Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
Embracing Jazz:
35
A b st r a c t
Jazz is an American art form that has become a reflection of universal passions, emotions and the human
experience. However, American audience participation for the art form is declining. New Orleans has long been
heralded as the birthplace of jazz, and although jazz music can be heard at various venues as well as music
festivals throughout the city, local audiences do not make up the majority at venues dedicated to jazz performance. This study examines barriers to audience participation for jazz music. Specifically, audience participation
in New Orleans is explored using the Motivation, Ability, Opportunity model as a guiding framework. Empirical
evidence, consisting of residents insights concerning jazz and possible barriers to participation, was gathered
via in-depth interviews. Further, drawing from the literature on consumer engagement and brand experience,
a model is proposed to address how such barriers might be overcome through strategic marketing efforts that
create meaningful and engaging jazz consumption experiences.
KEYWORDS
Jazz, audience development, New Orleans, marketing
36
FIGURE 1
LOCAL ATTENDANCE AT JAZZ CLUBS IN NEW ORLEANS
6
Number of jazz clubs reporting
5
4
3
2
1
0
010
1120
2130
3140
4150
> 50
RSUM
Le jazz est une forme dart amricaine qui a su reflter les passions, les motions et lexprience humaine. Cependant, la
participation du public amricain cet art est en dclin. La Nouvelle-Orlans est reconnue pour tre le berceau du jazz,
et bien quil soit possible dentendre cette musique dans divers lieux de la ville tels que les festivals de musique, le public
local ne constitue pas la majorit dans les lieux ddis aux spectacles de jazz. Cette tude examine les barrires la participation du public aux spectacles de jazz. En particulier, cette participation du public La Nouvelle-Orlans est examine
travers le modle des motivations, des comptences et des occasions, lequel sert de cadre de rfrence. Les vidences
empiriques, consistant dans les opinions des rsidants au sujet du jazz et dans les possibles barrires la participation,
ont t recueillies au moyen dentrevues en profondeur. De plus, sappuyant sur la littrature concernant le comportement
du consommateur et lexprience de marque, un modle indique comment de telles barrires peuvent tre surmontes
grce llaboration de stratgies de marketing s usceptibles de crer des expriences de consommation du jazz signifiantes et engageantes.
MOTS
CLS
37
The research literature contains audience development models that offer conceptual, empirical
and anecdotal strategies for reaching new audiences (Falk and Dierking, 1992; Heilbrun and
Gray, 1993; Diggle, 1994; Morison and Dalgleish,
1994; McCarthy and Jinnet, 2001; Zakaras and
Lowell, 2008). One model that has attracted
much attention is the RAND model proposed
by McCarthy and Jinnet (2001). It provides a
method for segmenting non-participating individuals and suggests that some are disinclined to
participate in the arts due to their background
and attitudes. The model differentiates among
factors that may influence an individuals decision
whether to attend arts events and delineates the
process and stages by which an individual progresses to the point of becoming a participant.
However, researchers have criticized the
RAND model because it does not allow for
multiple factors that may interact and impact
decision-making at each stage of the process
leading to audience participation. Additionally,
the model has been criticized for not taking into
account how marketing strategies employed at
each stage to target potential audience members
can influence other audience segments, and not
just the one being targeted (Wiggins, 2004).
Hence, Wiggins (2004) proposes using a model
from the consumer research literature, the MAO
model developed by MacInnis and Jaworski
(1989), to examine barriers to arts participation.
According to Wiggins, the MAO accounts for
interaction effects at each stage in the process
and enables the organization to anticipate the
potential effects of marketing strategies on various market segments.
Specifically, the MAO posits that consumers
experience barriers to action because they lack the
motivation, ability or opportunity to act, or some
combination of the three. In the MAO, motivation
RESUMEN
El jazz es una forma de arte estadounidense que se ha vuelto el reflejo de pasiones, emociones y experiencia humana universales.
Sin embargo, la participacin del pblico estadounidense en esta forma de arte va disminuyendo. En Nueva Orleans, la proclamada
cuna del jazz, sigue oyndose esta msica en varios lugares y festivales sin embargo en estos eventos dedicados al jazz el pblico
local es minora. En este estudio se analizan los obstculos para la participacin en la msica jazz, y ms especficamente, la
participacin del pblico de Nueva Orleans utilizando el modelo Motivacin, Capacidad, Oportunidad como marco rector. Los
datos empricos se recogieron mediante entrevistas detalladas en las cuales se buscaban la percepcin de los residentes del jazz
y los posibles obstculos a su participacin. Basndose en la documentacin sobre el compromiso del consumidor y la experiencia
de marca, se propone un modelo que permita vencer dichos obstculos mediante esfuerzos estratgicos de mercadotecnia que
lleven a la creacin de experiencias valiosas y atractivas de consumo de jazz.
P A L A BR A S
CLAVE
38
Methodology
Emotions
Product and
Promotion
+
Motivation
+
Senses
Promotion
and Place
Intellect/
Cognition
Place,
Promotion
and Price
Action/
Behaviour
Ability
Opportunity
39
T a b le 1
SAMPLE (N = 18)
Years lived in
NewOrleans
Native of
NewOrleans
Jazz performance
attender
Waitress
No
Yes
African American
Promotions
coordinator
57
Yes
Yes
22
Caucasian
Business
analyst
No
Yes
Male
24
African American
College
student
21
Yes
No
Edward
Male
38
African American
Electrician
36
Yes
Yes
Faye
Female
34
African American
Business
owner
34
Yes
No
Geraldine
Female
60
Caucasian
Retired
teacher
10
No
Yes
Helen
Female
54
Caucasian
Disc jockey
37
Yes
Yes
Irene
Female
61
African American
Business
owner
61
Yes
No
Katy
Female
59
Caucasian
Administrative
assistant
34
Yes
No
Marvin
Male
46
Caucasian
Teacher
46
Yes
No
Quincy
Male
59
African American
Educator
20
No
Yes
Rita
Female
56
African American
Educator
48
Yes
No
Sam
Male
54
Caucasian
Business
development
55
Yes
Yes
Stephanie
Female
48
African American
Manager
48
Yes
No
Tim
Male
60
Caucasian
Business
owner
54
Yes
Yes
Victor
Male
30
Hispanic American
Engineer
23
No
Yes
Zachary
Male
56
African American
Business
owner
56
Yes
No
Pseudonym
Gender
Age
Ethnicity
Occupation
Angela
Female
30
Caucasian
Barbara
Female
57
Carla
Female
Darren
40
Motivation-Related Themes
There was consensus among the informants
about the importance of jazz to the heritage of
New Orleans. Some of the informants were jazz
enthusiasts while others were not. However, they
all acknowledged that jazz and the citys past are
inseparable: Everybody knows that New Orleans
is the City of Jazz even people outside of New
Orleans. Jazz is critical to the citys heritage. I take
it for granted since I live here, but people come from
all over to hear the music. It frames up what the
city is. (Carla) Jazz is as important to the city of
New Orleans as the Mississippi River. (Quincy)
New Orleans and jazz music will always be inseparable. (Marvin) Jazz music is an attachment to
the past. All the styles that have been developed ...
its a way to connect to our forefathers ... [the
musicians] develop it and they pass it on. (Angela)
However, despite conceding the importance
of jazz to the city, some of the informants identified barriers to attending jazz performances. One
of these barriers was fundamentally related to
lack of interest or motivation.
In Maclnnis and Jaworskis (1989) MAO
model, motivation is goal-directed arousal. It is
defined as an individuals desire or readiness to
engage in an activity. Individuals are motivated
to behave in a certain manner when they ascertain that their self-interest will be served. If an
individual does not perceive that self-interest
will be served, there may be no inherent motivation to comply.
Further, music can be classified as a characteristically hedonic product. Hedonic products
are goods and services with subjective features
that elicit pleasurable affective responses from
consumers (Hirschman and Holbrook, 1982;
Chaudhuri and Holbrook, 2001). Listening to
music is a hedonic consumption experience
many individuals listen to music with the goal
of deriving some type of gratification or pleasure
from the experience. However, some of the
informants expressed a lack of interest in jazz,
indicating that the listening experience was not
always gratifying. For example, one informant,
Angela, who had recently begun to take an interest in jazz and was beginning to attend jazz performances, admitted that some of her friends
were not interested in going to performances
because they felt that understanding and enjoying the music required too much effort: It might
be difficult for some to enjoy jazz. Its kind of like
a filter. You have to be willing to go out and find
what you want to listen to. (Angela)
41
Ability-Related Themes
In the MAO, ability refers to a consumers skills
or proficiencies. High ability can imply that individuals have some form of knowledge that can
be assessed regarding a behaviour or action
(MacInnis, Moorman and Jaworski, 1991).
Research has shown that education helps individuals develop the skills necessary for negotiating
the abstract. Such skills are useful for appreciating
the arts (Toffler, 1964). The literature also suggests that there is a strong association between
increased participation in the arts and arts education (Bergonzi and Smith, 1996; Colbert, 2003).
Two middle-aged informants, Barbara and
Rita, suggested that lack of education may also
be a contributing factor in the declining interest
in jazz among young people: When I was growing
up, music was really a part of your life. Even the
poorest of families had children that took music
lessons. There was always a piano teacher in the
neighbourhood . . . these people encouraged and
fostered music appreciation. (Barbara) The younger
people arent aware about jazz because were guilty
of not informing younger people about the music
because we take it for granted. Theres limited exposure. Theres definitely a disconnect. Part of this is
our fault. Weve taken arts education out of the
schools and diminished its importance. (Rita)
Lack of ability can also be due to other internal
or individual factors. The cost of attending jazz
performances was another reason cited for declining audience participation. Price is an element in
the marketing mix that can be used as an extrinsic
cue and indicator of product quality and value.
Some of the jazz clubs in New Orleans require
either an admission fee or a drinks minimum.
Several informants stated that this could be onerous, with some unable to pay: Its hard to find the
money to go out. Its hard to find the time to go out.
People are tired when they come home from work.
(Geraldine) [They] have taken our music... a price
has been put on it that we sometimes cant afford.
Now you have to pay for jazz. (Barbara) New
Orleans folks may avoid those places that they think
are expensive. Theyre looking for lagniappe [a little
extra]. Theyre looking to do things as inexpensively
as possible. If you know that you can hear music for
free, and another place might cost you $20, then
maybe you decide to go elsewhere. Here in New
Orleans were used to getting a little bit more . . .
getting something free . . . going to somebodys house
to eat . . . going to listen to music and not having
to pay much . . . thats New Orleans . . . thats
what folks do here. (Quincy)
International journal of arts management
Opportunity-Related Themes
The MAO defines opportunity as the extent to
which distractions affect an individuals willingness to engage in an activity. Opportunity also
includes situations in which the individual wants
to act but is unable to because of some environmental obstacle (Rothschild, 1999). In the context
of jazz music in New Orleans, opportunity may
be impacted by the number and types of jazz
venues available. Although New Orleans has more
jazz clubs per capita than other American cities,
almost all the informants cited accessibility as a
barrier to audience participation. Accessibility
was related not to the number of places where jazz
could be heard but, rather, their location. Some
informants recalled having places in their neighbourhood where they could hear jazz but said that
these no longer existed. Barbara had grown up in
a part of New Orleans where jazz could be heard
in the neighbourhood bars: They want to control
where the music will be. Theyve taken it out of the
neighbourhoods and have placed it where they want
it to be . . . the system . . . the city . . . politics . . .
interests. (Barbara) A number of informants noted
that many of the jazz clubs were inconveniently
located and that parking was a major obstacle:
Its hard to gain access to the places where jazz is
performed. The parking is bad . . . and crime is an
issue in some of the areas. (Zachary) People that
were born here locals really dont come to the
French Quarter as a rule. We stopped going on Canal
Street after the malls opened. You know why? Its
because of parking. The city has every parking space
locked up. Any time you have to pay for parking you
eliminate people. . . thats just the way it is. [Name
of club] has great musicians but its a hassle to get
to. . . people dont like Bourbon Street. (Helen) Our
downtown is a tourist trap . . . not to say that theres
not good music downtown. (Edward) Geraldine,
who had respiratory problems, took issue with
the fact that most jazz is performed in nightclubs.
This was a pronounced barrier for her: If youre
going to go to a bar to hear music, youre going to
have to be tolerant of smoke and alcohol. Some people
dont want to go to bars. (Geraldine)
In marketing, communication and promotion
help to build awareness and trust through consistency of execution (Yoo, Donthu and Lee,
2000). There was consensus among the informants that jazz performances in New Orleans are
not consistently promoted. Some felt that they
had to be especially proactive to obtain information about events. Katy, who considered herself
a New Orleans girl, conceded that it could be
difficult to find out about jazz events in the city:
Volume 16, NUMBER 1 fall 2013
Coda
Although the informants were forthcoming about
what factors might preclude them from attending
jazz events, several expressed concerns about jazz
musics vitality in the community and the reticence of locals to enthusiastically embrace the
genre: We think that we will always have it because
we have always had it. (Barbara) We will let jazz
die and that will be cultural genocide. (Irene) We
have so much tied up in jazz music, we dont even
think about it, its a part of us. However, sometimes
when you have things readily available you dont
appreciate it. (Edward)
conveniently located, but if the framing of positive attributes is employed by emphasizing the
benefits of attending a performance, this might
be perceived as less of a barrier. Additionally,
clubs could inform local residents about safe and
convenient ways to access the site, such as by
using public transportation. Also, offering drinks
discounts to local residents who present a parking
stub could boost attendance.
Some informants said they did not believe
that they were the target audience for many of
the jazz clubs or that promotions were directed
at them. However, jazz venues can dispel such
misperceptions by reaching out to locals in their
promotional efforts. This might include hosting
a locals night, where local audience members
are afforded some special recognition or perk.
Campaigns to encourage locals to become tourists in their own city have gained momentum
in recent years (Walker, 2003). Jazz clubs might
be successful in partnering with the city on initiatives to encourage residents to explore local
entertainment opportunities.
Theoretical Implications
Managerial Implications
Concluding Remarks
lthough this study offers insights into possible barriers to jazz audience participation,
it is not without limitations. Due to the qualitative nature of the research, a small sample was
used. As a result, the data may not fully explicate
all existing barriers to jazz audience participation.
Future studies might adopt survey methods
whereby a larger number of individuals are
solicited for their attitudes, opinions and behaviours regarding jazz. Additionally, the sample
comprised New Orleans residents only. Future
research might consider collecting data in other
markets. Finally, this study used the three components of the MAO as a guiding framework
for data collection. Future studies might collect
empirical evidence that addresses the experiential
variables (i.e., emotion, senses, intellect and
behaviour) considered in the present study. This
might also allow for the testing of relationships
between these variables and the MAO.
New Orleans has been credited with giving
birth to jazz, an art form that during the course
of the 20th century became a reflection of universal passions, emotions and the human experience. Not only might appreciation for this music
be re-examined in its native city, but perhaps
Americans should re-assess their perspective on
jazz music, which was one of the countrys first
indigenous art forms. The challenge for jazz
presenters and musicians may be to create engaging experiences that enable individuals to change
their perspective. Darren, one of the younger
informants in the present study, concluded his
interview with the following remark: I ll think
about jazz as something alive and living, and not
just something historic and old.
Perhaps this is a good place for all of us to start.
International journal of arts management
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