TOPIC 3

PHYSICAL INJURY AND CONTROLS

LEARNING OUTCOMES
Upon completion of this topic, students should be able to:
1. Design safety and health program to meet the work place requirements.
(C5, PLO1)
2. Perform according to the most current acts pertinent to the Occupational Safety
and Health. (P5, PLO2)
CONTENTS
3.1

Introduction to Physical Injury

Physical injury is injury that resulted by the exposure to hazards which generated
from energy and matter, and the interrelationships between the two.

Physical

aspects to be considered include all constructed and naturally occurring structural

and physical features of the workplace and its environs as well as their spatial
relationships. Physical aspects include not only such obvious structures as buildings,
sheds, tanks, silos, transmission lines, containment dikes, reactor vessels, stacks,
and roadways, but also such structures as underground pipes and conduits,
landforms, groundwater aquifers, unconsolidated soils, and surface water supplies.
The consequences of exposure to these hazards can be modied by worker
protection and a variety of human factors. This topic will review the general principles
of physical injury and worker protection.
Work plays a central role in people's lives, since most workers spend at least eight
hours a day in the workplace, whether it is on a plantation, in an office, factory, etc.
Therefore, work environments should be safe and healthy.
Unfortunately some employers assume little responsibility for the protection of
workers' safety and health. In fact, some employers do not even know that they have
the moral and often legal responsibility to protect workers. In most cases they seem

61

to overlook the economic and humanitarian implications for their failure to ensure
safety and health at their workplaces. The focus on this topic are:

Ensuring workplace safety and health is not only part of an accident

prevention program - it is more than that.

For organization, occupational safety and health are being managed due

to numerous reasons.
Generally, there are three (3) major arguments that validate why
occupational safety and health to be managed, namely:
- Legal arguments;
- Economic arguments; and
- Humanitarian arguments.

3.1.1

Legal Arguments
There are two (2) main legal provisions governing occupational
safety and health in Malaysia.
-

Occupational Safety and Health Act 1994, Regulations and Orders.

Factories and Machinery Act 1967 and Regulations.
Penalty for non-compliance:

Occupational Safety & Health Act 1994, Regulations & Orders:

Maximum fine not exceeding RM50,000.00; or

Maximum imprisonment not exceeding 2 years; or Both.

Notice of Improvement & Notice of Prohibition.

Maximum fine RM2000.00/day for continuous offences.

Factories & Machinery Act 1967 & Regulations:

Maximum fine not exceeding RM250,000; or

Maximum imprisonment not exceeding 5 years; or Both.

Compounded.

Notice of Improvement & Notice of Prohibition.

Maximum fine RM2000.00/day for continuous offences.

62

Figure 2.1 : Legal Arguments

3.1.2

Economic Arguments

Types of accident costs:

insured costs or direct costs - e.g. workmen compensation scheme, public

liability insurance, work insurance, etc.

uninsured costs or hidden costs - e.g. legal fees, work interruption,
production delayed, time and effort spent for investigation, lost of
experienced and skilled workers, cost of replacing injured worker, etc.

Affected Parties:

the country - lost of skilled workers and high financial compensation.

the employer - legal fees, work interruption, production delayed, time and
effort spent for investigation, lost of experienced and skilled workers, cost

of replacing injured worker, etc.

the victims - lost of earning power.

Figure 2.2 : Costs of an Accident

3.1.3

Humanitarian Arguments

It is the moral duty of every man to ensure the general well being of our

fellow men.
This place an onus on all parties (the common law duty of care) to ensure

others safety and health at the workplace.

Workers die; lose their health, income, careers, dreams, and futures.
The families of injured workers are also deeply hurt, economically and
emotionally.

63

Figure 2.2 : Costs of an Accident

3.2

Construction Work

The construction industry has an unenviable record of accidents including many

fatalities. While the type of work carried out does present a high level of hazard, there
seems to have been an attitude endemic in the industry that it is all part and parcel of
the job. Some recent major construction projects have disproved that contention and
have been successfully completed without fatality or serious injury.
Whenever construction work is to be undertaken if consideration is given to some of
the hazards faced and the appropriate precautions taken, accidents and damage can
be prevented. This applies whether you are a client having the work done or a
contractor doing the work. However, once having agreed precautionary measures it

64

is essential that the work is monitored to ensure the precautions are implemented.
The contractor should supply all plant and materials needed for the contract.
Typical of the points to be considered are:
Falls from heights:
working platforms:
* above 2m from ground/floor, must be provided with hand rail at 1m, intermediate
rail at 0.5m and toe board 150mm high
for roof work, provide:
* edge protection
* safety harness
crawler boards if a fragile roof (such as asbestos sheeting)
ladders must:
* be in good condition
* be inspected regularly
* be lashed at top end to structure. (If this is not possible post someone
at bottom to foot the ladder)
* if used as access, project at least 1m above platform served unless safe
handhold provided
* be set no steeper than 75, i.e. 1 unit out for every 4 units rise

Falling objects:
hard hats must be worn
when material stored at high level, ensure platform is:
* wide enough to allow access past storage position
* strong enough to support the weight
* provided with hand rails, toe board and netting or similar to retain materials
Trenches and excavations deeper than 1.2 m (4 ft) should:
have sides:
* battered (sloping) or
* benched (stepped) or

65

* properly shored under supervision of competent person

be inspected very day
be far enough from existing buildings not to affect foundations
have edges protected to prevent:
* people falling in
* vehicles falling in
have ladder for access and egress
have arrangements for removing water
Temporary wiring
should be secured to structure, not left hanging in loops
connections should be properly made, not taped
should be kept for minimum period then removed
should be 110-volt, centre tapped to earth
if 240-volt, should be protected by residual current device (RCD)
Power tools
should be preferably 110-volt
should be regularly inspected, including leads, sockets, etc.
Materials
follow suppliers safety instructions
provide PPE (gloves, goggles, face masks, etc.) as appropriate
where solvents are used (in adhesives, paint, etc.) ensure work area is well
ventilated
Housekeeping
ensure site kept tidy
do not allow build-up of rubbish it is a fire and health hazard
rubbish to be removed not burnt on site
dust and fumes to be kept to a minimum

66

 Noisy equipment
used only during social hours (7am to 7pm)
provide hearing protection to operators and those working nearby
Overhead power lines
indicate by lines of bunting or flags
post warning notice
Underground services
check with local authority and gas, water, electricity and telephone companies
before excavating
check for service runs with suitable instrument
Scaffolding
must be erected by competent certificated (CITB) erectors
must be inspected:
* before use
* every week
* after damage or alterations
Asbestos
check type local analytical chemist can do this
get atmosphere monitored to determine concentrations
if chrysotile (blue) or amosite (brown) arrange for an approved contractor to strip it out
if other types, decide action, i.e. remove, seal or encase
use specialist contractor
Pneumatic tools
breakers, chisels, etc.
risk of vibration white finger (VWF)
if diagnosed move worker to other work
check with supplier of tools for availability of attachments to reduce the
vibration effect (insulated handles, etc.)
provide hearing protection for operator and those working nearby
Mobile cranes

67

 ensure test/examination certificates are current

ensure driver is properly trained and certificated (CITB)
use outriggers when lifting
ensure outrigger feet rest on suitable base plates
ensure base plates are on solid compacted ground
allow room for swing of counterbalance weight
use a banksman to assist driver with slinging and lifts
if crane hired in:
* check test/examination certificate of crane and associated equipment
* check driver is trained and certificated
* if in doubt refuse to accept the hire
Welfare facilities
each contractor should provide their own but can share by arrangement
facilities include toilets, washrooms, canteen, first aid, etc.
Site arrangements
should be made known to all contractors:
* routes to be taken by workmen and vehicles
* security arrangements
* fire precautions and alarm
* site facilities available to the contractor

Equipment
each contractor should provide their own
if contractor wants to use anothers equipment:
* agree in writing
* contractor to give written statement that equipment is in good order
* if equipment needs driver, either owner provides one or contractors
driver must prove competence (by training certificate)
* contractor must sign indemnity accepting responsibility for any
damage caused by or to equipment during period of hire/loan
Pits, openings, and platform edges to be provided with a substantial barrier

68

 Use of local services:

agree with site agent before work starts:
* which services
* for how long
* what charge to be made.
Establishing good communications with site agent and between contractors, through
the nomination of individuals to be the points of contact, will enable many of the dayto-day problems to be sorted as the work progresses and ensure it is carried out in a
much safer manner.
3.3

Electrical Work

Electricity is one of the most common power sources in our home and workplace
environment. Electrical equipment, which uses electrical energy, forms a system
which needs to be treated with respect. In other words, users and those in the vicinity
of electricity are required to be safety aware. Electrical equipment used in workplace
environments and tasks needs to be considered for safety management. This
includes such areas as the type of equipment used, handling of equipment, and
maintenance of systems in place to reduce the risks from electrical faults.
When electrical equipment is being used, if system faults occur electrical energy can
severely injure or kill a person who is in contact with a live conductor. The danger is
not apparent in the size of equipment, as a small hand-held electrical device can be
just as damaging as industrial equipment, if faulty. It has been found through
experience that the following current magnitudes are likely to affect a recipient in the
way shown if contact is made with a live conductor
:
Current
13mA
1015Ma
2530mA

Potential
generally cannot be felt
difficult to let go or be pushed away
contraction of chest muscles is affected, resulting in heart fluttering
and an inability of the heart to pump blood effectively.

These levels must not be taken as more than indicative. Other possible effects from
shock include burns (contact, arc, radiation, vaporized metal), arc eye and other
injuries resulting from a fall.

69

Faulty electrical equipment can result in fires and explosions. When a short circuit
occurs on any system, the resulting current is limited only by the electrical constraints
of the system (including the fault) and can reach a value as high as 20 times the
normal load current for the plant item concerned. Thus, in many cases, conditions at
the fault are rather like the explosion of a bomb. Metals melt and very hot gases are
liberated, often in a small confined space, so that there is a great risk of damage and
injury to persons. Electrical equipment which has the possibility of generating heat, or
sparking with use, requires special consideration. See the section below on
flammable atmospheres.
3.4

Mechanical Work

Mechanical work refers to any powered means for moving or lifting loads. The more
common means are:
lifts, including hoists
cranes, including lifting tackle
conveyors
powered trucks, including driverless trucks.
Lifting equipment covers any equipment used in raising or lowering any load,
including people. It ranges from the massive tower cranes used on construction sites
to a dumb waiter in a restaurant, and includes a bath hoist in a nursing home, a
scissor lift, elevating conveyors, lorry tail lifts, a passenger lift, fork lift trucks, etc.
Cranes are lifting equipment that have no restraint on the direction of movement.
Typical cranes are:
chain blocks

single direction of movement

mono rails

two directions of movement

overhead travelling cranes

mobile cranes

three directions of movement.

tower cranes
jib cranes
Conveyors are used to carry a flow of goods or materials, and can present a number
of hazards. There are two broad types of conveyor: roller conveyors and belt
conveyors. A common hazard is that of trapping, either between adjacent rollers or
under the belt.

70

A common requirement for the safe use of all powered trucks is that the drivers are
fully trained and competent.
The training of drivers should:
be by qualified instructors check their credentials. If a training centre
they should be members of the Industrial Truck Training Assocation
be held in-house or at accredited training centre
cover:
driving theory, especially for fork trucks with rear-wheel steering and
other specialized trucks with multi-wheel steering
use of basic controls
practical driving techniques
practical experience in the workplace
test of theoretical knowledge and practical competence.
Candidates for fork-lift truck training should:
be over eighteen years of age
have a medical check before training starts
have stereoscopic vision. If monocular (one-eyed) they should be referred
for a medical check on their vision
not be colour-blind
if epileptic or diabetic, be referred to doctor for medical check
not be known drug users.
3.5

Chemical Work

Chemicals vary in how toxic (poisonous) they are. Toxicity is a chemical property
which causes damage to a tissue, organ or system in the body. A chemical can be a
hazard because of its toxicity. How much of a risk the hazard presents depends on
the circumstances, e.g. is anyone nearby? is the chemical in powder, liquid, mist,
vapour or gas form? We also talk of risk how likely is it that the hazard will result in
an accident of something unplanned and unwanted occurring. A chemical can also be
a hazard in other.
This involves firstly recognizing chemical hazards and identifying them. This will
mean surveying the use of chemicals in the workplace. The next step is to use data
sources to identify hazards associated with individual chemical compounds (where
they are known) or using MSDS to identify hazards associated with trade name

71

chemicals. Other documentation which may help includes stock records; the
chemical register; emergency services manifest; placards; and container labels.
The key information sources to use in controlling chemical hazards in the workplace
are:
your national and local OHS and dangerous goods authorities
materials safety data sheets (MSDS)
substance labels
chemical registers
emergency procedure guides
UN/ILO/EU/NIOSH International Chemical Safety Cards (on CD-ROM, and
Internet, www.ilo.org)
the UN Recommendations
dangerous goods and occupational safety and health acts and regulations in your
jurisdiction.
The above sources will allow supervisors, health and safety officers, and health and
safety committees to have a basis for controlling hazards.
If the hazardous chemicals are dangerous goods, i.e. listed in or otherwise covered
by The CPL Regulation, the Regulation includes the requirements for:
classification of the chemical
assignment of packing group
marking of packages
vehicles and transport containers documentation
packing
transport in bulk
stowage and compatibility of different dangerous goods requirements,
procedures for transport
construction and testing of packages, intermediate bulk containers, large packages
and portable tanks.
Once the identification or recognition phase is complete, the next step is to assess or
evaluate the hazards.
Assessment involves these questions:

72

1. Is anyone exposed to the chemical hazard? If so, who? How often? How
much? The last question may require expert assistance with air sampling, but
in many cases this will not be necessary. For instance, many substances may
not result in airborne exposure from dust, vapour, gas, fume or mist. Instead,
any potential contact may be with the skin. The substance may or may not be
absorbed via the skin. Does the substance act on contact or is it absorbed to
go on and affect other target organs? Poor personal hygiene could result in
ingestion (swallowing) if the chemical is on hands and the worker bites nails
or eats or smokes with unwashed hands.
2. What form is the chemical in? This affects the degree of risk. Is it solid, liquid,
paste, gas, vapour, fume, mist, dust or fibrous dust? Will it be heated and give
off vapour or fume? For instance, low hydrogen electrodes in welding give off
fluoride fume, a toxic hazard, during use. The possibility of exposure may
depend on process control, for example maintaining the correct pH of cyanide
solutions in a gold recovery plant. If the pH is too low, hydrogen cyanide gas
is given off.
3. Are workers close to or distant from the source of the hazard? Is the work
area open, closed, ventilated? Are there heavier-than-air vapours which can
flow elsewhere? Will airflow carry vapour or dust away from the source
towards workers?
4. Is process control a critical factor? For example, brick kiln vapours may
normally be led away to proper filtering equipment and high level exhausts,
but emergency vents may open to assist process control and so expose
workers.
5. Is unexpected contact from spillage of containers due to poor handling
practices
(climbing ladders, pouring instead of pumping) a possibility?
6. How toxic is the chemical? Which parts of the body are affected? Is the
danger

acute (immediate), or chronic (where the effects can result from

repeated small exposures)?

73

After assessing and evaluating the hazard against accepted standards, the basic
approach to control of chemical hazards can be summed up in what is called the
preferred order (or hierarchy of control measures). It is shown here:
MANAGEMENT

T
R Elimination
A Substitution
I Segregation
N Engineering controls
I Work practices
N Personal protective equipment
G

3.6 Example on Accident Cases

Even though occupational safety and health practices and standards had improved
since Hammurabis era, workplace accidents still happened.
There were numerous major industrial accidents that have contributed significantly to
the evolution of occupational safety and health. Lessons learnt from those incidents
have initiated more stringent precautionary and preventive measures.
3.6.1

Piper Alpha Tragedy

Background
- An oil platform located about 120 miles north-east of Aberdeen.
- Connected with Claymore Platform, Tartan Platform and Flotta
Oil Terminal on the Orkney Islands.
- Explosions and fires took place on 6 July 1988.
- Had 226 people on board at the time of the event.
Implications
- 165 perished in addition to 2 of rescue personnel.
- Total insured loss was about 1.7 billion (USD 3.4 billion).
Contributing Factors
- Breakdown chain of command and poor communication.
- Poor implementation and enforcement of permit to work system.
- Lack of blast wall only fire wire installed.

74

Photo 4.1 : Piper Alpha

3.6.2 Chernobyl Disaster
Background
- A nuclear power plant located in Chernobyl, 128 km northwest of
Kiev that is in the Ukraine.
- Comprised of 4 nuclear reactors.
- Reactor No. 4 exploded on 4 exploded on 26 April 1986.
Implication
- The impact was nearly thirty to forty times more fallout was
released than the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki.
- Caused 28 fatalities due to exposure to radiation; and 2 from
thermal burns and or falling debris.
- Up to 200 people were hospitalized due to the radiation
exposure.
- Large areas in Ukraine, Belarus, and Russia were badly
contaminated, resulting in the evacuation and resettlement of
over 336,000 people.
- The plume drifted over extensive parts of the western Soviet
Union, Eastern Europe, Western Europe, Northern Europe, and
eastern North America.
Contributing Factors
- Flawed

Operators

Theory

poor

communication

and

incompetent operators.
- Flawed Design Theory - very unstable at low power levels and
prone to sudden increase of energy production to dangerous
level if the temperature rises.

75

Photo 3.2 : Chernobyls Victims

3.6.3 Bhopal Tragedy
Background
- A pesticide plant owned and operated by Union Carbide India
Limited.
- Located in densely populated area of Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh,
India.
- A methyl isocyanate tank exploded on 3 December 1984.
Implication
- Estimated 3,800 died immediately and 8,000 were killed within a
few days.
- Death toll rose to more than 20,000 people with more than
500,000 people being affected directly and indirectly and many
more thousands of families were permanently affected for
generations.
- Ongoing civil and criminal cases against Warren Anderson, CEO
of Union Carbide at the time of the disaster.
- Union Carbide offered US$ 350 million, the insurance sum as
compensation but The Government of India claimed US$ 3.3
billion.
- In 1999, a settlement was reached under which UCC agreed to
pay US$470 million.
Contributing Factors
- Poor maintenance of the plant.
- Cost-cutting and a lack of regard for the safety of its workers and
the surrounding community.
- Did not have adequate safety measures in place to prevent such
a disaster.

76

Photo 3.3 : Bhopals Victims

3.6.4 Hawks Nest Tragedy

Background
- Tunnel construction through Gauley Mountain at Hawks Nest by
Union Carbide in 1930.
- The company wanted the tunnel dug fast.
- 3,000 African Americans men were hired to drilled through pure
silica rocks.
Implication
- Many workers died from silicosis, sometimes as quickly as within
a single year.
- Total approximate fatalities were 476.
Contributing Factors
- Safety rules were ignored.
- Wet drilling was not used because it would take longer to build
the tunnel.
- Workers were not given masks for protection, even though
management wore such masks during the short times they
visited for inspection.

77

Photo 4.4 : Hawk Nests Tunnel

3.6.5 Minamata Tragedy
Background
- A chemical factory owned by Chisso Corporation in Minamata,
Japan.
- Produced fertilisers, acetylene, acetaldehyde, acetic acid, vinyl
chloride and octanol, etc.
- Production wastes were released into Minamata Bay.
Implication
- May 1, 1956, discovery of an "epidemic of an unknown disease
of the central nervous system" - Minamata disease.
- 2,265 victims have been officially certified (1,784 of whom have
died).
- Over 10,000 people have received financial compensation from
Chisso, although they are not recognized as official victims.
Contributing Factors
- Lack of proper disposal for production wastes 27 tons of
organic mercury was dumped into the bay.
Activity
Assignment
1. Based on the discipline on work activity (Civil Eng/Tech, Electrical Eng/Tech,
Mechanical Eng/Tech, Education, Information Technology and Management), Please
make the HIRARC report. The report must full fill the requirement of HIRARC.
2. Please find the accident statistic for Malaysia workforce from 2005-2010
Discuss about it and relate the theory and application why it is occurred?
3. Discuss the accident cost based on the current situation (nationally and
internationally) with refer to guideline on accident cost.

78

REFERENCES

Department of Occupational Safety and Health. 2008. Guidelines for Hazard

Identification, Risk Assessment, Risk Control (HIRARC). DOSH Malaysia.
Ridley. J & Channing. J (2003). Safety at Work. 6th. Edition. ButterworthHeinemann
Stranks. J. 2006. The A-Z of Health and Safety. Thorogood Publishing Ltd.
Bahari. I. 2006. Pengurusan Keselamatan dan Kesihatan Pekerjaan. McGraw
Hill Education, McGraw Hill (Malaysia)
Isnard. L. 1999. Hazard and Risk Assessment Method & Application in
Environmental Health and Safety Practise. University of Greenwich
Winston. B. E. 1997. Total Quality Management. School of Business, Regent
University
Guideline on estimation on accident cost

79