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BIOLOGY 12

Lesson 1.1A

Introduction to Biology
Overview
Most knowledge about biological science has been acquired by
carefully observing naturally occurring phenomena in living systems.
These observations are compared with the data obtained from other
relevant information. This process, well known as the scientific
method, helps us explain phenomena.
The scientific method involves a series of steps that are always followed
in the same order:
1. Answerable questions are created.
2. Predictions or hypotheses are made that are testable by
experiment.
3. Experimental results are interpreted.
4. A conclusion or conclusions are made from interpretations,
and new questions and predictions are often created.
In this lesson we will learn how to test a hypothesis by correctly
conducting a systematic experiment.

Resource List
Inquiry Into Life
Biology 12 Provincial Exam Preparation package

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BIOLOGY 12

Hypotheses must explain the scientist's observations, they must be testable, and
they should help to predict future findings. Hypotheses often are composed of ifand-then statements for which only one variable is changed at a time. The
variable that is deliberately changed is called the independent variable or
manipulated variable. The observed variable that changes in response to the
independent variable is called the dependent variable or responding variable.
For example, a simple hypothesis could be if a plant is left in a room with no light,
then the plant will die.
A hypothesis:
1. must explain the observations
2. must be testable
3. should predict future findings
Observations or experiments must be done to test a hypothesis. If an
experiment does not support the hypothesis, the hypothesis is rejected and a new
hypothesis is proposed or accepted. However, experimental data can not prove
that a hypothesis is correct, only that it is supported in that particular case.
When conducting a systematic experiment, it is important that it be a
controlled experiment. This means that all variables except the one being
tested must remain constant. The group that remains constant is called the
control group. An additional experiment is done in which the variable factor is
introduced. This group is called the experimental group. Since all factors but
one are constant, the scientist can determine if the one variable is responsible for
the results.
For example, to look at the effects of placing a plant in an area with no light, the
scientist would conduct an experiment with several plants of the same type. Each
plant would be given the same amount of water and nutrients. The plant(s) in the
control group would be placed in normal light conditions. The plants in the
experimental group would be placed where in an area with no light. This method
ensures that the amount light received by the plants is the only variable between
the two groups.
The more often a hypothesis is tested and supported by the data, the more
scientists trust its validity. When a hypothesis is tested several times and the
data seems to support it, the hypothesis becomes a theory. A theory implies that
the scientific community has confidence in the interpretation of a particular
phenomenon. Using the example of the plants, a theory would be that plants
require light to live.

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Experimental Design
Once an answerable question has been created, data or evidence must
be collected. Scientists gather data by observation or experimentation.
For the collected data to be considered valid, the observations must be
repeatable when the experiment is performed under the same
conditions. At some point in this process, a hypothesis (a tentative
explanation or educated guess about a problem) can be made based on
available evidence.
The following graph outlines the typical steps in the scientific method.
Refer back to it as you continue reading through this lesson.

Observe (I notice)

Question
(I wonder)
if
Reect on results
Generate new questions

Hypothesis
(possible explanation)
and
Design and
conduct experiment

then...

Actual result does

support hypothesis

Compare predicted
result to actual result

Actual result partially

supports hypothesis

three possible
outcomes

Actual result does not

support hypothesis

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Lesson 1.3D

Comparison of Transport Mechanisms

Overview
In the previous lessons you learned how cells are able to transfer
molecules and nutrients into and out of the cell through the selectively
permeable membrane.
In summary, there are two basic categories of transport through the
membrane. Passive transport does not require chemical energy.
Molecules move along a concentration gradient, from areas of higher
concentration to areas of lower concentration. This method of
transport includes diffusion (the movement of molecules), facilitated
diffusion (the movement of a molecule with the help of a protein
channel or carrier), and osmosis (the diffusion of water through a semipermeable membrane).
The second category of transport requires energy from the cell because
the movement of molecules goes against the concentration gradient.
This method is called active transport.
In the guided practice you will construct a table to compare the various
transport methods. You will compare and contrast the direction of
movement, the conditions under which each occurs, and examples of
each type of transport.
If possible, you should work through the Web site for this lesson.

Resource List
Biology 12 Web site
http://www.openschool.bc.ca/courses/biology/bi12/mod1.html

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BIOLOGY 12

Section 2.1

DNA Replication
Section Overview
Youve undoubtedly seen a few episodes of CSI and know the
importance of DNA to crime scene investigations. Its importance is
simple: each human being has a unique DNA blueprint so determining
a DNA profile at a crime scene can help detectives determine suspects.
In Module 1 you briefly learned about DNA structure and function. In
this section your knowledge of DNA structure and function will be
taken further along with new information relating to RNA structure
and function, DNA replication, and recombinant DNA (or cloning).
It bears repeatingeach person has a unique DNA blueprintyou are
a unique human being with unique physical and mental characteristics
provided by your parents. You are special just dont get into trouble
with the police!

Overview of DNA Structure

P
A

gene

P
G

P
T

one
nucleotide

P
A

DNA
Double
Helix

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Lesson 2.2A

Protein Synthesis, Part 1: Transcription

Overview
The structure of the DNA molecule is the same in every living
organism. All of life, in its infinite variety, from slime mould to the
extinct Stegosaurus, is constructed from the same basic information
contained in each cell. How is it possible that a molecule consisting of
only six parts can provide all the information needed to produce
millions of species of life?
You have already learned about the structure of DNA and that it is
made up of a long series of nucleotides. These nucleotides are made up
of a deoxyribose sugar, a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base (A,
T, C, or G)the six parts of the DNA molecule. The bases are paired (A
with T and C with G) and joined by hydrogen bonds, and the sugars
and phosphate groups form the backbone of DNAs three-dimensional
double helix.
DNA codes for amino acids, which are the building blocks of proteins.
Proteins, in turn, have a number of functions, including support,
structure, movement, transport, communication, and immune
defense. Protein-containing structures include hair, nails, hooves,
horns, hormones, antibodies, blood proteins, and enzymes.
In the next two lessons you will investigate protein synthesis, the
complex process of creating a protein from a DNA sequence. Two
major processes are involved:

In this lesson you will learn about the process of transcription, and
begin to focus on how the information contained in DNA is processed
to form a final producta protein.

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87

Enzymes and Metabolism

Biochemical reactions are chemical reactions that occur in living
organisms. These reactions begin with one or more reactants, and then
convert these reactants to products. The many chemical reactions that
occur in cells are collectively termed metabolism.
A typical chemical reaction might be described as:
A+B=C+D
where A and B are reactants, and C and D are products.

However, reactions in cells are often more complex and occur as part
of a metabolic pathwaya series of conversions in which the
product of one reaction becomes the reactant in the next reaction:
A

Note that B, C, D, and E are both reactants and products. For example,
in the reaction A B, A is the reactant and B is the product. Next, in
B C, B becomes a reactant and C is a product, and so on.
Cellular metabolism must occur rapidly in order to sustain the life of
an organism. This is why metabolic pathways, such as the one above,
require enzymes. Enzymes are proteins that act as catalysts. They
speed up chemical reactions without being used up in those reactions.
The molecules that react with enzymes are called substrates
(substrate is another word for reactant). Enzymes are specificeach
enzyme will only form a complex with a certain substrate. That is why
different enzymes are used in different steps of a metabolic pathway.
Metabolic Pathway
Enzyme 1

Enzyme 2

Enzyme 3

In your Inquiry Into Life textbook, read the information on metabolic

pathways and enzymes before you proceed.

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BIOLOGY 12

Section 3.1

Digestive System
Section Overview
While you are eating a meal, many cellular activities occur to digest it.
The focus of this section is to explore these cellular activities and how
they cooperate within the organs of the digestive system. So, the next
time you growl down that burger, you'll know what's going on in the
body to help digest it.

tongue
mouth
sublingual
salivary gland

parotid
salivary gland
submandibular
salivary gland
pharynx

epiglottis
esophagus
liver

cardiac sphincter
stomach

gall bladder
pyloric
sphincter

pancreas
large intestine

duodenum
small
intestine

appendix
rectum

anus

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Section 3.2

Circulatory System
Section Overview
The circulatory system is responsible for
transporting materials throughout the
entire body. It transports nutrients,
water, and oxygen to your billions of
body cells and carries away wastes such as
carbon dioxide that body cells produce. It
is an amazing highway that travels
through your entire body connecting all
your body cells.
The main parts of the circulatory system
are the heart, arteries, capillaries, and
veins. Each of these parts is discussed in
detail within this section. Additional
topics include the lymphatic system and
fetal circulation.
Did you know one drop of blood
contains a half a drop of plasma,
5 MILLION red blood cells, 10 thousand
white blood cells, and 250 thousand
platelets?

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Heart Anatomy
The heart is a cone-shaped, fist-sized, muscular organ found within the
thoracic cavity beneath the sternum and between the lungs. It is a
double pump that pushes blood through the pulmonary and systemic
circuits at the same time. The heart has four chamberstwo atria and
two ventricles. The right side of the heart pumps blood to the lungs via
the pulmonary trunk, and the thicker walled left side of the heart
pumps blood to the body via the aorta.
For an overview of the heart, see Figure 12.3 and 12.4 on pages 220221
of your Inquiry Into Life textbook.
aorta to
upper body

anterior vena cava

pulmonary artery
to right lung

pulmonary artery
to left lung

aorta

rtery

ary a

on
pulm

pulmonary
veins from
right lung

pulmonary
veins from
left lung

left
atrium

left

right
atrium

le

tric

ven

right
ventricle

semilunar
valve
atrioventricular
valve

posterior
vena cava

septum

aorta to
lower body

Contractions of the heart are synchronized so both atria contract to

load the ventricles and then both ventricles contract to push blood
into the pulmonary and systemic circuits. (Note: the septum dividing
the two sides of the heart is muscle shared by both ventricles. During
contraction, it provides force for both ventricles at the same time.)

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69

Lesson 4.2A

Urinary System Anatomy

Overview
The kidney is the main organ of excretion, which is the process of
removing nitrogen wastes from the body. Nitrogen compounds,
mainly ammonia, are produced during the breakdown of proteins.
Ammonia is very toxic, so it is quickly combined with carbon dioxide
to produce urea. If left to accumulate, the body would be overwhelmed
within days and the major organs would stop functioning. As a result,
the kidney is one of the bodys essential organs. People whose kidneys
fail must submit to artificial removal of wastes by dialysis, or have
their kidneys replaced with a donated kidney.
As well as excretion, the kidneys regulate water concentration and pH
(acid/base balance.) Additionally, the kidneys also release hormones
important in Na+ regulation (renin) and red blood cell production
(erythropoietin).

Resource List
Inquiry Into Life
Biology 12 Provincial Exam Preparation package

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The Urinary System

The urinary system consists of two kidneys (flattened fist-sized organs),
the ureters that carry urine to the bladder (stores urine), and a single
urethra, (carries urine out of the body). Study the provided diagram of
the urinary system. You may want to cover the labels and practice
naming the parts.

inferior
vena cava

aorta

renal artery
kidney
ureter
renal vein
urinary
bladder

urethra

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153

Lesson 3.4A

The Anatomy of the Respiratory System

Overview
At rest, the body moves 10 litres of air into and out of the lungs every
minute. This movement of air into and out of the lungs is called
breathing. The human lungs contain 300 million alveoli with a surface
area forty times greater than that of the skin. The alveoli are
responsible for the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between
the lungs and the blood. This lesson introduces the anatomy of the
respiratory system and the functions of each individual organ.

Resource List
Inquiry Into Life
Biology 12 Provincial Exam Preparation package
Biology 12 Web site
http://www.openschool.bc.ca/courses/biology/bi12/mod3.html

The Anatomy of the Respiratory System

The respiratory system is responsible for the process of breathing,
and it cooperates with the circulatory system in the process of
respiration. Breathing involves the organs of the respiratory tract.
These organs transport oxygen-rich air to the blood in the capillaries of
the alveoli and remove carbon dioxide and water taken to the lungs
from the tissues.
There are three types of respiration. External respiration exchanges
oxygen and carbon dioxide in the alveoli of the lungs. Internal
respiration is the exchange of gases between the capillaries and the
tissue fluid. In cellular respiration, cells use oxygen to burn glucose to
produce ATP energy and the waste products carbon dioxide and water.
Both the mechanism of breathing and external and internal respiration
are discussed as separate lessons in this unit.

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If you have access to the Internet, go to the Biology 12 Web site

to check out further online resources.

Structure and Functions of the Respiratory System

The following diagram illustrates the structure and functions of the
respiratory system. Refer also to Figure 15.1 on page 286 of your Inquiry Into
Life textbook.

pharynx
esophagus
lungs
thoracic cavity
pleural
membranes

nasal cavity
mouth
epiglottis
larynx
trachea
bronchi
bronchiole

diaphragm

alveoli
(air sacs)

rib

The Nasal Cavity Air from outside the body passes through two
nostrils or nares and into the nasal cavities. Ciliated cells in the upper
parts of the nasal cavities are odour receptors and are responsible for
the sense of smell.
Pharynx or Throat The pharynx is a common passage way for
both the respiratory and digestive systems.

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BIOLOGY 12

Glossary:
action potential

the electrical potential determined by unequal ion

distribution when a particular site on the neuron
membrane is conducting an impulse; normally about
+40 millivolts
active process

a biological process (e.g. action potential of neurons)

that requires energy to make it occur
adrenal cortex

outer part of the adrenal gland located on the top of each

kidney
afferent arteriole

blood vessel carrying blood to each glomerulus

aldosterone

hormone released from adrenal cortex; stimulates

reabsorption of Na+ and water by distal tubule;
responsible for maintaining blood volume (pressure)
all-or-none response

is the principle by which neurons either reach a

stimulation threshold and fire or they dont receive
enough stimulation so dont fire at all. Its all-or-none in
terms of a neuron firing or not
anterior pituitary

releases FSH and LH after being stimulated by

hypothalamus and low concentrations of each (negative
feedback)
anti-diuresis

decrease in urine output

161