In
1
2

350

Prosperity Theology and the Theology of Suffering, Evangelical Review of Theology, 20(1),
1996, p.3.
25
W. Ward Gasque, Prosperity Theology and the New Testament, Evangelical Review of
Theology, 20(1), 1996, p.45.
26
Joanna Adams, El Espritu Santo, dador y renovador de la vida in Walter Brueggemann
(ed.) Convocados a la esperanza. Quito, Seminario Evanglico de Teologa/CLAI, 2001, p.93.
27
Statement on Prosperity Theology and Theology of Suffering, Evangelical Review of
Theology, 20(1) 1996, p.9.
28
Walter Brueggemann, El totalitarismo de la productividad op. cit., p.64.
29
Pablo A. Deiros and Carlos Mraida, Latinoamrica en llamas: Historia y creencias del
movimiento ms impresionante de todos los tiempos. Nashville, Editorial Caribe, 1994,
p.136.
30
An intentionally more centrist reading in one of their emphases is that of James A.
Beverly, in La risa santa y la bendicin de Toronto. Miami, Editorial Vida, 1995.
31
H. Hill, I. B. Harrel, Como ser un triunfador. Miami, Editorial Vida, 1977, p.33.
32
G. Copeland, Gods Hill is Prosperity. Tulsa (USA), Harrison House, 1978, p.60.
33
Robert H. Schuller, Tough Times Never Last, but Tough People Do! New York, Bantam
Books, 1983, p.124.
34
Juan R. Capurro. Las cinco dimensiones de la prosperidad. Nashville, Betania, 1997.
35
Yamil Jimnez Tabash, Dios quiere prosperarte. Prez Zeledn (Costa Rica), Ministerios
Casa del Banquete, 1997.
36
Gregorio Venables, et al., Fe y Prosperidad: Reflexiones sobre la teologa de la prosperidad.
La Paz, Editorial Lmpara, 1999, p.9.
37
David Sang Bok Kim, A Bed of Roses or a Bed of Thorns, Evangelical Review of
Theology, 20(1), 1996, p.14.
38
An example of them is the study of the liturgical factor of this theology done by Adoniram
Ibarra, Entre la espontaneidad y el profesionalismo: Anlisis del fenmeno litrgico-musical
contemporneo en Amrica Latina. Mxico, Editorial Buena Noticia. Also very good is the
work of Martn Ocaa, Los banqueros de Dios: Una aproximacin evanglica a la teologa
de la prosperidad, Lima, Ediciones Puma, 2002. Both theses were defended at the
Universidad Bblica Latinoamericana, in San Jos, Costa Rica.
39
David Sang Bok Kim, A Bed of Roses or a Bed of Thorns, op. cit., p.14.
40
W. Ward Gasque, op. cit., p.40.
41
Possibility thinking in essence is the management of ideas. It is the discipline of separation
of negative thoughts from positive thoughts by this criterion: Positive thoughts are those
that hold undeveloped potential for good. Impossibility thinkers are people who instinctively
react negatively to a possibility-laden idea. In Robert H. Schuller, op. cit., p.109.
42
Some authors of prosperity theology cite, almost textually, only with biblical texts, the
ideas of his book, Las siete leyes de la prosperidad, Norma, Colombia, 1998.
43
The Late Rain movement appeared in the middle of the 20th century in which the
pastor W. Branham had a great influence. The fame of the movement was transformed
into a catalyst of the charismatic movement of the decades of the 1960s and 1970s.
Stanley M. Burgess and Gary B. McGee (eds), Dictionary of Pentecostal and Charismatic
Movements, op. cit., p.532.
44
M. G. Moriarty, The New Charismatics, Grand Rapids, Zondervan, 1992, p.39.
45
D. Hunt and T. A. McMahon, La seduccin de la cristiandad, Grand Rapids, Portavoz,
1988, p.231.

351

W. Ward Gasque, op. cit., p.44.

D. Yonggi Cho, La cuarta dimensin. Miami, Editorial Vida, 1996, p.26.
48
D. Sang Bok Kim, op. cit., p.20.
49
Y. Hoon Lee, The Case for Prosperity Theology, Evangelical Review of Theology, 20(1),
1996, pp.26 and 34.
50
K. Hwang, A Response, Evangelical Review of Theology, 20(1), 1996, p.47.
51
Y. Hoon Lee, Evangelical Review of Theology, 20(1), 1996, p.34.
52
J. Bakker and K. Abraham, Prosperity and the coming apocalypse: Avoiding the Dangers
of Materialistic Christianity in the End Times. Nashville, Thomas Nelson, 1998, p.5.
53
P. Wagner, Iglesias que oran, Nashville, Caribe, 1995, p.48.
54
Statement on Prosperity Theology and Theology of Suffering, op. cit., p.5.
55
Cf. Y. Hoon Lee, op. cit., p.31.
56
D. Sang Bok Kim, op. cit., p.24.
57
Ibid.
58
Statement on Prosperity Theology and Theology of Suffering, op. cit., p.5.
59
See Y. Kim, Jesus Teaching on Salvation and Suffering in Prosperity Theology and the
Theology of Suffering, op. cit., p.56.
60
Another man who was also persecuted for being in Satans territory was Martin Luther
King, Jr. I believe this man was a prophet of God, who began a great movement of God in
this country. Since I heard talk of his work, I backed him publicly from my pulpit. Earl
Paulk, El cuerpo herido de Cristo, Atlanta, K Dimension Publishers, p.50.
61
Wagner made reference to this theologian in his already cited work, pp.18, 20, 21, 23, 45,
212, 222.
62
This subject is thoroughly developed by Wink in his excellent trilogy: Naming the
Powers (1984), Unmasking the Powers (1986) and Engaging the Powers (1992), published
by Fortress Press, Philadelphia.
63
Gasque, op. cit., p.40.
64
Michael Moriarty, The New Charismatics: A Concerned Voice Responds to Dangerous
New Trends, Grand Rapids, Zondervan, 1992, p.59.
65
Ibid., p.58.
66
William Menzies, cited in Moriarty, op. cit., p.44.
67
Ibid., p.74.
68
Pablo A. Deiros and Carlos Mraida, op. cit., p.5.
69
Idem.
70
Earl Paulk, El ltimo Reino: Lecciones del Apocalipsis para el creyente de hoy. Atlanta,
Kingdom Publishers, 1987, p.6.
71
Earl Paulk, El cuerpo herido de Cristo, op. cit., p.10.
72
Gasque, op. cit., p.40.
73
H. Hanegraaff, Counterfeit Revival, Dallas (USA), Word Publishing, 1997, p.15.
74
C. Kraft, Christian Animism or God-Given Authority? in E. Rommen (ed.), Spiritual
Power and Missions. Pasadena (USA), Evangelical Missiological Society and William Carey
Library, 1995, No. 3, pp.92, 113.
75
C. Kraft, p.109.
76
Ibid., p.93.
77
Paulk, El ltimo reino, op. cit., p.6.
78
Pauk, El cuerpo herido de Cristo, op. cit., pp.39 and 46.
79
Yamil Jimnez Tabash, op. cit., p.2.
80
Satan Unmasked, p.138. Cited in Moriarty, p.128.
46
47

352

Paulk, El cuerpo herido de Cristo, op. cit., p.75.

James A. Beverly, La risa santa y la bendicin de Toronto. op. cit., p.132.
83
This appears in his book, La accin del Espritu Santo en la historia: Las lluvias tempranas
100-550. Nashville, Caribe, 1998.
84
Patrick Johnstone, Biblical Intercession: Spiritual Power to Change our World in Edward
Rommen, op. cit., p.137.
85
Johnstone, ibid., p.161. This principle is found in Motts work, The Evangelization of the
World in this Generation. London, Student Volunteer Missionary Union, 1900.
86
Deiros and Mraida, op. cit.
87
Ibid., p.5.
88
Johnstone, op. cit., p.142.
89
E. Paulk, Thrust in the Sickle and Reap. Atlanta, K Dimension, 1986, p.141. Cited in
Moriarty, 1992, p.87.
90
Hunt and McMahon, op. cit., p.11.
91
H. Hanegraaff, Christianity in Crisis. Miami, Harvest House and Editorial Unilit, 1993,
p.10.
92
Enlace is a TV network, linked with Trinity Broadcasting Network (TBN), that broadcasts
throughout Latin America.
93
H. Hanegraaff, Christianity in Crisis, op. cit., p.346.
94
Yamil Jimnez, op. cit., p.17.
95
C. Kee Hwang, op. cit., p.47.
96
D. Sang Bok Kim, op. cit., p.14.
97
Y. Kim, op. cit., p.55.
98
Y. Hoon Lee, op. cit., p.35.
99
K. Barth, Church Dogmatics, op. cit., p.31.
100
Ibid., p.30.
101
Baumgartner, op. cit., p.50.
102
J. Comblin, op. cit., p.81.
103
K. Barth, Carta a los Romanos, Madrid, Biblioteca de Autores Cristianos, 1998, p.369.
104
Moriarty, op. cit., p.178.
105
K. Barth, Church Dogmatics, op. cit., p.6.
106
K. Barth, Carta a los Romanos, p.241.
107
T. C. Hammond, Cmo comprender la doctrina cristiana: Manual de teologa para
laicos. Buenos Aires, Ediciones Certeza, 1978, p.177.
108
Joanna M. Adams, El contexto canadiense in Walter Brueggemann (ed.), op. cit., p.93.
109
Mentioned by Damayanthi M. A. Niles, Un contexto asitico in Brueggemann, ibid.,
p.131.
110
K. Barth, op. cit., p.4.
111
L. Boff, op. cit., pp.20 and 22.
112
Gleason, op. cit., p.21.
113
D. Bonhoeffer, El precio de la gracia. Salamanca, Ediciones Sgueme, 1968, pp.34-35.
114
Works previously quoted.
115
Works previously quoted.
116
H. Hanegraaff, Christianity in Crisis, op. cit., p.10.
117
Idem.
118
Gasque, op. cit., p.45.
119
H. Hanegraaff, Counterfeit Revival, op. cit., p.12.
120
Foreword H. Hanegraaff, Counterfeit Revival, p.xviii.
81

82

353

F. Martnez, op. cit., p.1.

Ibid.
123
Yamil Jimnez, op. cit., p.7.
124
H. Miller (ed.), The Vital Church Leader. Nashville, Abingdon Press, 1991, p.26.
125
An example of this is the work of Rodolfo Gaede Neto, Laude Erandi Brandeburg and
Evandro Jair Meurer, Teologia da Prosperidade e Nova Era. So Leopoldo (Brazil), Instituto
Ecumnico de Ps-Graduao, 1998. This monograph lacks the direct sources as much of
prosperity theology as the New Age movement.
126
Benables, op. cit., p.9.
127
The discussions are collected in the journal Evangelical Review of Theology, 20(1), 1996.
128
The outcomes were published in Evangelical Missiological Society Series, No. 3, 1995.
129
B. Rin Ro, In the Midst of Suffering is Prosperity Theology Scriptural? in Evangelical
Review of Theology, 20(1), 1996, p.3.
130
Martnez, op. cit., p.1.
131
Arius was a theologian of the 3rd century who disagreed with the formulation of the
doctrine of the Trinity. His perception that the Son of God, Jesus Christ, is not eternal but
rather created by God the Father from nothing, made him fall from grace with Athanasius
who influenced his ecclesiastical excommunication. Pelagius, for his part, was a theological
personality of the 5th century of Irish origin, who distanced himself from the theological
teachings of Augustine, who attacked him fiercely, and contributed to his excommunication.
Among the dissident ideas of Pelagius were his belief that man obtains salvation with the
help of his own works. The suffering of the theologian Muntzer and the physician Servetus
were part of the intolerance of the Protestant reformers Luther and Calvin. Muntzer, in
addition to questioning various theological ideas of Luthers, believed that the Protestant
Reformation should have been more radical, especially in its answers to the peasant
demands. Servetus, with his anti-trinitarian ideas, grieved Calvin, who supported his arrest,
and later his death as a heretic, after he refused to retract his theological ideas.
121
122

354

VOLUME 55(4), DECEMBER, 2005

Reformed faith, justice and the struggle

against apartheid
Dirk J. Smit

Smit provides a concise overview of the emergence of the apartheid system in

South Africa as well as of the role played by the Reformed tradition in its growth and
fall. He goes on to demonstrate how, in the struggle against apartheid, the heart of
Reformed faith and tradition itself was at stake. A minister of the Uniting Reformed
Church in Southern Africa, he teaches Systematic Theology at the University of
Stellenbosch.

Reformed faith, apartheid and the

struggle

particularly after the British occupation of

The story of the Reformed faith in South

1806. Britain controlled the labour market

and a variety of laws limited black land

Africa is indeed intimately interwoven with

the story of apartheid and the struggle

ownership and forced black people through

taxes to sell their labour to white

against apartheid and it is therefore a

complex story, a story of many stories,

landowners. After the discovery of diamonds

(1867) and gold (1886) laws further restricted

depending on the perspective of those

remembering, reconstructing and telling the

the movement of black people, requiring

them to carry passes, introducing job

story.
Apartheid

Apartheid literally means

reservation, and controlling social practices.

Racial segregation and discrimination

apartness, separateness, and refers to the

official political system between 1948 and

were widely practised during the first half of

the 20th century. Laws included major pillars

1994. Since the 1960s it was called separate

development. It sanctioned strict racial

of later apartheid like the dispossession of

land from the black majority, the denial of

segregation and political and economic

discrimination against all people legally

the vote to the majority of the population,

and the policies of migratory labour and

classified as nonwhite.
The history of racial tension, conflict,

influx control.
In 1948 the National Party gained office,

segregation and discrimination reaches back

to the beginning of colonization. It

extended the policy further and called it

apartheid. A whole range of apartheid laws

intensified through different phases,

followed and segregation was now

355

comprehensively enforced. During the 1950s

policy of the Dutch Reformed Church (DRC),

almost 100 apartheid laws were adopted,

totally controlling the lives of black people.

one of the major religious roots of apartheid.

The English-speaking settler churches

Gradually, apartheid became a grandiose

scheme to remove all blacks out of so-called

however also followed a practice of separate

churches for black and white for

white South Africa. Especially during the

era of H. F. Verwoerd, the Prime Minister

missiological reasons and were in social

practice almost as segregated as the DRC.

from 1958 to 1966, ideological apartheid

found full political expression. Ten African

Before the 1940s strong nationalistic

ideas became widespread amongst the

homelands were created and every black

person irrespective of actual residence was

white Afrikaner people. Their origins were

in European cultural, philosophical, political

classified as citizen of one of these.

Reformed faith and apartheid Official

and social developments, but very specific

local conditions and political and economic

apartheid was legitimated by an ideology

and even a theology of apartheid and

realities and interests caused their growing

popularity.

the Reformed faith and tradition played a

crucial role. The ideas and motives

Between 1924 and 1938 the ideal of

apartheid as total segregation was

culminating in this theology were however

complex and developed over a very long

formulated. It was a period of sociopolitical

upheaval. The poor-White problem was

period.
In 1829 some rural Dutch congregations

increasing. Urbanization caused social and

psychological dislocation for formerly rural

asked for separate facilities and services for

black converts. The church synod refused,

Afrikaner people and a sense of rivalry with

black people also flooding to the cities and

arguing that the Lords Supper should be

administered to all baptized members

mines. Local Afrikaner theologies developed

to support and popularize nationalistic

without distinction of colour. In 1857 the

church synod revoked that decision, saying

notions.
Particularly important was the role of

that due to the weakness of some they

could worship separately. What started as a

neo-Calvinism. The emphasis on

pluriformity in creation, stressed by the

concession gradually became common

practice and later determined the structure

Reformed theologian in the Netherlands,

Abraham Kuyper, played a major role. Each

and order of the church. In 1881 a separate

Dutch Reformed Mission Church was

race had a God-given responsibility to

maintain its identity. Each people was

established for coloured people, to be

followed by several other ethnic churches.

chosen for a specific calling. Each people

accordingly also had a natural right to

This church policy of separate churches

would later culminate in the missionary

survival and self-determination.

Young Afrikaner academics returning

356

from Holland and Germany played major

support for apartheid. A public storm

roles in propagating these ideological

notions and in cooperating to organize

erupted. Verwoerd almost threatened the

Afrikaner church leaders involved. The

Afrikaner political and economic power. A

series of church, ecumenical, and missionary

different synods of the Dutch Reformed

Church rejected the Cottesloe decisions

conferences and peoples congresses

emphasized the importance of these

and repudiated their own leadership. The

DRC later adopted several documents on

challenges and formulated influential

solutions and policies.

the political situation. In 1974 they

published Human Relations and the

Representatives of the white Afrikaner

churches increasingly appealed to

South African scene in the light of

Scripture.

government for laws to protect these rights

to cultural, ethnic and national survival and

More important than the official

documents of the white Afrikaner

self-determination. They exerted pressure

on the government to prohibit racially mixed

churches was the fact that the social,

economic, cultural, political and even

marriages and demanded separate schools

and residential areas. Increasingly,

religious practices of apartheid were by

now commonly accepted by most

scriptural proofs were provided to

legitimate the ideology. There was a clear

members of these churches as the divine

will and as ethical imperative. Those

development from pragmatic support for

segregation and separate churches for

critical of apartheid were openly branded

as dangerous and communist.

missiological purposes to a full-scale

theological framework giving biblical

Resistance against racism and

apartheid
The story of resistance

sanction to a total ideology. Gradually,

nation was used as a hermeneutical tool.

against racism and later apartheid is just

as long and complex, especially between

The church was seen in terms of the nation.

The unity of believers was a spiritual reality

its official implementation in 1948 and

its official abolishment during the 1990s.

only.
It took some time and a period of

During the 1950s blacks mobilized

themselves increasingly against white

intense conflict before the white

Afrikaner churches would officially adopt

domination, in the Defiance Campaign.

After the Sharpeville Massacre the African

this theology. The 1960 Sharpeville

Massacre 1 brought a turning point. An

Nationalist Congress and the Pan

Africanist Congress were banned.

ecumenical consultation at Cottesloe 2,

responded to the crisis. Moderate

Organized black political opposition was

oppressed and many leaders imprisoned

resolutions were taken emphasizing the

unity of the church and denying biblical

or banned. A period of intense polarization

and conflict followed. An armed struggle
357

began. World opinion against apartheid

negotiations started, preparing the first

became much stronger, eventually leading

to comprehensive boycotts and sanctions.

democratic elections. An interim

constitution was accepted and a

The National Party resisted the growing

international pressure, proclaiming it to be

constitutional court established. Apartheid

officially ended with democratic elections

part of a total Communist onslaught against

Western civilization and values, and

in 1994 and the implementation of a new

democratic Constitution in 1997.

increased its grip on South African society.

The uprising in Soweto (1976) intensified

The churches and the struggle against

apartheid
Again the role of the many

the resistance and the oppression all over

the country. A spiral of violence started. Many

churches involved in the struggle against

apartheid is equally well known, and again

people suffered as a result, in many different

ways. Prisoners like Steve Biko died in

the Reformed faith and tradition was at the

heart of the struggle. There is no way of

detention.
Several moderate and pragmatic political

understanding and narrating the conflict of

the anti-apartheid years without paying

and economic reforms were made in an

attempt to withstand the increasing external

attention to the church struggle and the

impact of the Christian faith, church and

pressures and sanctions and the internal

resistance, but without success. The

leadership including the Reformed faith

and tradition.

Constitution was changed and Coloureds

and Indians were offered participation in a

The history of opposition in church

circles against segregation, discrimination

tri-cameral Parliament, with black people

still excluded.

and later apartheid, is a long one. In the

aftermath of the Cottesloe ecumenical

During 1985 a State of Emergency was

proclaimed. The apartheid state now

consultation it became stronger. The

Christian Institute was formed by Beyers

became a security state. Representatives of

government declared that apartheid was

Naud and others to oppose racism in the

churches. The Institute worked with

dead, and that the issues at stake were now

completely different. The country gradually

Christians of all races on issues of church

and society and was the most outspoken

became ungovernable and the economy

threatened to collapse. Security forces were

anti-apartheid body in the country. In 1977

Naud and the Institute received banning

expected to suppress resistance, if necessary

by unconventional methods.

orders for seven years. From 1985-87 he

served as General Secretary of the South

Early in 1990 F. W. de Klerk unbanned

the restricted organizations and released

African Council of Churches. In 1968 this

Council published the Message to the People

Nelson Mandela from prison. Apartheid laws

were increasingly repealed. Multiparty

of South Africa condemning apartheid as a

pseudo-gospel. From 1978-85 Desmond

358

Tutu led the SACC as General Secretary. He

Catholic Bishops Conference. Lutherans

later became Archbishop of Cape Town and

well known internationally for his leadership

and Pentecostals, both white and African,

and the African Initiated Churches, were

in the opposition against apartheid. In 1984

he received the Nobel peace prize.

less involved.
The 1970s brought a new phase in the

The
international
ecumenical
movement played an increasing role in the

struggle against apartheid with the Black

Consciousness Movement and the rise of

anti-apartheid struggle. In 1970 the World

Council of Churches established the

black theology. The emergence of a black

caucus within the University Christian

Programme to Combat Racism. During these

years many Christian churches rejected

Movement since 1968 played a major role.

The Kairos Document (1985) and the Road

apartheid as sin and its theological

justification as heresy. The Lutheran World

to Damascus (1989) offered radical

challenges to the churches in South Africa

Federation (1977) and the World Alliance of

Reformed Churches (1982) declared a status

and in countries suffering the oppressive

inheritance of colonialism. Kairos in

confessionis. WARC said: We declare with

Black Reformed Christians of South Africa

particular caused a major furore. It attacked

both state theology with a national security

that apartheid (separate development) is a

sin, and that the moral and theological

ideology and church theology of cheap

reconciliation and social harmony, and

justification of it is a travesty of the Gospel

and, in its persistent disobedience to the

called the churches to move from protest to

action. These documents were followed by

Word of God, a theological heresy.3

Many South African denominations were

similar declarations from Evangelical and

Pentecostal circles.

also increasingly involved in criticism of and

resistance against apartheid. Leaders of

The struggle also played itself out within

the Reformed faith and tradition. In 1978

particularly the Anglican, Presbyterian,

Methodist and Congregational churches

the Dutch Reformed Mission Church

(DRMC) rejected the ideology of apartheid

have long been concerned with issues

related to church unity and social justice.

as in conflict with the gospels message of

reconciliation, while based on the

After the Cottesloe ecumenical consultation

they increasingly took the lead in local

conviction
of
the
fundamental
irreconcilability of people. In 1982 the DRMC

ecumenical endeavours and nondenominational organizations, like the

declared a status confessionis and drafted

the Belhar Confession4, confessing God as

Institute for Contextual Theology. Since the

1960s the Roman Catholic Church also

the God of one church, of reconciliation, and

of justice, thereby rejecting the theology of

became outspoken in sociopolitical affairs,

particularly through the Southern African

apartheid. In 1994 the DRMC and the DRCA

united, with a church order explicitly based
359

on the Belhar Confession, to form the

the implications of reading the Bible in

Uniting Reformed Church in Southern

Africa (URCSA).

apartheid South Africa should have been.

What does the gospel say about racism,

A struggle for the heart of the

Reformed faith
Looking back, it is possible to claim that
the heart of the Reformed faith and
tradition itself was at stake in the struggle
against apartheid and the ideology
undergirding apartheid.
This can be demonstrated by brief
reminders of five of the central debates
involved in this struggle, namely the conflicts
about the Reformed understanding and use
of the Word of God, the Reformed
understanding of the church, the Reformed
understanding of the truth of the gospel,
the Reformed understanding of the
concrete, visible and practical embodiment
of this gospel, and the Reformed
understanding of Gods caring, liberating
justice.
A struggle for the Bible

Reading the

Bible was very controversial during the

apartheid history, and especially so in the
Reformed churches and theology. The Bible
was indeed sometimes called a site of
struggle. This story has also often been told,
and in great detail.
On the surface, the struggle was about
the use of the Bible in sociopolitical and
ethical reasoning, about the question how
it was possible to use the Bible in
contemporary political and ethical
controversies in a legitimate and
responsible way, or more specifically what
360

about apartheid, about political oppression

and violations of human dignity and rights,
about social and economic injustice? What
does the Bible teach, what does the Bible
say? What is the message of the Bible, in
this regard?
Underlying these debates, however,
were deeper, more fundamental questions
challenging the central claims of the
Reformed faith, since Calvin. At stake was
the question whether it was legitimate at
all to make any claims on behalf of the
Bible, even in questions of faith and
doctrine, whether the Bible or God says
anything at all, whether it is possible to
appeal to the Bible in any legitimate way
today, in fact, whether there is anything
like the Bible in the singular. Central
Calvinist convictions concerning the
message, scopus or thrust of the Bible
became the site of struggle.
At first, it was from the ranks of biblical
scholarship that these questions were
raised, rejecting the seemingly naive and
innocent misuse of the Bible by so-called
ordinary believers, the seemingly
sophisticated but in fact deeply misleading
use of the Bible in official church
documents, and of course what they saw
as the outdated doctrinal misuse of the
Bible by theologians. The Bible might have
been read this way in pre-modern and
Reformation times, but it was no longer
acceptable, in the light of developments

in the field of scholarly biblical studies

within the Reformed churches. This is

during the last centuries, was the

argument.

indeed one of the lasting legacies of

apartheid that many have lost their

This criticism was particularly directed

against those biblical scholars and

confidence and trust regarding claims about

the Bible, its truth, and its message and

theologians who should have known better,

but at the same time still participated in

anyone claiming that the Word indeed

speaks about justice today, has to be willing

writing church documents actually using and

quoting the Bible whether defending or

to face and deal with such criticism and

scepticism.

rejecting apartheid.
The claim was increasingly heard that

A struggle for the church Central to

this debate about the Bible was a struggle

both apartheid defenders and anti-apartheid

strugglers read and used the Bible in exactly

for the church its nature and its calling,

what the church is and what it is called to

the same way, according to the self-same

paradigm. Their political values were

be, according to the Bible. In a way, of course,

the story of apartheid originated in the

opposed to one another, yes, and therefore

their respective political readings of the

Lords Supper, when the 1857 Synod granted

that due to the weakness of some worship

Bible were directly contradictory, but their

readings were also similar in the sense that

could be organized separately, based on

descent, race and social status. This

they all believed that there is a Bible with a

message and that this message is still

concession gradually became common

practice and still later the norm for the order

relevant and could even be appropriated in

contemporary doctrinal, ecclesiological and

and structure of the church.

Apartheid theology, in its fully

ethical arguments.
For the Reformed faith, this raised an

developed form, argued that creation

structures recreation, that grace does not

important cluster of questions and

challenges. The heart of being Reformed

destroy creation but fulfils it. The New

Testament church of Jesus Christ should

was being challenged. These debates

continued in many forms, often under the

therefore be structured and organized

according to the Old Testament reports

rubrics of reception- or reader-response

theories, contextuality and contextual

about how God in his grace and mercy

divided and separated the peoples at the

hermeneutics and it is no wonder that so

many Reformed scholars from South Africa

tower of Babel into different languages,

cultures and communities, in order to

have been deeply involved in developments

in these areas.

experience the wonderful richness and

diversity intended for them in his original

Today this sceptical attitude has become

widespread in South African circles, also

creation, but against which they revolted

in their sinful attempt to unite and to
361

bring together what God created differently.

Christ alone and that this should also

At the heart of these debates was the

question whether the church should be

determine the visible structure and order of

the church.

visibly one, and how. Apartheid theologians

fully agreed that the church is one

A struggle for truth Were these merely

theological debates about what Calvin would

spiritually, invisibly, with one faith, one

hope, one baptism, one bread and wine, one

call adiaphora, some of the many theological,

biblical and ecclesiological controversies

Lord. They denied, however, that this unity

should become visible, at least in any

about which believers could legitimately hold

different opinions?

structural or organizational form, which

according to them belongs to the wellbeing

Within the Reformed family in South

Africa the convictions were growing that this

of the church, and not to its being.

Congregations could therefore determine

was not the case, but that they were facing

nothing less than a status confessionis, a

who could become members and who could

worship, even based on race and ethnicity,

moment of truth in which the truth of the

gospel itself was at stake.

and denominations are associations of

congregations who freely organize

In 1982 the Dutch Reformed Mission

Church followed the World Alliance of

themselves together because they have

something in common, for example being

Reformed Churches in declaring such a state

of confession. Precisely because many

part of and serving the same volk.

Hidden behind these seemingly

people, including their own members, could

perhaps be surprised by the sudden urgency

innocent theological positions and these

seemingly timeless, theoretical and abstract

of such a step, they decided to confess to

explain why the gospel was at stake,

ecclesiological arguments, were of course

different kinds of very real group interests,

according to their understanding of the truth

of the gospel for this historical moment and

whether material and financial, cultural and

nationalist, social, classist and elitist,

context. In this act of confession, they were

again very consciously following the tradition

political and economic. These theological

viewpoints were ideologically used as

of Calvin, of earlier Reformed confessional

documents, and of Karl Barth and the

powerful social weapons in a very real

struggle about human life and death issues.

German Confessing Church.

In an official Accompanying Letter to the

Very consciously in the tradition of

Calvin, of classical confessional documents

Belhar Confession the Dutch Reformed

Mission Church explained the attitude,

from the Reformed theology and specifically

also of the Barmen Theological Declaration5,

authority, purpose and expectations of

Belhar as they understood it and very

others therefore rejected this ecclesiology,

arguing that the church belongs to Jesus

explicitly in the classical way in which

Reformed confessions have been intended

362

and understood, including the way Barth

documents in explicitly speaking about

interpreted Reformed confession during the

1920s for the World Alliance of Reformed

social and economic justice but in doing

this it claims that it remains faithful to the

Churches 6 and the way Barmen was

intended and understood.

legacy of the Reformed faith and particularly

of Calvins own theological project.

The Letter acknowledges the

importance of the historical context calling

Living unity, real reconciliation and

compassionate, caring justice are intimately

forth the act of confession; it emphasizes

that the Word of God could provide the only

related according to Belhar, and it is

precisely this claim which made the

ground and authority of such a confession;

it realizes that an act of confession may

Confession so powerful and inspiring in the

apartheid context, according to many, both

never be motivated by false motives we

do not wish to serve any group interests,

believers and scholarly theologians.

There is no living unity amongst believers

advance the cause of any factions, promote

any theologies or achieve any ulterior

without real reconciliation, addressing the

painful legacies from the past, healing the

purposes. Although the intention of the

confession is therefore not to be merely a

wounds of brokenness and separation, and

no real reconciliation without addressing

contribution to an ongoing theological

debate about political, social and economic

the blatant and crying social and economic

divisions and injustices in society and vice

issues, there can be no doubt that it is indeed

called forth by the historical moment of

versa. Unity, reconciliation and justice all

belong together as one confesses Belhar,

apartheid, and specifically by the prevailing

social and economic injustices, justified in

claiming that this is the truth of the gospel

of Jesus Christ itself, and that the credibility

the name of the gospel.

This becomes abundantly clear from the

of the witness of the church that belongs to

Jesus Christ calls for forms of discipleship, of

content and structure of the Confession

itself. Apartheid is very deliberately never

Christian life and of being the church that

keep these three together.

mentioned, precisely because a Reformed

confession is necessitated by a historical

This indeed represented a struggle for

the heart of the Reformed tradition,

context, but its truth should extend further

than the moment and the false teaching.

because, although such a direct link between

confessing the truth of the gospel and

The yes is much more important, critical

and lasting than the no and should be a

socioethical claims concerning justice might

have been new, the claim of those believers

yes for others and elsewhere as well, if it is

indeed the yes and the truth of the gospel.

and churches struggling against apartheid

was that this link between doctrine and

The Confession moves beyond the

content of existing Reformed confessional

ethics, between faith and life, between

theology and ecclesiology, between message
363

and order, between truth and discipleship,

Reformed confession also involves ethics.

between the gospel and social and

economic justice, was indeed at the heart

His well-known definition makes this

abundantly clear. Until further action, the

of the legacy they received from Calvin.

A struggle for embodiment Perhaps

confession defines (the communitys)

character to outsiders and gives guidance

the most challenging aspect of the struggle

against apartheid was to put these

for its own doctrine and life.7 The identity

and integrity of the community is expressed

convictions into practice, to embody this

confession in the Christian life of those

in the confession, and therefore it should

inform and guide the order and the ethics

who confess, in new ways of ordering the

church itself, and in public life. Again, all

of the church.
It is for this reason that the writing of a

three of these convictions are deeply

embedded in Calvins own theology, life and

new Church Order for the Uniting Reformed

Church in Southern Africa based on the

work, and are at the heart of the Reformed

tradition.

Belhar Confession was such a significant

moment in the history of the struggle. This

Witness involves both words and

deeds. This conviction is fundamental to

Order represents the attempt to embody

the truth of the gospel, as understood in the

the Reformed vision. Confession calls for

embodiment, including both the order and

historical moment, in the life of the church

that belongs to Jesus Christ. In ways

form as well as the fullness of life of the

church. At the end of his life Calvin recalled

reminiscent of Calvin, the worship of the

local congregation is seen as the heart of

that when he came to Geneva there was

only preaching, no reformation. That is

the life of the church, but in and through

the reason why he immediately wrote both

a confession and an order embodying that

one another and the world. Its Article 4

confession for the congregation in Geneva,

a practice that would continue in the
Reformed tradition. Time and again,
confessions would be followed by church
orders, so that the witness of the community,
through words, deeds and life, could indeed
correspond to the confession, which meant,
to the gospel as heard in their historical
context.
It was precisely this emphasis by Calvin
on life and ethics as integral to faith that
interested Barth so much during the 1920s.
364

the worship the believers are called to serve

reads:
The congregation forms a community
of believers in a particular place to serve
God, each other and the world. Service
of God has a bearing on the whole life of
the congregation and therefore includes
service to each other and to the world.
The heart of this service of God is to be
found in the coming together of the
congregation round the Word of God and
the sacraments, where God is
worshipped and praised. Gods Word is
listened to, the sacraments are received
and all needs are brought to God in order

to strengthen the believers in their faith

and to prepare them for their service to
each other and the world. The believers
accept mutual responsibility for each
other in their spiritual and physical needs.
The congregation lives as a family of God
in which all are inextricably bound to
each other and share each others joy
and sorrow. Each considers the other as
higher than him- or herself and no one
only cares about her or his own needs,
but also about the needs of others. In
this way they share each others burdens
and carry out the law of Christ. The
congregations service to humankind and
the world consists of proclaiming Gods
reconciling and liberating acts in and for
the world; of living out the love of Christ
in the world; of calling humankind to
reconciliation with God and mutual
reconciliation and peace; of following
God, who is in a special way the God of
the destitute, the poor and the wronged;
by supporting people in any form of
suffering and need; and by witnessing
and striving against any form of injustice;
by calling upon the government and the
authorities to serve all the inhabitants
of the country by allowing justice to prevail
and by fighting against injustice; by
witnessing against all rulers and those
who are privileged who may selfishly
seek their own interests and thus control
and harm others.
Article 12 deals with the churchs public
responsibility, again in typically Reformed
fashion:
The URCSA8 sees it as her kingly task
to set an example to humankind and
society in obedient application of the
demands of Gods Word in regard to love
of neighbour, the exercise of justice and
the realization of reconciliation, and the

pursuit of true peace in her own life. She

sees it as her prophetic task to proclaim
these demands of Gods Word as they
have a bearing on society as a whole and
on individual institutions, particularly the
state, without respect for persons. She
sees it as her priestly task to pray for and
intercede for the government and society
and to intervene for the suffering, the
poor, the wronged, and the oppressed
within this society, also by way of
organized service.
Of particular importance is the way in
which the churchs calling is described in
terms of serving and embodying social and
economic justice in society, even explicitly
using words from Belhar.

A struggle for Calvins legacy on

Gods caring, liberating justice
During a consultation on Calvins
socioeconomic thought, it may be useful to
focus separately on a final aspect of this
struggle for the heart of the Reformed faith.
What is new in Belhar and central to its
claims concerning truth and embodiment,
is precisely its confession of Gods justice:
We believe that God has revealed
Godself as the One who wishes to bring
about justice and true peace among
people; that in a world full of injustice
and enmity God is in a special way the
God of the destitute, the poor and the
wronged and that He calls his Church to
follow Him in this; that He brings justice
to the oppressed and gives bread to the
hungry; that He frees the prisoner and
restores sight to the blind; that He
supports the downtrodden, protects the
stranger, helps orphans and widows and
365

blocks the path of the ungodly; that for

Him pure and undefiled religion is to visit
the orphans and the widows in their
suffering; that He wishes to teach His
people to do what is good and to seek
the right; that the Church must therefore
stand by people in any form of suffering
and need, which implies, among other
things, that the Church must witness
against and strive against any form of
injustice, so that justice may roll down
like waters, and righteousness like an
ever-flowing stream; that the Church as
the possession of God must stand where
God stands, namely against injustice and
with the wronged; that in following Christ
the Church must witness against all the
powerful and privileged who selfishly
seek their own interests and thus control
and harm others. Therefore, we reject
any ideology which would legitimate
forms of injustice and any doctrine which
is unwilling to resist such an ideology in
the name of the gospel.9
This was a claim made on the basis of
the Word of God and how it was heard
and believed in the Reformed churches
suffering under and struggling against
apartheid. The explicit purpose with
Belhar was not to write a new theological
document informing believers what they
should believe, but on the contrary to find
words to express what they already
believed and on the basis of which they
were already convinced that apartheid was
sin and its theological justification false.
In the Confession there were therefore
several allusions to Scripture to remind the
believers of central Scriptural passages,
trajectories and perspectives, supporting
these claims. From the very first moment,
366

believers and congregations indeed

wholeheartedly recognized in these words
the convictions living in their own hearts,
concerning Gods caring, compassionate
justice. These Reformed Christians suffering
under apartheid immediately recognized
in these confessional claims their own
faith in the justice of the God revealed in
Jesus Christ.
It is no wonder that these claims also
found immediate and strong resonance
with many Reformed and other
Christians in Southern Africa and further
north in the continent suffering under the
marginalization and exclusion caused and
exacerbated by the present realities of the
global economy. The story is also well
known, and still ongoing.
At Kitwe in Zambia Reformed
Christians took up these insights of Belhar
in what became a cry for social and
economic justice from the African
continent, and they explicitly claimed
Calvin for this cause, quoting his social
and economic views more than once in
the Kitwe Declaration.
Together with voices from other
countries, regions and contexts, Belhar and
Kitwe became part of the continuing struggle
in the Reformed world and ecumenical
church for global economic justice.
Conclusion: sola scriptura civitate
interpretata?
In a recent study, published
posthumously, Heiko Oberman coins the
phrase sola scriptura civitate interpretata
to describe Calvins use of Scripture. It means

that Scripture alone was the final authority

Reformed Christians under apartheid also

for Calvin, but the Scriptures read and

interpreted with a view to the city, with a

read the Bible. That this remains a deeply

ambiguous, ambivalent and dangerous

view to public life, to the questions and

issues, the challenges and crises of society.

undertaking is also overwhelmingly clear

already in Calvins own life, and again in

According to Oberman, this referred

particularly to the suffering and hardships

apartheid South Africa.

It is for this reason that John de Gruchy

of strangers, of refugees and exiles. There

is no way, he argues, of understanding

deliberately chose the ambiguous title

Liberating Reformed theology for his very

Calvins thought and theology, including

his views on Gods gracious election, Gods

informative study on the Reformed faith and

tradition from a South African perspective.

providential care and Gods covenantal

faithfulness, as well as Calvins work as a

It is a faith and tradition that must

continuously be liberated from its own

social reformer, including his involvement

in education and welfare, without taking

failures and idolatries, but also a faith and

tradition with an enormous liberating

into account the historical context of the

diaspora, the material and spiritual

potential also as it follows Calvin in

confessing Gods caring and compassionate

conditions of the congregation in Geneva

at the time.

justice in a world of injustice and oppression,

and the calling of his church to serve this

It is precisely in this sense that

God.

367

Selected bibliography
Cloete, G. D. & Smit, D. J. (eds). A moment of
truth. Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 1984.
De Gruchy, J. W. Liberating Reformed
theology. Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans,
1991.
Elphick, R. & Davenport, R. (eds). Christianity
in South Africa: A political, social and
cultural history, David Philip, 1997.
Oberman, H. A. The two reformations: The

journey from the last days to the new world

(ed. D. Weinstein). New Haven: Yale
University Press, 2003.
Smit, D. J. Theologische Anstze fr
kirchliches Engagement in Fragen der
Globalisierung. Reformierte Perspektiven
aus dem Sdlichen Afrika, kumenische
Rundschau 2004/2, pp.160-175.
Smit, D. J., Sdafrika, Theologische
Realenzyklopdie, Band XXXII, Berlin:
Walter de Gruyter, 2000, pp.322-332.

Notes
The government repression of black political unrest in Sharpeville, Transvaal, caused the
death of 69 people. More than 180 were wounded. A state of emergency was established.
Many people, including the leadership of organizations such as the African National Congress,
were arrested. (Editors note)
2
Following the Sharpeville Massacre, some 80 representatives of members of the World
Council of Churches in South Africa gathered in Cottesloe, near Johannesburg, for a weeklong consultation. (Editors note)
3
Cf. Resolution on Racism and South Africa. Ottawa 1982 Proceedings of the 21st
General Council of the World Alliance of Reformed Churches (Presbyterian and
Congregational) Held at Ottawa, Canada, August 17-27, 1982. Geneva, Offices of the
Alliance, 1983, p.178. (Editors note)
4
Confession of Belhar, www.vgksa.org.za/confessions/belhar_confession/htm or
www.warc.ch/pc/20th/ (Editors note).
5
Theological Declaration of Barmen, www.warc.ch/pc/20th/. (Editors note)
6
K. Barth, The Idea of a Reformed Confession of Faith - I, The Quarterly Register, XIII(5),
February 1926, pp.100-103; The Idea of a Reformed Confession of Faith II, The Quarterly
Register, XIII(6), May 1926, pp.125-128; Is a Common Statement of the Faith (Creed or
Confession) Desirable and Practicable for the Presbyterian World? Proceedings of the
Twelfth General Council of the Alliance of Reformed Churches Holding the Presbyterian
System Held at Cardiff 1925. Edinburgh, Office of the Alliance, 1926, pp.128-143. (Editors
note)
7
Cf. K. Barth, The Idea of a Reformed Confession of Faith II, The Quarterly Register,
XIII(6), May 1926, p.126. (Editors note)
8
Uniting Reformed Church in Southern Africa. (Editors note)
9
Confession of Belhar, www.vgksa.org.za/confessions/belhar_confession/htm or
www.warc.ch/pc/20th/. (Editors note)
1

368

VOLUME 55(4), DECEMBER, 2005

Communion and catholicity:

Reformed perspectives on ecclesiology
Karel Blei
What is specific about the way Reformed theologies articulate the
understanding of the church and its unity as communion and the understanding of
the churchs attribute of catholicity? Addressing a commission of Orthodox and
Reformed theologians in the context of the Orthodox-Reformed international
theological dialogue, Karel Blei outlines an answer to this question. A Dutch
Reformed theologian, he was the moderator of the WARC Department of Theology
(1989-1997).He is the author of Freedom of Religion and Belief: Europes Story (Assen,
Van Gorcum, 2002).

Is there any connection between the

authoritative

bodies

such

as

the

notion of the Church as communion and

the statement that the Church is catholic?

Congregation for the Doctrine of Faith, is

absolutely unacceptable.4 Anyway, generally

These seem to be two different themes, the

more so as in recent communion documents

speaking, in these interpretations and

discussions there is no link to the notion of

there is no mention at all of the Churchs

catholicity.

the catholicity of the Church.

The same goes for texts of the World

Over the last decades, the theme of the

Church as communion has become more

Council of Churches (WCC). Here, likewise,

since the nineties, a preference has become

and more popular in ecumenical

discussions. This is the case, for example, in

apparent to describe the unity we seek in

terms of communion. In fact, that idea had

the Roman Catholic Church and theology

since the Second Vatican Council and

already been present, though in different

words, in earlier texts, such as the Unity

especially since 1985. 1 Former popular

definitions of the Church, such as the Body

Report of the WCC New Delhi assembly of

1961, or in the corresponding Report of the

of Christ2 or The People of God,3 have not

been abolished but are no longer prominent.

WCC Nairobi assembly of 1975. In those

earlier times, one used to speak of

The ecclesiology of communion has even

become the issue of an interpretation

fellowship, or, more specifically, conciliar

fellowship, but it was the Canberra

struggle. Some are interpreting it in a way

that to others, high-ranking theologians and

assembly of 1991 that formally introduced

the terminology of communion. One even
369

preferred the Greek original: koinonia. The

as attributes of the Church or notae

assembly adopted a text under the heading:

The Unity of the Church as Koinonia: Gift

ecclesiae. But there is more. I think they

are interrelated. Like communion,

and Calling. 5 Since then, several

ecumenical consultations have produced

catholicity is to be understood as a nearer

qualification of the Churchs unity. It

texts on specific aspects of this koinonia

concept, especially on the relation between

qualifies this unity as a comprehensive

unity. And at the same time, unity or

ecclesiology and ethics.6 Again, remarkably

enough however, we do not see any specific

communion qualifies catholicity: as a

comprehensivity with a basis, a centre.

reference here to the notion of the

catholicity of the Church.

Comprehensivity in what sense? 7 We

realize that the original, literal meaning of

Communion and catholicity

catholic - in Greek katholon - is: concerning

the whole, with reference to totality. One

Or is there a natural link between

communion and catholicity? Yes, I think

may think here of the whole world, the

whole of humankind. Catholic Church

there is. Because communion - or

community - is a specific form of unity, and

means then: the one universal Church, or

the one Church for all. That is the

because catholicity and unity immediately

belong together. Let me say a few more

geographic, quantitative interpretation of

catholicity.

things on both issues.

First: the issue of unity and communion

One can also think of the whole of the

gospel, the totality of the Word of God, the

or community. Unity as such could be

interpreted in terms of uniformity. It could

total Christ. Along this line of thinking, the

(one) Church can be called catholic

refer to something like a monolithic block.

Communion contributes to unity the notion

because (or in so far as) it, in its preaching

and acting, is faithful to this entire Word of

of a living plurality. A communion is different

people or groups of people holding - or being

God. That is the qualitative interpretation:

internal catholicity. In the fourth century,

held - together, despite or in their

differences. Unity understood as

Cyrillus of Jerusalem, in his teaching, tried

to keep both interpretations together. In

communion, as the Canberra text puts it,

means indeed a specific understanding:

fact, the second interpretation is the reverse

and background of the first one. The Church

away from uniformity or statics; unity as a

living reality.

is universal because - or in so far as - it is

faithful to the Word of God, and this Word is

Secondly: the issue of unity and

catholicity. It is significant that in the

for all humanity. The Church is universal

because - or in so far as - it is the Church of
Christ, and Christ is the Lord of the world. It
is impossible to emphasize the qualitative

Nicene-Constantinopolitan Creed the words

one and catholic appear side by side, both
370

interpretation at the expense of the

is a reality full of communion. Koinonia may

quantitative interpretation of catholicity.

The word catholic does not occur in the

point to a specific act: the act of keeping

together. As in Acts 2.42, where koinonia is

New Testament. It appears for the first time

at the beginning of the second century, in

mentioned together with the apostles

teaching, the breaking of bread and the

one of the epistles of Ignatius of Antiochia.

A key theme in these epistles is that all, in

prayers, as a basic element of the life of the

first Christian Church in Jerusalem. It

every place, should follow and submit to the

bishop. In his epistle to the Smyrnaeans,

probably refers to what is said in 2.44: that

they had all things together (hapanta

Ignatius writes in that context: Wherever

the bishop appears, let the congregation

koina). Some places point in the same

direction, dealing with the willingness of

[literally: to plthos, the crowd] be present;

just as wherever Jesus Christ is, there is the

Christians and local churches elsewhere to

share resources with the poor among the

Catholic Church (8.2).

Here, apparently, Ignatius sees the

saints in Jerusalem (Rom 15.26; cf. 2 Cor 8.4

and 9.13). This sharing is a translation of

relation of the bishop to Jesus Christ in

analogy to the relation of the bishops

what is in Greek: doing koinonia or koinonia

ts diakonias, the communion of service.

congregation to the Church of Christ. The

bishop is the local leader; so, the bishops

In most cases, however, koinonia,

connected with a genitive, indicates a

congregation is the local Church. Christ is

the Lord of the universe; so, the Church of

common participating in someone or

something: in Jesus Christ (1 Cor 1.9), in his

Christ is, by definition, more-than-local,

universal, the Church in its entirety. It is

blood and body (10.16-17), in the gospel (Phil

1.5), in Christs sufferings (3.10). This may be

that universal, entire Church that as such is

called catholic by Ignatius. So, from the

called: vertical koinonia. It is the basis of

horizontal koinonia, realized in the mutual

beginning, the catholicity of the Church has

had a quantitative connotation. This

sharing of Christians together. So, the

Church, seen as a communion, is more than

connected immediately to the extent of

Christs reign, that can be described in

an interhuman fellowship. It is this

fellowship on the basis of a participation of

qualitative but certainly also in quantitative

terms. As I said, the Churchs unity or

what (Whom) all have in common (koinon):

Christ and his life-giving grace. As I said,

communion is comprehensive communion.

Differently from the word catholic, the

catholicity is comprehensiveness with a

basis, a centre.

word communion (koinonia) is a biblical

word. 8 It is true, nowhere in the New

A remarkable illustration of this last issue

is to be found in the text of the so-called

Testament is koinonia an indication of the

Church itself. But the reality of the Church

Apostles Creed. That Creed, which is to be

distinguished from the Nicene371

Constantinopolitan Creed, originated in the

Luther, John Calvin rejected a church

West and was completed in the seventh

century. It contains an addition to the article

hierarchy as it manifested itself

authoritatively in the Roman Catholic

on the Church; an addition we do not find

in the Nicene text. After the words on the

Church. The Church he conflicted with was

above all: the Church as official institute,

holy, catholic Church we read: the

communion of saints. Obviously, this is a

keeping people dependent on its

administration of grace and on its own,

nearer qualification of the Church. So, the

ecclesiology of communion can take its

doctrinal Bible interpretation, preventing

people from having a direct access to God in

point of departure even in this ancient text!

Now, as is well known, the original Latin

Christ.
In Calvins view, instead of being a servant

wording, communio sanctorum, allows for

more than one translation. 9 The word

of Gods Word, this Church institute unjustly

claimed to be master of the Word. Church

sanctorum can be the genitive of the

masculine plural sancti, the saints, but also

doctrine and practice had taken the

dominant position, thus preventing the

of the neuter plural sancta, the holy things.

Usually, these sancta, these holy things

people from being open to what God in Christ,

through the Bible, has to say himself.

are interpreted as a reference to the

sacraments, especially to the Eucharist.

In contrast to that, Calvin emphasized a

different view of what Church is: the

Interpreted in this way, communio

sanctorum could well be translated as

Church as, indeed, communio sanctorum,

not an institution of grace above people, but

communion with the holy things, and this

communion with is an equivalent of a

the communion of the people themselves;

not an institution of salvation, distributing

common sharing in. Probably, in the words

of the Creed, both meanings should be heard

salvation according to its own insight and

decision, but a communion of salvation, a

together. Anyway, this again reminds us that

the (catholic!) Church is communion

communion of people who are listening to

the Word and actually sharing in salvation.
That is why he objected to the word in
in the Nicene article on the Church. That
article reads: We believe in (Greek: eis) one

because of its being centred in, based on, a

common participation in Christ and his
grace. Catholicity is comprehensiveness with
a basis, a centre.

The Reformed tradition on the

ecclesiology of communion
Now let us have a specific look into the
Reformed tradition. Here, ecclesiology has
always been communion ecclesiology. Like
372

holy catholic and apostolic Church, putting

this believing in the Church on the same
level as believing in God the Father, in
Jesus Christ the Son, and in the Holy Spirit.
Calvins main objection here is that this
could create a false impression as if the
Church belonged, together with the Son and

the Spirit, to the divine reality; as if it itself

believe. Their communion is communion

were in the same way a divine mystery. He

says (Institutes IV.1.2): We confess to believe

with Jesus Christ, in Whom they are

awaiting their entire salvation (Belgic

in God because our mind is founded on Him

as on the True One and because our

Confession, art. 27). He, Jesus Christ, is the

only Head of the Church, as is said

confidence rests on Him; but this would not

be applicable to the Church. In other words:

repeatedly in Reformed 16th century

confessional documents.10

God, in Christ, is the Rock of our salvation;

the Church is not.

This communion really owes its existence

to Jesus Christ, to his ongoing gathering

So, Calvin prefers the wording of the

Apostles Creed that, in its article on the

work. Nowhere is this put more impressively

than in the Heidelberg Catechism.11 Here,

Church, avoids the word in and speaks of

believing the Church, like believing the

the question What do you believe

concerning the holy catholic Church? is

forgiveness of sins and the resurrection of

the body. In the Catechism of Geneva,

answered as follows:

question and answer 94, he speaks of the

necessity of believing the article on the
catholic Church by saying that, if we did not
believe that article, we would make the death
of Jesus Christ ineffective, because the fruit
that proceeds from it is the Church. Here
again, the Church is mentioned among the
effects of Christs saving work, not among its
elements. The Church itself is not cause of
our salvation.
This is the way the Reformed believe that
one should speak about the Church. To be
sure, it is not an ecclesiology from below
to be distinguished then from an
ecclesiology from above. The Reformed
realize very well that the Church, as
communion, is indeed more than an
interhuman fellowship indeed. It is even
more than the communion of believers,
although that is a popular expression among
the Reformed. By definition, believers are
directed towards the One in Whom they

I believe that the Son of God through

his Spirit and Word, out of the entire
human race, from the beginning of the
world to its end, gathers, protects and
preserves for himself a community
chosen for eternal life and united in true
faith.
We see how the activity of the Son of
God is described here in three verbs, all in
the present tense: He gathers, protects and
preserves. He is doing so, even today, from
the beginning of the world to its end.
Separated from this continuing work of the
Son of God, the Church would not exist!
This quotation from the Heidelberg
Catechism is illustrative for more reasons.
One is that specific qualification of the
gathered community: chosen for eternal
life. That is a reference to Calvins doctrine
of election or predestination. The basic
objective of that doctrine is to witness to
373

the eternal background of Christs saving

emphasize, over against the Reformation,

work, and so to underline human

dependence on grace. In no way do we

the truly worldwide universality of their

Church - in the context of new colonialism -

ourselves contribute to our own salvation.

Salvation comes to us from the other side,

as an extra evidence of true catholicity,

proper to Roman Catholicism. The

from above. Long before we were born,

from eternity, Gods sovereign decision on

Reformation Churches could never boast of

a similar impressive geographic universality.

our salvation was already taken. That is why

Christ came to save us. Christ cannot be

Yet, the Reformed tradition did not at all

forget about catholicity. Neither did it confine

seen apart from his relation to the Father.

And that salvation can never again be taken

itself to a qualitative interpretation of

catholicity, leaving the quantitative

away from us.

So, the Church as communion can also

interpretation out of consideration, if that

had been possible. No, the full meaning of

be described as: the communion of the

chosen, or simply: the chosen, the elect, as

catholicity is acknowledged here as well,

albeit it in a special way. We heard already

happens more often in the Reformed 16th

and 17th century witnesses and

two hints to that in the above quotation

from the Heidelberg Catechism. First, in the

confessional documents.12 The Church is not

just communion with Jesus Christ, but, if I

remark that the Church, as Christs (Gods)

chosen community, is being gathered - and

may say so, behind that, more

fundamentally, with God, through the Spirit.

protected and preserved - out of the entire

human race. Secondly, in the addition that

Here we find a really trinitarian approach to

ecclesiology.

this gathering (and so church creating) work

is happening from the beginning of the

The Reformed tradition on

catholicity
So far on the eccesiology of
communion in the Reformed tradition. How
about catholicity? One might expect that
catholicity of the Church is not a prominent
notion within Reformed ecclesiology. Did not
the Reformation Churches originate from a
conflict with that Church which of old has
borne the name Roman Catholic Church
as its own name? The theologians of that
Church, protagonists of the so-called
Counter-Reformation, did not hesitate to
374

world to its end. The first phrase is an

indication of the geographic universality; the
second of the universality in time. This
second dimension includes the Old
Testament witness on Israel, Gods first
covenant nation. In the Reformed tradition,
much attention has always been paid to
the Old Testament. That also has to do with
the catholicity of the Church. Thus, we
believe the one Church of all times and of
all places.
To be sure, this catholicity, this
comprehensiveness, cannot be shown by
pointing to a Christian character of all

countries in the world. The catholicity of

Catholicity is comprehensiveness. This

the Church does not imply that the entire

human race is in fact within the Church.

comprehensiveness is rooted in the

comprehensiveness of Gods election as it

Rather, it means that church members are

coming from that entire human race; in

is made effective in the worldwide work of

gathering by the Son.

other words, that no part of this race is

excluded in principle from church

The emphasis on the invisibility of the

Church was, over the centuries, a

membership.
Here, we touch what, in the Reformed

characteristic of the Reformed tradition.14

This the more so as the Roman Catholic

tradition, is often called the invisibility of

the Church. That invisibility has an even

theology, by way of contrast, used to

emphasize the Churchs full visibility in its

deeper reason. It has to do with the Church

as ultimately being based on Gods eternal

structure, its papal and episcopal ministry,

its sacraments. More recent Roman Catholic

election or predestination. If it is true that

the Church is Gods chosen community, then

theology saw the one-sidedness of this

Counter-Reformation theology and

the size of the Church, the answer to the

question who belongs to it and who does

rediscovered what is called the mystical side

of the Church, which is by definition invisible

not, is essentially not a matter of human

counting, not a matter of statistics. As Calvin

indeed.15 The Orthodox tradition has always

preserved this deeper, mystical

says, it is Gods own privilege, to know who

are His, both inside and outside the official,

understanding of the Church. So, the

Reformed were not alone in their view of

visible Church.13
This true invisibility of the Church

the Church as essentially more than visible.

And they did not forget about the

corresponds to what might be called the

divine side of the Church. That qualification,

visibility, the visible side, of the Church

either. Reformed ecclesiology is not

however, could cause a misunderstanding.

Strictly speaking, this divinity is not proper

ecclesiological docetism! In the above

quotation from the Heidelberg Catechism

to the Church itself, rather to its origin and

basis. Anyway, that makes it understandable

we see a hint in that direction also: in the

phrase that the Son of God gathers his

why the Creed speaks of the Church as to

be believed. That article of faith on the

community through his Spirit and Word.

Spirit and Word are mentioned here

Church already implies the invisibility of the

Church. As we read in Heb 11.1, is not faith

together. This does not mean to limit the

freedom of the Spirit by its attachment to

the assurance of things hoped for, the

conviction of things not seen?

the Word; it does mean, however, that the

Word is the means through which the Spirit

To be sure, this invisibility is not in

contrast with the Churchs catholicity.

(the Spirit of Christ!) works. The Word is the

proclamation of the gospel. There is no
375

explicit reference here to the sacraments -

Christians that calls itself Church is truly

baptism and Eucharist, or Holy Supper, as it

is usually called in the Reformed tradition.

Church. Church is to quote the Belgic

Confession, article 29 where there is pure

Rather, they are included, implied here. That

could be a sign of the primary importance of

preaching of the gospel and pure

administration of the sacraments, together

the proclamation of the Word, in Reformed

understanding. Indeed, the sacraments were

with the practice of church discipline for

correcting faults.

considered not so much a separate category

of means of salvation as a special form of

These are called the marks or criteria

of the Church, to be distinguished from the

that proclamation: visible Word. Let me

add here that nowadays the Reformed have

four classical attributes or notae ecclesiae:

unity, holiness, catholicity, apostolicity.

a better understanding of the meaning of

sacraments and sacramentality.

These attributes describe what the Church

is; the three marks (gospel, sacraments,

Anyway, Word and sacraments are, by

definition, happenings in which the reality

discipline; in some Reformed confessions

discipline as a mark is left out) indicate

of the Church becomes visible, touchable. I

use the word happenings intentionally.

where that Church is. For that indication, a

specific ministerial or official structure, for

This visibility is not static, rather dynamic;

not a given visibility, rather a visibility that

instance, the presence of an episcopacy that

upholds a historic claim of being descended

happens, again and again, wherever Word

and sacraments are being administered. In

from and based upon the position of the

apostles, is not decisive.

passing by, we see here a hint at another

element of the visibility of the Church: the

Rather, decisive is what in practice is

done by the ministry, however it may be

ministry of Word and sacraments as well.

Obviously, without that, i.e., without its

structured. Where, for example, bishops

claim to be successors to the apostles and

functioning, the Church could neither exist

nor subsist. Earlier we heard the definition

yet do not preach the gospel as it should be

preached, there is not the true Church: the

of the Church as the communion of those

who actually share in salvation. As we realize

visible reality does not meet the pretension.

Where the gospel is really preached (and

now, this definition includes that the fact

the Church has also an institutional

the sacraments are administered

accordingly), even if there is no historic

character. Elements are required in which,

through which, this sharing concretely takes

episcopacy, there the Church is to be

identified, to be found. There (i.e., primarily

place: Word, sacraments, ministry.

To the Reformed, this is such an

in the local situation) the Church is visible.

That Church is truly the catholic Church.

important issue that they even see it as an

indication whether or not a community of

As invisibility and visibility are both aspects

of the same Church, catholicity belongs to

376

both. The Son of God gathers his chosen

approach to ecclesiology. Now, to conclude,

community out of the entire human race

and He does so through his Spirit and

let me return to this issue and give a few

more comments on that.

Word, we heard from the Heidelberg

Catechism. Which means: He does so also

In modern Roman Catholic as well as

Orthodox theology, much attention is paid

via audible and visible means. Word and

sacraments, the marks of the visible Church,

to Church and Trinity.17 Then, the point of

departure is that the trinitarian God is a

are themselves open and directed to

everybody, to people out of the entire

communion; a communion of three divine

Persons: the Father, the Son and the Spirit.

human race.
I said earlier: unity or communion and

That gives the possibility of seeing the

Church as not only a communion with the

catholicity belong together. Just as

catholicity qualifies unity as comprehensive

trinitarian divine communion, but also as

being admitted and welcomed into that

unity, so unity qualifies catholicity as

comprehensiveness with a basis, a centre.

divine communion and even as, in itself, an

image of it. Important for this ecclesiological

This togetherness of these two notae

ecclesiae is also emphasized in the

thinking is John 17.21, where Jesus prays for

his followers, his believers, that they may

Reformed tradition. In the Catechism of

Geneva, the word catholicity is explained

all be one. As you, Father, are in me, and I

am in you, may they also be in us. In verse

as follows: It indicates that there is only

one Head of the believers, so all should be

22, the prayer continues: that they may be

one, as we are one, I in them and you in

united in one body, so that there are not

several Churches, but only one Church,

me. Here, the unity (communion) of the

disciples/apostles Christ has in mind for

spread over the entire world. 16 Thus

understood, catholicity refers immediately

them is indeed considered related to the

communion between Christ and the Father,

to unity (communion), and vice versa.

and even in itself modelled on that

communion: that they be one as (kathoos)

Trinity and church:

correspondences and their limits
Dealing with the theme of communion,
I pointed to the interconnection between
ecclesiology and doctrine of election or
predestination in Reformed theology.
Church is understood here, I said, as
communion not only with Jesus Christ, but
also, behind that, with God, through the
Spirit. In that context, I spoke of a trinitarian

we are one.
Roman Catholic

and

Orthodox

ecclesiologies, that start from here,

sometimes develop theories on the relation
between the universal Church and local
churches, in which that relation is seen in
analogy to the relation between the divine
nature on the one hand, and the three
divine Persons on the other. Sometimes
the relation between local churches
377

themselves is illustrated by the relation

Son of God, is dazzling. It is possible indeed

between the different divine Persons. So, it

may come - from the Roman Catholic side -

to describe the content of salvation in such

words. If only that does not bring us to a

to an exposition in which the priority of the

universal Church over the local churches is

view of the Church as a heavenly mystery.

The Reformed always like to emphasize

strongly emphasized. It may come also - from

the Orthodox side - to a view in which, by

the down-to-earth character of the Church:

the Church as human communion. Yes,

contrast, the universal Church is identified

with, seen as represented in, the local

communion with Christ, with God, the

Father of Jesus Christ, through the Spirit.

Church, so that each local Church, as

eucharistic communion, is a manifestation

Nevertheless, in that communion: human.

Trinity and Church are different realities,

of the universal Church. Different

ecclesiologies correspond to different views

on different levels. The intertrinitarian

communion of God Father, Son and Spirit

of the Trinity. One sometimes gets the

impression that the doctrine of the Trinity

is a communion of perfect love. As such, this

communion could serve as a model for the

follows the ecclesiological interest of the

theologian in question.

communion of the Church, that is called

also to be a communion of love: that they

The Reformed are not used to such a

way of theological thinking. They are

may be one as we are one(Jn 17.22).

Yet, this cannot cause us to forget about

inclined to see it as a superfluous, risky

speculation. Is not the Trinity taken here

the uniqueness of the intertrinitarian

communion. The as, kathoos, in the quoted

too much as a given certainty, as a fixed

truth? Should we not keep in mind that

biblical text, is more than a preposition of

comparison; it is also a reference to cause:

the trinitarian dogma was a human,

contextual effort to put into words what one

because. The communion of God Father,

Son and Spirit is more than a model, it is

had understood from the Gospel of Jesus

Christ? Yet, as such it is a respectable and to

above all the basis and cause of the

communion of the Church; that which

us authoritative way of interpreting,

summarizing the gospel, which speaks

makes it possible. If we wish to speak of

correspondences
between
the

about the unique communion of the Son

with the Father, through the Spirit. And the

intertrinitarian communion and the Church

communion, let us then have also an open

idea that we have been privileged to take

part in that communion, to become children

eye to the limits of these correspondences.18

Let us hear the warning of Ecclesiastes (5.1):

of God together with Him who is the unique

God is in heaven, and you upon earth!

378

Notes
For what follows cf. Ton van Eijk, Teken van aanwezigheid. Een katholieke ecclesiologie
in oecumenisch perspectief, Zoetermeer 2000, p.149ff.
2
Yves M.-J. Congar was one of the Roman Catholic theologians who preferred to speak of
the Church as the Body of Christ; his interpretation of this terminology led him to an
irenic attitude vis--vis the dissident Christians and made him one of the promoters of a
new, ecumenical openness of the Roman Catholic Church. See his Chrtiens dsunis.
Principes dun cumnisme catholique, Paris 1937. Later, the papal encyclical Mystici
corporis (1943) took this terminology up and integrated it into Roman Catholic doctrine.
3
Karl Rahner (see several of his essays, published in his Schriften zur Theologie, VI,
Einsiedeln-Zrich-Kln 1965) and Hans Kng (see his Die Kirche, Freiburg 1967) were
among those Roman Catholic theologians who, though in different ways, promoted this
understanding of the Church. The Second Vatican Council, in its Dogmatic Constitution
on the Church Lumen Gentium, chapter 2, integrated important elements of this view
into its own ecclesiology.
4
See the Letter to the Bishops of the Catholic Church on some Aspects of the Church
understood as Communion, sent by the Congregation for the Doctrine of Faith, on May 28,
1992. Cf. also Walter Kasper, Kirche als Communio. berlegungen zur ekklesiologischen
Leitidee des II.Vatikanischen Konzils, in his: Theologie und Kirche, Mainz 1987, pp.272289.
5
This text is included in the report of the reference committee, submitted to the WCC
assembly at Canberra, in: Michael Kinnamon (ed.), Signs of the Spirit. Official Report WCC
Seventh Assembly, Canberra, February 1991, Geneva-Grand Rapids, WCC-Eerdmans, 1991,
pp.172-174.
6
See Thomas F. Best/Martin Robra (eds), Ecclesiology and Ethics. Ecumenical Ethical
Engagement, Moral Formation and the Nature of the Church, Geneva, WCC, 1997.
7
For what follows cf. H. Berkhof, De katholiciteit der kerk, Nijkerk 1962, pp.9-14.
8
For what follows cf. Van Eijk, o.c., pp.150-154.
9
Cf. Van Eijk, o.c., p.193f.
10
Cf. Second Helvetic Confession, art. 17: Scots Confession, art. 16, with a polemic reference
to the Roman Catholic doctrine on the pope of Rome.
11
Question and Answer 54. For what follows cf. Karel Blei, Introduction, in: Colin E.
Gunton/Praic Ramonn/Alan P. F. Sell (eds), The Church in the Reformed Tradition,
European Studies from WARC No. 1, Geneva 1995, pp.5-7.
12
Cf. Calvin, Institutes IV.1.2,7-8; Catechism of Geneva, Question and Answer 93; Scots
Confession, art. 16; Westminster Confession, art. 27; cf. also Heinrich Heppe/Ernst Bizer,
Die Dogmatik der evangelisch-reformierten Kirche, Neukirchen 1935, p.526.
13
Institutes IV.1.8.
14
Cf. Heppe/Bizer, o.c., p.526.
15
Thus, e.g., Congar; cf. above, note 2.
16
Question and Answer 97; cf. J. Calvin, Institutes IV.1.2.
17
For what follows cf. Miroslav Volf, After Our Likeness. The Church as the Image of the
Trinity, Grand Rapids 1998, pp.29-123. Volf successively deals with the views of Joseph
Ratzinger (Roman Catholic) and John D. Zizioulas (of Pergamon, Orthodox).
18
Cf. Volf, o.c., pp.191-220. Volf himself, however, emphasizes more the correspondences
than the limits.
1

379

VOLUME 55(4), DECEMBER, 2005

Berith, covenant and covenanting

Lukas Vischer

Vischer makes a clear distinction between the biblical and classical theological
usage of the term covenant and its usage in contemporary ecumenical language.
The roots of the contemporary use of the term lie in the radical reformation and in
non-conformist movements within the Anglo-Saxon world. He argues that the two
uses should be seen as complementary. A Swiss Reformed theologian and ecumenist,
he was the director of the WCC Commission on Faith and Order (1965-1979) and
the moderator of the WARC Department of Theology (1982-1989).

Two uses of the term covenant

The term covenant is today widely used
in the ecumenical movement. The WCC
Assembly in Vancouver (1983) called for a
conciliar process of mutual commitment
(covenant) for justice, peace and the integrity
of creation. More recently, delegates
attending the 24th General Council of the
World Alliance of Reformed Churches
formulated a Confession of Faith in the
Face of Economic Injustice and Ecological
Destruction accompanied by the following
solemn declaration: By confessing our faith
together, we covenant in obedience to Gods
will as an act of faithfulness in mutual
solidarity and in accountable relationships.
This binds us together to work for justice in
the economy and the earth both in our
common global context as well as our various
regional and local settings (37).
The notion of covenant also plays a
central role in the thinking and writing of
380

Calvin. Introduced by Zwingli in the 1520s,

the notion was further developed by
Heinrich Bullinger in his famous treatise de
unico et aeterno testamento seu foedere
Dei (1534). Calvin makes use of Bullingers
thinking. In his eyes, Gods covenant with
the fathers provides the key for the adequate
understanding of the Scriptures Old and
New Testament. There is but one covenant.
Both (scil. what is similar and what is
different between the Old and the New
Testament) can be expressed in one
sentence: the covenant God established
with all fathers is in substance and in truth
so similar to the covenant established with
us that it can be regarded as one and the
same. It only differs in the way it is
administered (administratio tamen variat,
Institutes II.10.2). God has chosen a people
and remains faithful to his choice. God
guides and protects this chosen community
throughout history. In Christ the full

meaning of the covenant becomes manifest.

witnessing to his glory. God draws us into

The signs of the covenant change but the

covenant as such remains the same. Old

his covenant. There are no merits on our

side. Everything is based on his mercy. We

and New Testament form a unity. The Old

points to the New and the New sheds new

are certainly called to respond to Gods gift.

It is our duty to glorify his name through our

light on the Old. They are both Gods word

witnessing to Gods love in choosing his

lives. Gods self-commitment to the covenant

is the cantus firmus of both the Old and

people.
What is the relationship between these

the New Testament.

Calvins understanding of the term

two uses of the term covenant? Clearly,

though the same term is used, its meaning

covenant is no doubt closer to the original

meaning of the word. The Hebrew term

is very different in both cases. To avoid

confusion it is important to be aware of the

berith refers to an initiative taken by God.

Berith always involves a partner. But it does

difference. Only on the basis of clear

distinctions can the two perspectives be

not have the meaning of an agreement

between equals. It is significant that the

related to one another in constructive ways.

word is translated by the LXX by the term

diatheke which means a unilateral action

Gods covenant and our covenant

The primary concern of the Accra

in favour of another person, e.g., a last will.

Another term syntheke would have been

General Council is the common

commitment to the cause of justice and

available which suggests the idea of a pact

and treaty between two partners. But the

ecological responsibility. Having analysed the

signs of the times, having recalled the

translators obviously preferred a term

emphasizing Gods initiative. The New

fundaments of the Christian faith in the

face of injustice and environmental

Testament also uses the term diatheke for

covenant. The Latin translation of the word

destruction, the General Council calls for a

new common departure. The emphasis is

is testamentum.

on the need for a new orientation. The

churches are summoned to live up to their

The origin of we covenant

common calling in the world. Covenant is

primarily seen as a common initiative. The

covenant to acquire todays activist

meaning? A first step was the translation

term can be used both as a noun and as a

verb. We covenant.

adopted by Hieronymus. He chose for berith

the term foedus that is, of course, much

For Calvin, covenant is primarily Gods

gift of love to Gods people. The covenant is

closer to the idea of an association of equal

partners. A further development took place

primarily, even exclusively, Gods initiative.

It is his inscrutable will to choose a people

in the 16th century. Anabaptists conceived

the Church as a voluntary association. There

How was it then possible for the term

381

are Anabaptist texts calling on believers to

him to hear us and to guide us in peace to

federate with one another. Melchior

Hofmann writes: In these last days

the place we have longed for, what else does

it mean than that he has confirmed the

messengers of the Lord Jesus Christ will

gather the chosen community, call it through

covenant and put his seal on the mandate

Clearly, the ecumenical movement and

the Gospel and lead it as the Lords bride

into the spiritual desert. They will be

also the World Alliance of Reformed

Churches follow this line of thinking.

betrothed and covenanted to the Lord. In

the same way Paul has betrothed the

Is there any bridge between these two

approaches? Or are we confronted with two

Church of Corinth to the Lord like a virgin

to her husband and engaged it under Gods

different, even conflicting discourses?

covenant. But the decisive step was taken

by the Congregationalist movement in the
Anglo-Saxon world. The Christian
community was seen as a covenanted
community, i.e., a community constituted
by Jesus Christ and committed to his service.
Covenanting under Jesus Christ was the
equivalent to becoming and being the
Church.
The covenant was now understood as a
human initiative taken in faith and offered
to God. This understanding is particularly
evident with the Pilgrim Fathers. John
Winthrop, the first governor of the
Massachusetts Bay colony, interpreted the
expedition as a mandate received from God.
Before disembarking he called on the
colonists to ask for Gods blessing on their
common undertaking. We have concluded
a covenant with the Lord in this regard. We
have accepted a mandate. The Lord has
given us the freedom to set up our own
articles. We have accepted the commitment
to engage in this undertaking with particular
goals and duties. We have prayed for his
favour and blessing. And if it now pleases
382

Covenanting in witness to Gods

covenant
In the first place, it is important to be
aware of the difference. Since the term
covenant is used in so many meanings,
confusion can easily arise. In order to
advance, the different meanings need to be
distinguished from one another.
Having said this, there is much to be said
for relating the two discourses to one
another. They can both contribute to a
fuller understanding of Gods purpose with
this world. The call of the General Council
in Accra points to the witness the Church
is to bear today. It is an attempt to
articulate the implications of Gods
covenant for the life of the Church in the
face of todays challenges. The call to
common action seeks to show what it
means to live under Gods covenant.
But before we can engage in witness, we
need to be reminded of Gods will to establish
communion with humankind. Even with the
very best of intentions, we shall not bring
order into the disorder of the world. True,
justice and care for Gods creation are

indispensable, if humankind is to survive.

of creation is in his hands and will be brought

But we are, in fact, in a situation of

helplessness. We are caught in the burden

to fulfilment by Gods own action, can we

face the powers of destruction within and

of failures inherited from the past. We are

faced with structures of evil that surpass our

around us.
The discourse of covenanting has the

ability to cope. We know that we are and

will be in need of Gods forgiveness. Only if

merit of giving expression and shape to Gods

covenant. The biblical discourse on Gods

we rely on Gods initiative, can we engage in

witness. Only when we know that the whole

covenant points to the firm basis on which

all true witness must be built.

383

VOLUME 55(4), DECEMBER, 2005

Reformed World
Volume 55 (2005)
Index

I. Articles by author
Abraham, K.C. et alii. Reformed voices on the ecumenical movement, its future
and configuration ................................................................................................................................................

154

Aram I. Towards a people-centred ecumenical configuration .............................................

104

Ariarajah, Wesley. The gospel imperative and our service to the ecumenical
movement today - four biblical meditations .....................................................................................

179

Barraza D. Helis. The Accra Confession and liberty .................................................................

274

Blei, Karel. Communion and catholicity: Reformed perspectives on ecclesiology

369

Bukowski, Peter. Preaching on justice: the question of the homiletic

implementation of the Accra Confession .........................................................................................

234

Bula, Omega. Pedagogical implications of the Accra Confession ...................................

251

Dibeela, Moiseraele Prince. A Southern African perspective on the Accra

Confession ................................................................................................................................................................

257

Douglass, Jane Dempsey. Calvin, Calvinism and Ecumenism ...........................................

295

Duchrow, Ulrich. Christian social and political witness today in the light of the
Accra Confession ...................................................................................................................................................

266

Ernst-Habib, Margit. The true worship of God: social and economic themes in
contemporary Reformed Confessions ..................................................................................................

311

Final Statement from the Consultation on Ecumenism in the 21st Century .....

171

From Antelias with love Statement from the consultation on reconfiguration

of the ecumenical movement .....................................................................................................................

122

Hawkey, Jill. Mapping the oikoumene: a study of current ecumenical structures

and relationships....................................................................................................................................................

127

Kanyoro, Musimbi. On dreams and visions - living the deepening

contradictions of ecumenism in the 21st century .....................................................................

384

146

Kobia, Samuel. Changing global context and the challenge to 21st century
ecumenism ...............................................................................................................................................................

140

Krger, Ren. The biblical and theological significance of the Accra Confession:
a perspective from the south ......................................................................................................................

226

Mateus, Odair Pedroso. Editorial (March 2005) .............................................................................

Mateus, Odair Pedroso. Towards an Alliance of Protestant Churches? The

Confessional and the Ecumenical in the WARC Constitutions (I) ...............................

55

Mateus, Odair Pedroso. Editorial: Ecumenical imagination in the age of

commodity as communion ............................................................................................................................

75

Mateus, Odair Pedroso. Editorial (December 2005).......................................................................

293

Mller, Ulrich. The Accra Confession and its ecclesiological implications ................

202

Ortega, Ofelia. Biblical paradigms for our covenant with God and our
neighbour ...................................................................................................................................................................

214

Park, Seong-Won. Editorial: Practising the Accra Confession ...........................................

183

Park, Seong-Won. A journey for life: From Debrecen to Accra and beyond ..............

191

Park, Seong-Won et alii. Alternatives are possible! ....................................................................

279

Piedra, Arturo. Theology of grace and theology of prosperity ...........................................

326

Raiser, Konrad. Towards a new ecumenical configuration for the 21st century ..

77

Raiser, Konrad. The vision and values guiding the ecumenical movement from
today into tomorrow ..........................................................................................................................................

111

Smit, Dirk. J. Reformed faith, justice and the struggle against apartheid ..................

355

Van Beek, Hubert. The reconfiguration of the ecumenical movement - an

overview of the discussion so far .............................................................................................................

96

Van Wieren, Gretel. Spirituality, worship and the Accra Confession ............................

244

Vischer, Lukas. Pilate, the Empire, and the Confession of the Church ......................

71

Vischer, Lukas. Berith, covenant and covenanting ....................................................................

380

WARC, The Economic and Social Witness of Calvin for Christian Life Today .......

WARC, Report of the International Theological Dialogue between the Oriental

Orthodox Family of Churches and the World Alliance of Reformed Churches
(1993-2001) ...............................................................................................................................................................

WARC, Report of the International Theological Dialogue between the

Seventh-day Adventist Church and the World Alliance of Reformed Churches ..

28

385

WARC, Report of the International Theological Dialogue between the

Organisation of African Instituted Churches and the World Alliance of
Reformed Churches (19982002) ..............................................................................................................

38

WARC, Covenanting for justice: the Accra Confession ...........................................................

185

WCC, Visions from the youth consultation on the reconfiguration of the

ecumenical movement ..................................................................................................................................

119

II. Articles by title

A journey for life: From Debrecen to Accra and beyond, Seong-Won Park ...............

191

Alternatives are possible! Seong-Won Park, Ofelia Ortega and Omega Bula ........

279

A Southern African perspective on the Accra Confession, Moiseraele Prince

Dibeela .........................................................................................................................................................................

257

Berith, covenant and covenanting, Lukas Vischer ....................................................................

380

Biblical paradigms for our covenant with God and our neighbour, Ofelia Ortega

214

Calvin, Calvinism and Ecumenism, Jane Dempsey Douglass ..............................................

295

Changing global context and the challenge to 21st century ecumenism,

Samuel Kobia ..........................................................................................................................................................

140

Christian social and political witness today in the light of the Accra
Confession, Ulrich Duchrow ..........................................................................................................................

266

Communion and Catholicity: Reformed perspectives on ecclesiology, Karel Blei

369

Covenanting for justice: the Accra Confession, WARC ............................................................

185

Editorial (March 2005), Odair Pedroso Mateus ...............................................................................

Editorial: Ecumenical imagination in the age of commodity as communion,

Odair Pedroso Mateus .....................................................................................................................................

75

Editorial: Practising the Accra Confession, Seong-Won Park .............................................

183

Editorial (December 2005), Odair Pedroso Mateus .....................................................................

293

Final Statement from the Consultation on Ecumenism in the 21st Century .......

171

From Antelias with loveStatement from the consultation on

reconfiguration of the ecumenical movement ..................................................................................

122

Mapping the oikoumene: a study of current ecumenical structures and

relationships, Jill Hawkey ...............................................................................................................................

386

127

On dreams and visions - living the deepening contradictions of ecumenism

in the 21st century, Musimbi Kanyoro ................................................................................................

146

Pedagogical implications of the Accra Confession, Omega Bula ....................................

251

Pilate, the Empire, and the Confession of the Church, Lukas Vischer ........................

71

Preaching on justice: the question of the homiletic implementation of the

Accra Confession, Peter Bukowski ..........................................................................................................

234

Reformed faith, justice and the struggle against apartheid, Dirk J. Smit .....................

355

Reformed voices on the ecumenical movement, its future and configuration,

K.C. Abraham, Catherine M. Akale, Eunice Santana, John T. Thomas,
Richard van Houten ...........................................................................................................................................

154

Report of the International Theological Dialogue between the Organisation of

African Instituted Churches and the World Alliance of Reformed Churches
(19982002), WARC ...............................................................................................................................................

38

Report of the International Theological Dialogue between the Oriental

Orthodox Family of Churches and the World Alliance of Reformed Churches
(1993-2001), WARC ...............................................................................................................................................

Report of the International Theological Dialogue between the Seventh-day

Adventist Church and the World Alliance of Reformed Churches, WARC .................

28

Spirituality, worship and the Accra Confession, Gretel van Wieren ..............................

244

The Accra Confession and its ecclesiological implications, Ulrich Mller ..................

202

The Accra Confession and liberty, Helis Barraza Daz ............................................................

274

The biblical and theological significance of the Accra Confession:

a perspective from the south, Ren Krger .....................................................................................

226

The Economic and Social Witness of Calvin for Christian Life Today, WARC .......

The gospel imperative and our service to the ecumenical movement today four biblical meditations, Wesley Ariarajah .....................................................................................

179

Theology of grace and theology of prosperity, Arturo Piedra .............................................

326

The reconfiguration of the ecumenical movement - an overview of the

discussion so far, Hubert van Beek ........................................................................................................

96

The true worship of God: social and economic themes in contemporary

Reformed Confessions, Margit Ernst-Habib .......................................................................................

311

387

The vision and values guiding the ecumenical movement from today into
tomorrow, Konrad Raiser ..............................................................................................................................

111

Towards a new ecumenical configuration for the 21st century, Konrad Raiser ....

77

Towards a people-centred ecumenical configuration, Aram I ..............................................

104

Towards an Alliance of Reformation Churches? The Confessional and the

Ecumenical in the WARC Constitutions (I), Odair Pedroso Mateus ...............................

55

Visions from the youth consultation on the reconfiguration of the ecumenical

movement, WCC ...................................................................................................................................................

388

119

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Update is the quarterly newsletter of the World Alliance of Reformed Churches.

Published in English and French, it keeps its readers informed of developments in the life of
WARC and its churches. Please say which language you wish to receive.

Payment may be made by cheque directly to the WARC office

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