Best Ethernet Design and Implementation to Minimize Collisions
Report by: Adil Choudhary (11900)
(adilishtiaq@hotmail.com)
Abstract
Simplicity, cost effectiveness, scalability, and the
economies of scale make Ethernet a popular choice
for local area networks. One weakness of existing
Ethernet architecture is to handle the collisions. As
collisions (while sending the data from one node to
the other nodes in LAN) are mainly affect the
performance of the Ethernet as well as the local area
networks (LANs). In order to apply the Ethernet in
LAN as the best architecture problems like collisions
and collisions domains have to be addressed. In this
paper I propose different Ethernet designs and other
different techniques to minimize collisions and
collision domains
Key Words- Ethernet, collisions, collision
domains, Ethernet design guidelines.
1. Introduction. This report considers the design
and implementation of the "Ethernet" local-area
communications network. There are a little bit
introductions to the Ethernet, collision and collision
domains. I will discuss about Ethernet, Ethernet
frame format, how Ethernet follows frame format to
send data, how Ethernet uses different methods to
detect collisions, different Ethernet topologies and
how Ethernet uses layer 1, 2 and 3 of OSI reference
model to minimize collisions. And then in the final
section I will summarize my experience with an
operational Ethernet system, discuss the strengths and
weaknesses of designs and different other techniques
to over come these weaknesses.
1.1. Ethernet.
In the early 1970s, Robert Metcalfe and David Boggs
of the Xerox Palo Alto Research Center
experimented with the first Ethernet system. At this
time, Xerox’s primary motivation was to create a
network to share a laser printer with a large number
of computers. To help ensure Ethernet’s openness,
Metcalfe convinced Xerox to license the Ethernet
technology to everyone at a reasonable cost. In 1979,
Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC), Intel, and
Instructor: Mr. M. Iqbal
Bahria University Karachi Campus
Xerox created a consortium to pursue the open
Ethernet standard. This standard was to allow DEC to
sell more computers, Intel to sell more chips, and
Xerox to sell more printers. The Institute of Electrical
and Electronic Engineers (IEEE) recognized that this
technology could not become an international
standard if it was controlled by a single US
corporation. So it created the "802" committee to
develop formal international standards for all Local
Area Network (LAN) technologies. The IEEE just
did not want to standardize each LAN individually,
but to establish a set of rules that would allow data to
be easily moved from one LAN technology to
another. [10]
As an open standard, Ethernet has the ability to link a
wide range of vendor-neutral networking equipment.
Today it enjoys being the most popular physical layer
LAN technology in use. Most computers sold today,
come already equipped with an Ethernet connection.
This helps guarantee that there is a large market for
Ethernet equipment and keeps the technology
competitively priced. [6]
Concept of Ethernet is to connect different
components using a single line some times known as
“ether”. [14]
Figure 1. A small Ethernet network
As in the Figure 1 it is shown that there are a number
of different machines connected to each other using a
single cable. Ethernet is a broadcast domain of
different machines. As in the Fig1 sever can send
data to other computers and printers and etc.
Ethernet was originally based on the idea of
computers communicating over a shared coaxial
cable acting as a broadcast transmission medium. The
methods used show some similarities to radio
systems, although there are fundamental differences,
such as the fact that it is much easier to detect
collisions in a cable broadcast system than a radio
broadcast. The common cable providing the
communication channel was likened to the ether and
it was from this reference that the name "Ethernet"
was derived. [13]
From this early and comparatively simple concept,
Ethernet evolved into the complex networking
technology that today underlies most LANs. The
coaxial cable was replaced with point-to-point links
connected by Ethernet hubs and/or switches to reduce
installation costs, increase reliability, and enable
point-to-point management and troubleshooting. Star
LAN was the first step in the evolution of Ethernet
from a coaxial cable bus to a hub-managed, twisted-
pair network. The advent of twisted-pair wiring
dramatically lowered installation costs relative to
competing technologies, including the older Ethernet Figure 2. Frame format of Ethernet
technologies. Above the physical layer, Ethernet Preamble bytes are sent to synchronize the other
stations communicate by sending each other data components on the network, then the MAC address
packets, blocks of data that are individually sent and of the source and the destination, then the data type
delivered. As with other IEEE 802 LANs, each and then the data. Then minimum frame size is 64
Ethernet station is given a single 48-bit MAC bytes and the maximum frame size is 1518 bytes.
address, which is used to specify both the destination
and the source of each data packet. [13] 1.2. Collisions.
The first Ethernet networks, 10BASE5, used thick
yellow cable with vampire taps as a shared medium Ethernet is a shared media, so there are rules for
(using CSMA/CD). Later, 10BASE2 Ethernet used sending packets of data to avoid conflicts and protect
thinner coaxial cable (with BNC connectors) as the data integrity. Nodes determine when the network is
shared CSMA/CD medium. The later Star LAN available for sending packets. It is possible that two
1BASE5 and 10BASE-T used twisted pair connected nodes at different locations attempt to send data at the
to Ethernet hubs with 8P8C modular connectors. [15] same time. When both PCs are transferring a packet
Currently Ethernet has many varieties that vary both to the network at the same time, a collision will
in speed and physical medium used. Perhaps the most result.[17]
common forms used are 10BASE-T, 100BASE-TX,
and 1000BASE-T. All three utilize twisted pair
cables and 8P8C modular connectors (often called
RJ45). They run at 10 Mbit/s, 100 Mbit/s, and 1
Gbit/s, respectively. However each version has
become steadily more selective about the cable it
runs on and some installers have avoided 1000BASE-
T for everything except short connections to servers.
[16]
Now I will discuss frame format of the Ethernet that
how Ethernet handles the data transformation
between two nodes or two machines in a small
network. The unit of the data size which Ethernet Figure 3. Two stations sending data at the same
transfers is known as Ethernet frames. To increase time as a result there is a collision.
the efficiency we should also consider the maximum These collisions badly affect the performance and
and minimum frame size of the data In order to speed of the network. In order to increase the
minimize the collisions in the network. performance and speed we have to minimize the
collisions. As there will be minimum number of
collisions so the speed of the network will increase.
1.3. Collision Domains.
A computer network can be segmented physically but
also logically. A collision domain is one of the
logical network segments in which the data packets
can collide to each other. One of the most common
protocols used when referring to a collision domain is
the Ethernet protocol. Collision domains are often
referred as 'Ethernet segments'. [18]
The term of 'collision domain' is also used when
describing the circumstances in which a single
network device sends packets throughout a network
segment and forces every other device in that
network segment to pay attention to those packets.
Figure 4. Data Collision Domain
'Collision domain' sometimes refers to a system
where a unique identifier is open for multiple
interpretations over different layers. The analogy to
our Ethernet collision domain is very clear if not
obvious. [7]
2. CSMA/CD & Collision Detection.
The acronym CSMA/CD signifies carrier-sense
multiple access with collision detection and
describes how the Ethernet protocol regulates
communication among nodes. [19] While the term
may seem intimidating, if we break it apart into its
component concepts we will see that it describes
rules very similar to those that people use in polite
conversation. To help illustrate the operation of
Ethernet, we will use an analogy of a dinner table
conversation. Let’s represent our Ethernet segment as
a dinner table, and let several people engaged in
polite conversation at the table represent the nodes.
When one Ethernet station transmits, all the stations
on the medium hear the transmission, just as when
one person at the table talks, everyone present is able
to hear him other. [11] Now let's imagine that you are
at the table and you have something you would like
to say. At the moment, however, I am talking. Since
this is a polite conversation, rather than immediately
speak up and interrupt, you would wait until I
finished talking before making your statement. This
is the same concept described in the Ethernet
protocol as carrier sense. Before a station transmits,
it "listens" to the medium to determine if another
station is transmitting. If the medium is quiet, the
station recognizes that this is an appropriate time to
transmit.[11]
Carrier-sense multiple accesses give us a good start
in regulating our conversation, but there is one
scenario we still need to address. Let’s go back to our
dinner table analogy and imagine that there is a
momentary lull in the conversation. You and I both
have something we would like to add, and we both
"sense the carrier" based on the silence, so we begin
speaking at approximately the same time. In Ethernet
terminology, a collision occurs when we both spoke
at once. In our conversation, we can handle this
situation gracefully. We both hear the other speak at
the same time we are speaking, so we can stop to
give the other person a chance to go on. Ethernet
nodes also listen to the medium while they transmit
to ensure that they are the only station transmitting at
that time. If the stations hear their own transmission
returning in a garbled form, as would happen if some
other station had begun to transmit its own message
at the same time, then they know that a collision
occurred. A single Ethernet segment is sometimes
called a collision domain because no two stations on
the segment can transmit at the same time without
causing a collision. When stations detect a collision,
they cease transmission, wait a random amount of
time, and attempt to transmit when they again detect
silence on the medium. The random pause and retry
is an important part of the protocol. If two stations
collide when transmitting once, then both will need to
transmit again. At the next appropriate chance to
transmit, both stations involved with the previous
collision will have data ready to transmit. If they
transmitted again at the first opportunity, they would
most likely collide again and again indefinitely.
Instead, the random delay makes it unlikely that any
two stations will collide more than a few times in a
row. [20] A collision domain can also be a group of
Ethernet/Fast Ethernet devices in a Local Area
Network running on the Carrier Sense Multiple
Access/Collision Detection (CSMA/CD) feature and
being connected through repeaters, thus competing
for network access. Since only one device in the
same collision domain can transmit data at a certain
point, the other devices in the network simply listen
in order to avoid data collisions. CSMA/CD is a set above. However, there are practical limits to the size
of rules telling each network device. When to start of our Ethernet network in this case. There is more
and stop transmitting data. When someone in the than one limitation in Ethernet network. One of them
network wants to transmit something, it "listens" to is collision. As there is a single sharing cable used in
the network at first in order to see if anyone else is Ethernet and there is more than one node in that
using the channel. If no one else is transmitting, the cable. So there are more chances of data collisions
device will go forward with its own transmission. while sending data from one node to the other node.
The usage of CSMA/CD is an efficient way of As in this report my main concern is to minimize that
avoiding network collisions, but it's not foolproof. It's collisions so in the next part my report I will discuss
obvious that if two devices follow the exact same how we can use different techniques to minimize
procedure at the exact same time, their transmissions collisions.
will 100% collide, and they will both become
unusable. A jam signal will be sent in order to let 5. Different devices.
everyone else know that a collision took place and
they should not send any data. The hosts that collided Engineers have developed a number of network
will each start a random timer, and when that ends, devices that alleviate these difficulties. Many of these
each host will begin to listen on the network again. devices are not specific to Ethernet, but play roles in
Of course, the more collisions in a network, the less other network technologies as well.
efficient the network is.[18]
5.1. Repeaters.
3. Collision Domain Diameter.
Repeaters are commonly known as hubs. Repeaters
The collision domain’s diameter is limited primarily connect multiple Ethernet segments, listening to each
by this timing issue. The diameter of the collision segment and repeating the signal heard on one
domain is the distance between the two furthest segment onto every other segment connected to the
nodes. Because of the potential for packet loss the repeater. Repeater is useful for a very small network
dimensions are limited to reflect the example above. segments. As they repeat the signal to all the other
The maximum diameter of a collision domain is the nodes connecting to it so it is not too much useful in
total time it takes for the smallest packet to travel a big network. As is a big network there is more
round trip between the two furthest DTE’s(Data chance of data collisions so repeaters will just repeat
terminal equipment) in that domain. Because the collisions too. [22]
Ethernet allow for variable packet sizes, the smallest
packet size is used (64 Bytes). Another important
consideration is that collision domains do not cross
over bridges or switches. Every port on a switch
represents a separate collision domain. [21]
The limitations posed by the CSMA/CD protocol are
important guidelines for designing a network. The
signals that packets consist of take time to travel over
the network. The time is doubled in the case of the
collision signal returning to the transmitting source
from the furthest node. With the 64 byte packet (512
bits) being the smallest packet size we can use the
time it takes this size packet to travel the network
serves as the measurement of a networks collision
domain diameter. When using the 512 bit packet in Figure 5. Repeater (Hub)
this way and knowing that the signal travels over all
media types in a finite fashion we can measure the
maximum diameter by the 512 bit times for a round
5.2. Bridges.
trip. [21]
In Ethernet bridges are commonly used to isolate
collision domains. The bridge therefore has to
4. Limitations in the Ethernet.
forward (receive and subsequently transmit) frames
from one LAN (e.g. LAN A below) to another (e.g.
A single shared cable can serve as the basis for a
LAN B). Obviously, the bridge could forward all
complete Ethernet network, which is what I discussed
frames, but then it would behave rather like a
repeater; it would be much smarter if the bridge only
forwarded frames which need to travel from one
LAN to another. To do this, the bridge needs to learn
which computers are connected to which LANs.
More formally, it need to learn whether to forward to
each address.[23]
Figure 6. A bridge connecting two LAN segments
(A and B).
To learn which addresses are in use, and which ports
(interfaces on the bridge) theory are closest to, the
bridge observes the headers of received Ethernet
frames. By examining the MAC source address of
each received frame, and recording the port on which
it was received, the bridge may learn which addresses
belong to the computers connected via each port.
This is called "learning". In the figure above,
consider three computers X, Y, Z. Assume each
sends frames to the other computers. The source
addresses X,Y are observed to be on network A,
while the address of computer Z will be observed to
be on network B. A bridge with more than two
interfaces (ports) is also known as a switch. Switch
normally block the collisions as in the switch data
from a source is sent to a particular destination as
there is a fixed destination and data is not sent to all
the nodes in a network so there are minimum number
of chances of data collisions. [23]
5.3. Routers.
Bridges can reduce congestion by allowing multiple
conversations to occur on different segments
simultaneously, but they have their limits in
segmenting traffic as well. An important
characteristic of bridges is that they forward Ethernet
broadcasts to all connected segments. This behavior
is necessary, as Ethernet broadcasts are destined for
every node on the network, but it can pose problems
for bridged networks that grow too large. When a
large number of stations broadcast on a bridged
network, congestion can be as bad as if all those
devices were on a single segment. [24] Routers are
advanced networking components that can divide a
single network into two logically separate networks.
While Ethernet broadcasts cross bridges in their
search to find every node on the network, they do not
cross routers, because the router forms a logical
boundary for the network. Routers can isolate the
broadcast domains. As broadcast domains can also
affect the performance of the network so using the
routers the overloading as well the collisions in a
segment of a network can also be reduced. [24]
6. Guidelines to minimize the collisions
while developing a network.
In order to minimize the collision while developing a
network some important considerations should be in
a designers mind. That there must be used some such
a devices which should play an important role to
minimize collisions. Best Ethernet networking
topology. E-g. in comparison of bus and star
topology star topology in best option for Ethernet
design as in bus topology all the nodes are connected
to a single bus or line. There are more chances of
data collision in bus topology. But in the star
topology all the nodes are connected to a central
device. This controls the data transmission between
the nodes. Data goes to the particular destination.
And data does not go to the other nodes. So there is
minimum number of chances of data collisions.
The goal of a network designer is to guarantee that a
collision will occur in the first 512 bit (as I have
discussed earlier in Collision domain diameter
section) times of transmission. If the collision occurs
later than this, there is no certainty that the packet
transmission on the network is successful. Limiting
the collision domain diameter to 512 bit times
ensures that all collisions do occur in an acceptable
time frame. [21]
In our dinner table analogy, we had only a few people
at a table carrying out the conversation, so restricting
ourselves to a single speaker at any given time was
not a significant barrier to communication. But what
if there were many people at the table and only one
were allowed to speak at any given time?
In practice, we know that the analogy breaks down in
circumstances such as these. With larger groups of
people, it is common for several different
conversations to occur simultaneously. If only one
person in a crowded room or at a banquet dinner
were able to speak at any time, many people would
get frustrated waiting for a chance to talk. For
humans, the problem is self-correcting: Voices only
carry so far, and the ear is adept at picking out a
particular conversation from the surrounding noise.
This makes it easy for us to have many small groups
at a party converse in the same room; but network
cables carry signals quickly and efficiently over long
distances, so this natural segregation of conversations
does not occur. This can be done in the practical
Ethernet design as by segmentation of networks into
smaller portions. And then we can use hub switches
and routers to connect the portions or domains. As
using this method we would able to minimize the
collisions. Switches reduce the collision domain and
routers reduce the broadcast domain. [24]
Collisions can also be minimized by reducing the size
of collision domain and can also by segmentation of
network. Reducing the collision domain size can be
the result of installing network devices (usually
switches and/or network bridges) that use micro
segmentation. Unlike network hubs and regular
repeaters that usually broadcast every single packet,
LAN switches are able to filter and forward packets
by their MAC address (Media Access Control). The
switch basically reads the 48-bit MAC address from
the network card and is able to filter or stop frames
inside the LAN or a certain network domain. [18]
A switch or network bridge will forward frames with
addresses that are not in its domain, and will
duplicate and broadcast frames to the devices inside
its network. A router can also filter, forward or drop
packets based on the MAC addresses, but it can also
act based on the Internet Protocol (IP). Routers also
Figure 7. Layout of a simple Ethernet network design
act on reducing the collision domain by broadcasting
to the LAN only packets that have addresses on that
certain network. [18]
In the end I would like to discuss about a hierarchy.
That while developing a network there this should be
a hierarchy. By following which we should connect
the devices and network portions. Always start from
a small size and increment the size of the network
accordingly. If there are multiple switches in a
building, use an aggregation switch (a big switch
which connects the other switches of a network).
Locate the aggregation switch close to the building
entry point. Locate edge switches close to users (e.g.
one per floor). Hierarchy should as that start from the
smaller portion as nodes. First connect the different
nodes with a switch. Secondly connect different
switch to a aggregation switch. And the third point is
to connect the different aggregation switches to a
router. This hierarchy is shown in the Figure 7.
7. Conclusion.
In the end I would like to discuss that for designing a
collision free network there should be a hierarchy
that how to connect the different portions of a
network which can play their role to minimize
collisions. Always start from the small then
increment the size of your network.
8. Acknowledgement.
First and foremost, an honorable mention goes to my
God Allah Almighty for His blessings on me in
completing this report.
Finally I would like to thank to my supervisor of this
report, Sir M. Iqbal for his valuable guidance and
advice. He inspired me greatly to work for this report.
His willingness to motivate me contributed
tremendously to my report. I also would like to thank
him for showing some example that related to the
topic of my report.
Without helps of the particular that mentioned above,
I would face many difficulties while doing this
report.
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