Electric Power Systems Research 103 (2013) 201213

Contents lists available at SciVerse ScienceDirect

Electric Power Systems Research

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/epsr

Application of articial intelligence to stator winding fault diagnosis

in Permanent Magnet Synchronous Machines
Yaw D. Nyanteh , Sanjeev K. Srivastava, Chris S. Edrington, David A. Cartes
Center for Advanced Power Systems, Florida State University, 2000 Levy Avenue, Tallahassee, FL 32310, United States

a r t i c l e

i n f o

Article history:
Received 13 March 2013
Received in revised form 25 May 2013
Accepted 27 May 2013
Available online 2 July 2013
Keywords:
Stator winding short circuit
Articial Neural Network
Particle Swarm Optimization
Extended Kalman Filter Method

a b s t r a c t
This paper proposes a new methodology to solve the problem of fault diagnosis in electrical machines.
The fault diagnosis method presented in this paper is, rst, able to provide information about the location
of a short-circuit fault in a stator winding. Secondly, the method enables the estimation of fault severity
by specifying the number of short-circuited turns during a fault. A cluster of Focused Time-Lagged neural
networks are combined with the Particle Swarm Optimization algorithm for proposed fault diagnosis
method. This method is applied to the stator windings of a Permanent Magnet Synchronous Machine. Each
neural network, in the cluster, is trained to correlate the zero-current component to the number of shortcircuited turns in the stator windings. The zero-current component, different from the zero-sequence
current, are obtained by summing the instantaneous values of current on all phases of the stator winding
during the diagnosis procedure. The neural networks are trained ofine with the Extended Kalman Filter
method using fault data from both computer simulations and an actual Permanent Magnet Synchronous
Machine. The use of the Extended Kalman Filter method, for training, ensures that the neural network
cluster used can be re-trained online to make the fault diagnosis system adapt to changing operational
conditions. Results from both computer simulation and actual machine data are presented to show the
performance of the neural network cluster and the Particle Swarm Optimization algorithm.
Published by Elsevier B.V.

1. Introduction
Permanent Magnet Synchronous Machines (PMSM) are receiving increasing attention in robotic, automotive, electric traction
and propulsion in Shipboard Power Systems (SPS) due to their high
efciency, high energy density and their suitability for high performance applications made possible by advancements in permanent
magnet materials [13]. With the increased use of PMSM, efcient
online condition monitoring and accurate machine fault diagnosis,
for these machines, is very important. The persistence of the electromotive force, due to the permanent magnets, also puts a lot of
stress on winding insulation and increases the possibility for degradation leading to winding faults. It has been established that SPS
has conditions that promote the degradation of winding insulation
[4]. This makes fault detection in these systems very important for
the survivability, availability and efcient use of energy of rotating
machines. In the published literature on fault diagnosis of electric
machines, induction motors have been the primary focus [57].
However, research effort on PMSM fault diagnosis has been on the

Corresponding author. Tel.: +1 6147073450.

E-mail addresses: ynyanteh@fsu.edu, ydn11@my.fsu.edu,
nyantehyaw@gmail.com (Y.D. Nyanteh), sanjeev@caps.fsu.edu (S.K. Srivastava),
edrington@caps.fsu.edu (C.S. Edrington), dave@eng.fsu.edu (D.A. Cartes).
0378-7796/$ see front matter. Published by Elsevier B.V.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.epsr.2013.05.018

rise as more PMSMs enter the market for diverse application areas
as enumerated above [813].
Even though Articial Intelligence (AI) was introduced a long
time ago, it was in the early 90s that AI has achieved its greatest success, prompting their application to new elds of study. In
this paper, a method is presented to detect the presence of stator
winding short circuits. An Articial Neural Network (ANN) and a
modied version of the Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) algorithm is used in the proposed method which can also provide
information about the severity of the short circuit fault occurring in
a PMSM. An ANN is a processing system consisting of a large number
of simple, highly interconnected processing elements in an architecture inspired by the structure of the cerebral cortex of the brain
[14]. The advantages of ANNs are their capability of arbitrary mapping from any real input space to an output space without regard for
the underlying system dynamics; which can be difcult to model
in some situations. Once designed, most ANN architectures can be
implemented online with little computational burden. The most
important issue with ANN is the selection of the type of ANN,
the architecture and the training method. The types of ANN techniques used in fault diagnosis for rotating machines include, but are
not limited to, multi-layer perceptrons, support vector machines,
self-organizing maps and radial basis functions. In most cases
the selection of the type of ANN xes the training methodology
and the architecture. In the literature, fault diagnosis applications

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Y.D. Nyanteh et al. / Electric Power Systems Research 103 (2013) 201213

Current(A)

x 10

-13

No Short-circuit winding fault on phase-A

2
0
-2
-4
3.5

3.55

3.6

3.65

3.7

3.75

3.8

3.85

3.9

3.95

3.85

3.9

3.95

3.85

3.9

3.95

Short-circuit
windingfault
faulton
onphase-A
phase-A
10%90%
short-circuit
winding

Current(A)

5
2.5
0
-2.5
-5
3.5

3.55

3.6

3.65

3.7

3.75

3.8

50% Short-circuit winding fault on phase-A

Current(A)

100
50
0
-50
-100
3.5

3.55

3.6

3.65

3.7

3.75

3.8

Time(s)
Fig. 1. Zero-component of three phase stator current of PMSM from computer simulation.

involving ANNs for electric drives have mainly involved the induction machine [1519]. The usual approach to applying ANNs is to
obtain fault indicators and extract features which are learned by the
ANN technique by mapping machine conditions to the extracted
features. A recurrent, multi-layer ANN model for simulating the
dynamics of an induction motor and performing online fault diagnosis is proposed in [20] even though the load uctuation is not
discussed. The case of load uctuation is addressed in [21] using
negative sequence currents as the fault predictor. This paper uses
a different approach using the zero current component of the DQ0
transformation of the stator three-phase currents as the fault indicator. The characteristics of the zero-current component of the
stator current is selected as the feature the ANN uses to correlate machine condition to fault type and fault severity. In [22], the
authors present a well-developed approach based on an analysis
of the frequency component of the zero-sequence component of
the voltage of PMSMs. The method presented uses the zero component of the stator current even though the zero component of
the voltage can be used in the case of current controlled inverted
system. The method presented in this paper is a time-domain
knowledge-based approach to expand the use of ANNs to the
PMSMs.
During a three phase fault, a number of physical parameters
of the windings change: number of turns, reluctance and resistance. For our consideration the effective number of stator winding
turns is mapped to the zero-current component of the three phase
currents during training for various combinations of speed, loading and winding turns. Each combination is represented by an ANN
which is trained by the Extended Kalman Filter (EKF) method. The
EKF method also enables online reconguration of the ANN weight
matrix to adapt the diagnosis systems to changing operating conditions of the drive. During actual online fault diagnosis, an online
version of Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) is implemented to
determine the number of shorted turns. PSO is an optimization
technique which uses the concept of ocking birds or swarming
locusts to stochastically approach the local optimum of a function.

Proposed in 1995, this technique has found application in several

areas due mainly to its ease of implementation and its resistance
to local optimal traps [23].
The rest of the paper is developed with a brief introduction to the
PMSM drive, the stator winding short circuit problem is introduced
in the subsequent section, after which we introduce the ANN and
PSO optimization techniques as applied to this work. The nal section discusses the both computer simulation and experimental fault
diagnosis results.

2. PMSM drive system fault detection model development

The windings of rotating machines are made up of conductors,
the winding core and winding insulation. The winding insulation prevents short circuits between conductors. The insulation
medium also provides some additional means to hold the windings in place to reduce vibration. Winding insulation systems are
also designed to quickly conduct heat to the cooling system [24].
The insulation system, however, adds to the cost of the machine,
increases the weight and size of the machine and reduces machine
efciency [24]. Stator winding faults start as incipient turn-toturn faults, which if undetected can cause the total burn-out of
the entire phase winding since turn-to-turn faults rapidly progresses through the stator winding and insulation system, once
started [7].
The well known equations that describe the performance of
drives can be found in several texts [25,26] and would not be discussed in their entirety in this paper. The relevant equations that
are needed for the development of the fault diagnostic system are
discussed in this section. The zero-current components (different
from the zero-sequence components) of the stator of the PMSM
are obtained for time, t, as one-third the instantaneous value of the
sum of the three currents components as shown in the DQ0 transformation equations in (1). In (1), Idq0 is the transformed current
values and the Ia is the phase current. The zero-current component

Y.D. Nyanteh et al. / Electric Power Systems Research 103 (2013) 201213

x 10

-13

203

No Short-circuit winding fault on phase-A

Current(A)

1
0
-1
-2
3.7

3.705

3.71

3.715

3.72

3.725

3.73

3.735

3.74

3.745

3.75

3.735

3.74

3.745

3.75

3.735

3.74

3.745

3.75

90% Short-circuit winding fault on phase-A

5

Current(A)

2.5
0
-2.5
-5
3.7

3.705

3.71

3.715

3.72

3.725

3.73

50% Short-circuit winding fault on phase-A

Current(A)

50
25
0
-25
-50
3.7

3.705

3.71

3.715

3.72

3.725

3.73

Time(s)
Fig. 2. Close up of the zero-component of three phase stator current of PMSM from computer simulation.

is obtained as the third component of the transformed three-phase

currents, I0 , displayed in (2).

2
3

2
3

Ia




2

2
2
Idq0 =
Ib
sin  +
3 sin() sin 
3
3

cos()

cos 

cos  +

(1)

Ic

0.5
I0 =

1
(Ia + Ib + Ic )
3

0.5

0.5
(2)

For the case of no faults and for balanced three-phase conditions, the zero-current component is zero. During fault conditions
there is an imbalance in the measured current in all phases and
the zero-current component are no longer zero. When the number of shorted turns increases, it is noticed that the zero-current
component increases in magnitude. If a short circuit occurs in only
the A-phase, it is noticed that as the number of short-circuited
turns increase, the magnitude of the zero-current component also
increases. This is shown in Fig. 1 based on a simulation of a PMSM
operating under three different conditions of the stator as follows:
no winding fault, 10% windings short circuit in the A-phase and 50%
winding short circuit in the A-phase. A close up of the gure from
times 3.73.75 s is shown in Fig. 2. The loading and commanded
speed, in all cases, was the same. It would be noticed that in the
rst case of no fault the zero-current component is zero. The case
with 90% healthy stator windings has a peak of about 5 A and the
case with 50% healthy windings has a peak of about 50 A with spikes
reaching 100 A. For winding conditions with short-circuited turns
more than 50% of the total effective turns, speed control of the
machine was impossible.
During short circuit faults, the windings undergo physical degradation that reduces the effective number of turns, in addition to a
number of other physical modications to the windings. The effective number of turns is a simplication that represents the number

of turns of an equivalent balanced sinusoidally distributed winding

[25]. In [2731], several models have been developed to describe
the behavior of windings during short circuits. In one such model,
the inductance matrix of the three phase windings is augmented
with extra ctitious windings for each phase under fault. In (3), the
inductance matrix is shown for the case of a winding fault in the
B-phase where  is the effective number of turns given as a ratio of
the number of the turns in the shorted windings to the windings in
the healthy windings. The subscript a, b and c are for the A, B and
C-phases, respectively, and f refers to the fault condition.

Laa

(1 )Lab

Lac

Laf

(1 )Lab (1 )2 Lbb (1 )Lbc (1 )Lbf

Labc =

Lac
(1 )Lbc
Lcc
Lcf

Laf

(1 )Lbf

Lcf

(3)

2 Lff

The model shown in (3) has been used to develop an ABC model
of the PMSM. This model was used to study the behavior of the
PMSM during faults and was also used to obtain data to train an
ANN cluster for a number of machine conditions. Different fault
conditions have been simulated to understand the effect of short
circuits on the speed, torque, voltage and currents of the machine.
The approach used in [32] developed an optimization technique
based on PSO to determine the location of a short circuit fault and
the  term in (3). The approach in this paper uses an ANN to relate
the effective number of turns given in (3) to the zero-current component of the three-phase currents. PSO is then used to determine
 in (3) during online fault diagnosis.
2.1. ANN model training
Training time for a neural network depends on several factors
that include the type of application, ANN architecture and training
method [33]. The types of architecture include feed-forward, recurrent, multi-layer and ANN clusters. For this work an ANN cluster is

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Y.D. Nyanteh et al. / Electric Power Systems Research 103 (2013) 201213

zero current component

abccurrents
PMSM
Drive

Known turns ratio for each phase

Multi-layer perceptron

Fig. 3. Diagram of the ANN during training.

used for fault diagnosis with each member ANN designed for preselected machine winding turn conditions: no turn-to-turn short
circuit, 10% short circuit, 20% short circuit, 30% short circuit, 40%
short circuit and 50% short circuit. To extend the capabilities of
ANN cluster, ANNs are designed also for machine operating condition. By this approach a set of ANNs, for a particular winding
condition, would be designed with different machine data representing different machine operating modes. These operating modes
could be speed of operation or loading conditions. Different ANN
architectures were considered during design and a feed-forward
Focused Time-Lagged Neural Network (FTLN) was selected as the
ANN architecture since it produced the best results. The architecture was composed of 3 neurons in the input layer, 20 neurons in
the hidden layer and 3 neurons in the output layer after a number
of training iterations. Sigmoidal activation functions are used in the

hidden layer and linear activation functions are used in the output
layer. Fig. 3 shows a diagram of each member ANN developed for
fault diagnosis whilst Fig. 4 shows the ANN cluster. The diagram
in Fig. 3 shows the ANN, input, output and the PSO algorithm to
compute the number  for each phase.
To train the ANN cluster, various fault conditions are simulated to obtain the zero-components of the stator current for each
combination of winding fault and operating condition selected
for training. The number of ANNs in the cluster should correspond, approximately, to the number of stator winding conditions
modeled and the number of machine operating conditions captured
during simulation runs. The input to each ANN, during training
for any combination of machine fault, is obtained by multiplying
each phase current by the corresponding turns-ratio of the phase.
The training method used is online training based on the Extended

ANN1

ANN2

ANN3

ANN4

ANN5

ANN6

ANN7

ANN8

ANN9

ANN Cluster

PSO

Cluster output

Fig. 4. Diagram of ANN Cluster during fault diagnosis.

Y.D. Nyanteh et al. / Electric Power Systems Research 103 (2013) 201213

PI

ir* q

205

vr* q

PI

PWM
r

ir*

vr*

PMSM

PI
Encoder

i rd

abc

i abc

i rq

dq0
r

ANN
Cluster

Fault diagnosis
Fig. 5. Schematic of drive system incorporating the ANN fault diagnostic system.

Kalman Filter (EKF) method [33]. Variants of the Back-propagation

method were also used for training but the results presented are
only shown for case of the EKF method, which we found to have
better performance in terms of time of convergence of the weights
and lower mean square values. Online training in contrast to batch
training allows online reconguration of the ANN to make it more
responsive to machine aging and changes due to other operating
conditions that might produce false alarms.
The formulations needed to congure the ANN based on the
Kalman lter approach can be derived with the signal ow graph in
Fig. 5 which can be represented by (4) where w(n) is the state vector
of the system, d(n) is the observation vector, C(n) is the measurement matrix and v(n) is the measurement noise [33]. Based on the
discussion above, the Kalman ltering problem can be stated as one
to nd minimum mean-square error estimate of the state vector
at every time step of the system whose signal ow graph is shown
above using the entire observation vector. The innovations process,
(n), which is associated with the observation vector is dened in
(5) where d(n|n 1) is the minimum mean-square error estimate
of d(n), given all past values of the observation vector starting at
time n = 1 and extending up to n 1. Using the innovations processes, the correlated measurement vector can be replaced with
the uncorrelated innovations and the Kalman lter can be derived
with the set of formulations in (6), where  (n) is the conversion
factor that relates the ltered estimation error, e(n) to the innovations (n), G(n) is the Kalman lter gain and K(n,n 1) is the error
covariance matrix.
w(n + 1) = w(n)
d(n) = C(n)w(n) + (n)

(n) = d(n) d(n|n 1)

(4)

(5)

 (n) = [C(n)K(n, n 1)C T (n) + R(n)]

G(n) = K(n, n 1)C T (n) (n)



(n) = y(n) C(n)w(n|n 1)



(6)

w(n + 1|n) = w(n|n 1) + G(n)(n)

K(n + 1, n) = K(n, n 1) G(n)C(n)K(n, n 1)
During fault diagnosis, the input to the ANN is obtained by multiplying each machine phase current by a number generated by the
PSO method. This number is a value between 0 and 1 representing
the fault condition on that particular phase of machine. The output of each ANN in the cluster is compared to the actual calculated
zero-component. If the value selected by the PSO algorithm enables
an ANN to produce the same zero-current component as from the
actual PMSM, the number generated is taken as the turns-ratio of
the stator windings of the machine. This determination means that
rst a fault is detected. Secondly, the location of winding fault is
automatically determined since the method determines the windings turns ratio on all phases. Thirdly, by determining the actual
winding turns-ratio, the winding fault severity is also determined.
A number of methods could have been used to randomly generate values that correspond to the turns-ratio. A random search
could be implemented as well as other stochastic computational
intelligence search techniques. PSO was selected as the intelligence
technique to progressively search in the solution space for the number of turns of the windings during fault diagnosis. The PSO method
also has other features that make it computationally less demanding than other stochastic methods like Genetic algorithms [34]. To
implement PSO in fault diagnosis by the above method, the classical
PSO algorithm was modied into an online optimization procedure.
The combination of online training by the EKF method and realtime PSO makes this approach very amenable to online diagnostic
applications. Fig. 5 shows the complete fault diagnosis system. The

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Y.D. Nyanteh et al. / Electric Power Systems Research 103 (2013) 201213

start

Inialize parcles
and pbest

Do this step once at the

start of fault diagnosis

Inialize
gbest

Update parcles
with PSO

Repeat this loop

Unl end of diagnosis

Calculate Fitness
for each parcle

Update
pbest

Do not update
gbest

Beer
than pbest

Do not
update pbest

Beer
than gbest

Update
pbest
Fig. 6. Flow chart of real time PSO method.

data required is easily obtained with sensors that come with most
standard drive systems.
PSO starts by randomly selecting feasible solutions in the solution space called particles. Each particle is then adjusted by (7) and
(8). In (7), Vi (k) is described as the velocity of particle i at time k, W(k)
is the inertia weight of the system at time k, gbest is the global best
particle location, pbesti is the personal best location of the particle
under consideration and rand(0.1) are randomly generated numbers that come from a normal distribution or uniform distribution.
Xi (k) is the particle i location at time k in (8). Extra implementation
issues with developing real time PSO is discussed in [35].
Vi (k + 1) = W (k)Vi (k) + rand(0, 1)(gbesti (k)) + rand(0, 1)(pbesti (k))
(7)

Xi (k + 1) = Xi (k) + Vi (k + 1)

(8)

The modied PSO algorithm to determine  is shown schematically in Fig. 6. Each PSO particle is updated after each time step of the
diagnostic procedure. The actual PSO particle update is based on the
previous tness value compared to the present tness value. The
tness value that determines each particle, global best and personal
best updates is the sum of the squared deviations between the ANN

calculated zero current components and the actual zero current

components. The solution space for the PSO optimization technique is the closed interval between 0 and 1. Zero representing total
breakdown of the phase winding and one representing perfectly
healthy winding conditions. The depth of the solution space was
limited to a resolution of 0.05 since in practice a depth greater than
0.05 did not reect measurable effects on speed, current and torque.
The optimization problem solution space is therefore limited to
a discrete space from and including 01 in steps of 0.05 for each
phase. The real-time PSO algorithm is consequently modied to
search within this space for the value of the effective turns-ratio
during a simulated short circuit fault.

3. Fault simulation results

In the rest of the paper, we discuss simulation results based on
ofine training of ANN for fault detection. First we describe the
experimental setup to obtain data to train the ANN and to simulate
faults in a PMSM. Secondly computer simulation results would be
discussed to show the performance of the ANN and the PSO algorithm. Thereafter, experimental results would also be presented
to show the performance of the diagnostic system using an actual
PMSM drive.

Y.D. Nyanteh et al. / Electric Power Systems Research 103 (2013) 201213

Fig. 7. PMSM Drive system.

Fig. 8. Circuit diagram for stator short circuit winding.

207

Y.D. Nyanteh et al. / Electric Power Systems Research 103 (2013) 201213

phaseA
Current(A)

phaseB
Current(A)

phaseC
Current(A)

208

20
0
-20
0

0.05

0.1

0.15

0.2

0.25

0.3

0.35

0.4

0.45

0.5

0.05

0.1

0.15

0.2

0.25

0.3

0.35

0.4

0.45

0.5

0.05

0.1

0.15

0.2

0.25
Time(s)

0.3

0.35

0.4

0.45

0.5

20
0
-20

20
0
-20

Fig. 9. Computer simulated three-phase current data with effective turns-ratio of 0.9.

Table 1
PMSM simulation parameters.

3.1. Description of experimental setup

The experimental setup to obtain data to validate and train the
ANN consists of a 28.8 kVA variable frequency drive connected to
an 11.25 kW, 480 V, 60 Hz, Y-connected 8-pole PMSM. A dc motor
is mechanically coupled to the PMSM to serve as a load. The data
acquisition system is developed utilizing dSPACE. This allows the
sampling of three phase currents, three phase voltages, fault loop
currents and motor torque data. A speed encoder that provides 60
signals per rotation of the rotor enables the extraction of motor
speed values. Fig. 7 shows the drive system which is capable of
running the PMSM in various modes; for this work it is set operate
the DC machine in torque mode and the PMSM in speed control
mode. The Faults can be simulated in the PMSM by short circuiting
the stator windings in two different locations as in shown in Fig. 8.
The rst location labeled A6-A7 to A7-A8 applies a short circuit
across a full pitch winding whilst the second location labeled A8A9 to A9-A10 applies a short circuit across half of the windings.
These special connections have been made across the A phase of
the stator windings and is part of a customized machine developed
for fault studies.

1.6
1.4

square deviation

1.2
1
0.8

PMSM parameters

Nominal values (p.u)

Pole pairs
Stator per resistance (Rs )
Self inductance (L)
Friction coefcient
Moment of inertia

4
3.4 
1.1 mH
0.001 Nm/(rad s)
0.006 kg m2

3.2. Computer simulation results

First results are presented for computer based simulations carried out in MATLAB/SIMULINK environment. These were carried
out with a computer simulation model in the direct machine (ABC)
reference frame of a PMSM with parameters shown in Table 1.
A number of machine conditions are simulated and an ANN is
designed for each such condition. These conditions are shown in
Table 2 for changing speeds and xed loading on the machine. For
each speed, six different winding conditions are simulated and the
data obtained is used as training input for each ANN in the cluster.
An ANN is trained for each speed and winding condition combination. The training data for the computer simulations was made up of
10,000 data points and comprised the three phase current supply to
the PMSM and the corresponding effective turns-ratio. The results
of the training are shown in Fig. 10 based on computer simulated
three-phase current data shown in Fig. 9. The effective turns-ratio
for this simulation was 0.9 on the phase-A with no short circuits
on the other phases. As shown the training time was rather fast
because of the architecture of the ANN and the training method.
During fault diagnosis, all the trained ANNs are presented with the
same input data comprising the three phase currents multiplied by

0.6

Table 2
Machine simulated conditions.

0.4
0.2
0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

Training step
Fig. 10. Training evolution for computer simulated data for one ANN.

100

Speed (Hz)

Turns-ratio (ratio of healthy turns)

100
80
60
40
20

1, 0.9, 0.8, 0.7, 0.6, 0.5

1, 0.9, 0.8, 0.7, 0.6, 0.5
1, 0.9, 0.8, 0.7, 0.6, 0.5
1, 0.9, 0.8, 0.7, 0.6, 0.5
1, 0.9, 0.8, 0.7, 0.6, 0.5

Turns-ratio Phase A

Y.D. Nyanteh et al. / Electric Power Systems Research 103 (2013) 201213

1
PSO Performance
Error

0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2

Turns-ratio Phase B

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

1
PSO Performance
Error

0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0

Turns-ratio Phase C

209

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

1
PSO Performance
Error

0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

Iteration Number
Fig. 11. Fault diagnosis for computer simulated data (no fault case).

Turns-ratio Phase C

Turns-ratio Phase B

Turns-ratio Phase A

a value generated by PSO which represents a possible value for the

turns-ratio on each phase of the PMSM. Ideally one of the ANNs
would respond if the calculated turns-ratio from the PSO matches
the machine condition it is trained for.
First the method was tested with no fault at 60 Hz. The result of
fault diagnosis for this initial test is shown in Fig. 11 where after 7
iterations, correct diagnosis is obtained. The error during fault diagnosis is also shown in Fig. 11 by subtracting the correct number of
turns from the calculated number of turns. In Fig. 11, the correct

number of turns for the no-fault case is 1 for each phase. Another
result of fault diagnosis using the proposed method is shown in
Fig. 12. Correct fault diagnosis showed that there was 10% short circuiting on the phase-A with no fault on the other two phases and
speed set at 100 Hz. PSO particles for all phases were initialized
using numbers generated from the random number distribution
between 0.5 and 1. Particles for the Phase B and Phase C assume
correct values of 1 (indicating no error) within the 5th iteration
of the PSO algorithm. By the 30th iteration of the real time PSO

1
0.8

PSO Performance
Error

0.6
0.4
0.2
0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

1
PSO Performance
Error

0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

1
PSO Performance
Error

0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0

10

20

30

40

50
60
Iteration Number

70

80

Fig. 12. Fault diagnosis for computer simulated data (10% shorted turns on phase A).

90

100

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Turns ratio
Phase A

0.5

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

Turns ratio
Phase B

0.5

Turns ratio
Phase C

0.5

Iteration number
Fig. 13. Fault diagnosis for computer simulated data (25% shorted turns on phase A).

algorithm, the correct turns-ratio of the A-phase windings have

been obtained. At a signal sampling rate of 0.0002 s per sample, this
result shows that it took approximately 0.006 s for the real-time
PSO algorithm to obtain the correct turns-ratio and fault location
on the machine. Similar results were obtained for other fault simulations. For the case of machine conditions for which none of the
ANNs was trained, the ANN which was trained for the condition that
closely matched the simulated conditions was able to obtain the
correct turns-ratio of the windings of the faulted phase. The results
shown in Fig. 13 gave correct diagnosis with 25% of the phase-A
windings shorted.

3.3. Experimental results

A number of scenarios were designed and implemented via a
controller hardware-in-the-loop simulation for the PMSM experimental drive system described in Section 3.1. The actual PMSM
machine as shown in Fig. 8 has a xed number of windings that
can be shorted to emulate actual machine fault condition. The
fault scenarios designed for these simulations involved changing the loading on the PMSM for different speeds as shown in
Table 3 for the same winding conditions. An ANN is designed for
each combination of loading and winding condition. Fig. 14 is the

PhaseA
Current(A)

40
20
0
-20
-40
0

0.05

0.1

0.15

0.2

0.25

0.3

0.35

0.4

0.45

0.5

0.05

0.1

0.15

0.2

0.25

0.3

0.35

0.4

0.45

0.5

0.05

0.1

0.15

0.2

0.25

0.3

0.35

0.4

0.45

0.5

PhaseB
Current(A)

40
20
0
-20
-40

PhaseC
Current(A)

40
20
0
-20
-40

Time(s)
Fig. 14. Current data with effective turns-ratio of 0.95 from PMSM drive.

Y.D. Nyanteh et al. / Electric Power Systems Research 103 (2013) 201213
Table 3
Machine simulated conditions.

squared deviation

211

1.5

Speed (Hz)

Loading at xed turns-ratio (5% shorted winding)

10
20
30
40
50

No-load, 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 50% loading

No-load, 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 50% loading
No-load, 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 50% loading
No-load, 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 50% loading
No-load, 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 50% loading

0.5

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

Training step
Fig. 15. Training evolution for data obtained from actual PMSM drive with 50%
loading.

training result for the case of 50% loading on the PMSM experimental drive system described earlier. The actual input three-phase
current data used for the training is shown in Fig. 13. The training
data for the experimental fault diagnosis was made up of 10,000
data points and comprised the three phase current supply to the
PMSM and the corresponding effective turns-ratio. Fig. 13 shows
that when a short circuit is applied to the A-phase of the PMSM,
there is an instantaneous increase in the A-phase current magnitude from time 0.250.35 s. A rough estimation of the effective
turns-ratio of the PMSM during fault simulation gave a value of
0.95. The training based on experimental data was more difcult
and had a worse total squared-error deviation compared to data
from computer simulation. This was due to the fact that sensor
noise added to the current data increased the nonlinearities in
the mapping from the ANN input to the calculated zero-current
component.
During fault diagnosis based on the PMSM drive, the loading
conditions of the drive was changed for different speeds and the

ANN that was trained to catch the particular machine condition

simulated was always able to determine the winding conditions on
the A-phase. Fault diagnosis results obtained using data from the
PMSM drive took longer as shown in Fig. 15. Fig. 15 shows correct
diagnosis for the PMSM at 30% loading where at about the 50th iteration, the correct turns-ratio is discovered. At a signal sampling rate
of 0.0002 s per sample, this result show that it took approximately
0.01 s for the real-time PSO algorithm to obtain the correct turnsratio on the machine based on the simulated condition. For the case
shown in Fig. 16, the A-phase turns-ratio when a fault is applied is
0.95 and 1 for the other phases. For all cases and as already discussed, the real-time PSO algorithm is randomly initialized in the
discrete solution space as described in Section 2. As was observed
in the case of computer simulation, when other loading conditions
were considered for the PMSM, similar results as shown in Fig. 16
were obtained. Fault diagnosis based on the PMSM data generally
took longer since as was explained earlier, the training results were
not as accurate due to noise in the data. The results, however, show
that the approach used in this paper is relatively impervious to
sensor noise. For machine conditions for which none of the ANNs
were trained, the results were the same as was obtained with computer simulated data. The results showed that the ANN that closely
matched the fault condition was activated to determine the fault
condition. Fig. 17 shows fault diagnosis for the case of 50% loading at
a speed of 45 Hz. The time it takes to diagnose the fault is longer than
in Fig. 16 since this fault was not in the knowledge base of the ANN.
It took 55 iterations in Fig. 17 corresponding to a time of 0.011 s.

Turns-ratio
PhaseA

0.95
0.55

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

Turns-ratio
PhaseB

0.5

Turns-ratio
PhaseC

0.5

Iteration number
Fig. 16. Fault diagnosis for 30% loading of the PMSM drive.

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Y.D. Nyanteh et al. / Electric Power Systems Research 103 (2013) 201213

Turns-ratio
Phase A

0.5

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

Turns-ratio
Phase B

0.5

Turns-ratio
Phase C

0.5

Iteration number
Fig. 17. Fault diagnosis for 50% loading of the PMSM drive.

4. Concluding remarks

References

The method presented in this paper shows a promising use

of AI for fault diagnosis of electrical machines in real time. The
method when successful provides three important pieces of information: the fault type, the fault location and the fault severity. A
FTLN network is used in this paper to correlate winding short faults
conditions to the zero-current component of a PMSM. Whilst the
method presented is applied to a PMSM, the method can be applied
to all kinds of machines. The method also uses the zero-current
component but the method can also use the zero-voltage component in the case of a voltage controlled drive system. Whilst the use
of PSO for optimization has been around for some time, the method
is modied to carry out optimization in real time by performing the
PSO particle update immediately after data acquisition. The performance of the PSO algorithm in real time has been demonstrated to
be adequate for the purposes of fault diagnosis. The number of PSO
particles for this work was xed at 20 by trial and error. The method
presented can also be implemented in real time using the modied
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increased number of ANNs used for fault diagnosis. Whilst results
from only one fault per phase is shown in this paper, faults on other
phases have to be considered as different fault conditions and the
ANN trained for such cases.

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