TRIGONOMETRY

Angle Measures

Angle measure in degrees:

Angle measure in radians: x
1. There are two commonly used units for measuring angles degrees and radians. 1 degree (denoted by 1) is
defined as 1/360 of a complete revolution. The straight angle is equal to 180, the right angle is
90. The radian measure of an angle whose vertex lies at the centre of a circle is the ratio of the arc length
to the radius of the circle. A central angle is equal to 1 radian (denoted as 1 rad) if the angle subtends an arc
whose length is equal to the radius of the circle.
2. 1 degree contains 60 minutes of arc: 1 = 60'. In turn, 1 arcminute has 60 arcseconds: 1' = 60".
3. Value of 1 radian in degrees
1 rad = 180/ 5717'45''
4. Value of 1 degree in radians
1 = /180 0.017453 rad
5. Value of 1 arcminute in radians
1' = /(18060) 0.000291 rad
6. Value of 1 arcsecond in radians
1'' = /(1803600) rad 0.000005 rad
7. Degrees to radians conversion
x = /180,
where x is the angle value in radians, is the angle value in degrees.
8. Radians to degrees conversion
= 180x/,
where is the angle value in degrees, x is the angle value in radians.
9. Radian measures of common angles
Angle in degrees

Angle in radians x(rad)

30

45

60

90 180 270 360

/6

/4

/3

/2

10.
Definition and Graphs of Trigonometric Functions

3/2

Angles (arguments of functions): , x

Trigonometric functions: sin , cos , tan , cot , sec , cosec
Set of real numbers:

Radius of a circle: r
Integers: k

Coordinates of points on a circle: x, y

1. Trigonometric functions are elementary functions, the argument of which is an angle. Trigonometric
functions describe the relation between the sides and angles of a right triangle. Applications of trigonometric
functions are extremely diverse. For example, any periodic processes can be represented as a sum of
trigonometric functions (Fourier series). These functions often appear in the solution of differential
equations and functional equations.
2. The trigonometric functions include the following 6 functions: sine, cosine, tangent, cotangent, secant,
andcosecant. For each of these functions, there is an inverse trigonometric function.
3. The trigonometric functions can be defined using the unit circle. The figure below shows a circle of
radius r = 1. There is a point M(x,y) on the circle. The angle between the radius vector OM and the positive
direction of the x-axis is equal to .

4. The sine of an angle is the ratio of the y-coordinate of the point M(x,y) to the radius r:
sin = y/r.
Since r = 1, the sine is equal to the y-coordinate of the point M(x,y).
5. The cosine of an angle is the ratio of the x-coordinate of the point M(x,y) to the radius r:
cos = x/r = x

6. The tangent of an angle is the ratio of the y-coordinate of the point M(x,y) to the x-coordinate:
tan = y/x, x 0
7. The cotangent of an angle is the ratio of the x-coordinate of the point M(x,y) to the y-coordinate:
cot = x/y, y 0
8. The secant of an angle is the ratio of the radius r to the x-coordinate of the point M(x,y):
sec = r/x = 1/x, x 0
9. The cosecant of an angle is the ratio of the radius r to the y-coordinate of the point M(x,y):
cosec = r/y = 1/y, y 0
10. Relation between the sides and angles in a right triangle
In a unit circle, the projections x, y of a point M(x,y) and the radius r form a right-angled triangle, in
which x, y are the legs, and c is the hypotenuse. Therefore, the definitions given above are stated as follows:
The sine of an angle is the ratio of the opposite leg to the hypotenuse.
The cosine of an angle is the ratio of the adjacent leg to the hypotenuse.
The tangent of an angle is the ratio of the opposite leg to the adjacent leg.
The cotangent of an angle is the ratio of the adjacent leg to the opposite leg.
The secant of an angle is the ratio of the hypotenuse to the adjacent leg.
The cosecant of an angle is the ratio of the hypotenuse to the opposite leg.
11. Graph of the sine function
y = sin x, domain: x , range: 1 sin x 1

12. Graph of the cosine function

y = cos x, domain: x , range: 1 cos x 1

13. Graph of the tangent function

y = tan x, domain: x , x (2k + 1)/2, range: < tan x <

14. Graph of the cotangent function

y = cot x, domain: x , x k, range: < cot x <

15. Graph of the secant function

y = sec x, domain: x , x (2k + 1)/2, range: sec x (, 1] [1, )

16. Graph of the cosecant function

y = cosec x, domain: x , x k, range: cosec x (, 1] [1, )

Signs of Trigonometric Functions

Angle (argument of a function):

Trigonometric functions: sin , cos , tan , cot , sec , cosec
Coordinates of a point on a circle: x, y
1. Four quadrants of the unit circle
The trigonometric circle is divided into 4 quarters (quadrants). The first quadrant corresponds to the angle
interval0 < < 90, the second quadrant lies in the interval 90 < < 180, the third quadrant corresponds
to the interval180 < < 270, and the fourth quadrant covers the angles 270 < < 360.

2. The signs of the trigonometric functions depend on the quadrant in which the angle lies. The table below
shows the signs of 6 trigonometric functions in quadrants I-IV.
Quadrant

sin

cos

tan

cot

II

III

IV

3. Signs of the trigonometric functions in the unit circle

sec cosec

Values of Trigonometric Functions

Angle (argument of a function):

Trigonometric functions: sin , cos , tan , cot , sec , cosec
1. Exact values of trigonometric functions for common angles: 0, 30, 45, 60, 90, 120, 180,270, and
360

rad

sin

cos

tan

cot

sec cosec

30

/6

1/2

3/2

1/3

2/3

45

/4

2/2

2/2

60

/3

3/2

1/2

1/3

2/3

90

/2

120

2/3

3/2

1/2

1/3

2/3

180

270

3/2

360

2. Exact values of trigonometric functions for the angles 15, 18, 36, 54, 72, and 75

rad

15

/12

18

/10

36

/5

sin

cos

tan

cot

2 3

2 + 3

54

3/10

72

2/5

75

5/12

2 + 3

2 3

3.
Basic Trigonometric Identities

Angle:
Trigonometric functions: sin , cos , tan , cot , sec , cosec
Set of integers: Z
Integers: n
1. Trigonometric identities establish a connection between trigonometric functions of the same
argument (angle ).
2. Pythagorean trigonometric identity
sin2 + cos2 = 1
This identity is the result of application of the Pythagorean theorem to a triangle in the unit circle.
3. Relationship between the cosine and tangent
1/cos2 tan2 = 1 or sec2 tan2 = 1
This identity follows from the Pythagorean trigonometric identity and is obtained by dividing the left and
right sides by cos2. It is assumed that n, n Z.
4. Relationship between the sine and cotangent
1/sin2 cot2 = 1 or cosec2 cot2 = 1
This formula also follows from the Pythagorean trigonometric identity (it is obtained by dividing the left and
right sides by sin2). It is assumed that /2 + n, n Z.
5. Definition of tangent
tan = sin /cos
6. Definition of cotangent
cot = cos /sin

7. Consequence of the definitions of tangent and cotangent

tan cot = 1,
where n/2, n Z.
8. Definition of secant
sec = 1/cos
9. Definition of cosecant
cosec = 1/sin
Cofunction and Reduction Identities

Angles (arguments of functions): ,

Trigonometric functions: sin , cos , tan , cot
1. Cofunction and reduction identities allow to transform trigonometric functions of the angles of the form 90
,180 , 270 or 360 to trigonometric functions of the elementary angle . For example, the
following formulas are known cofunction identities:
cos (90 ) = sin , sin (90 ) = cos
2. Table of cofunction and reduction identities
The angle denotes an initial compound angle that includes the elementary angle . Using these identities, it
is possible to pass from the angle to .

rad

sin

cos

tan

cot

90

/2

cos

sin

cot

tan

90 +

/2 +

cos

sin

cot

tan

180

sin

cos

tan

cot

180 +

sin

cos

tan

cot

270

3/2

cos

sin

cot

tan

270 +

3/2 +

cos

sin

cot

tan

360

sin

cos

tan

cot

360 +

2 +

sin

cos

tan

cot

3. The cofunction and reduction identities can be easily memorized using the following simple rules:
If the initial compound angle contains the angles 180 or 360, the function name does not change
(reduction formulas). If the initial angle includes the angles 90 or 270, then the function changes to its
cofunction, i.e. the sine changes to cosine, tangent to cotangent and vice-versa (cofunction formulas).
The sign of the right side must correspond to the sign of the function in the left side assuming that the
angle is acute.
Periodicity of Trigonometric Functions

Angles (arguments of functions):

Trigonometric functions: sin , cos , tan , cot , sec , cosec
Integers: n
1. The least period of the sine function is 2 or 360:
sin ( 2n) = sin
2. The least period of the cosine function is 2 or 360:
cos ( 2n) = cos
3. The least period of the tangent function is or 180:
tan ( n) = tan
4. The least period of the cotangent function is or 180:
cot ( n) = cot
5. The least period of the secant function is 2 or 360:
sec ( 2n) = sec
6. The least period of the cosecant function is 2 360:
cosec ( 2n) = cosec
Relations between Trigonometric Functions

Angle (argument of a function):

Trigonometric functions: sin , cos , tan , cot
1. Expressing the sine in terms of cosine

Note: The sign in front of the radical on the right side depends on the quadrant in which the angle lies. The
sign and value of a trigonometric function on the left side must coincide with the sign and value in the
right side. This rule also applies to other formulas given below.
2. Expressing the sine in terms of tangent

3. Expressing the sine in terms of cotangent

4. Expressing the cosine in terms of sine

5. Expressing the cosine in terms of tangent

6. Expressing the cosine in terms of cotangent

7. Expressing the tangent in terms of sine

8. Expressing the tangent in terms of cosine

9. Expressing the tangent in terms of cotangent

10. Expressing the cotangent in terms of sine

11. Expressing the cotangent in terms of cosine

12. Expressing the cotangent in terms of tangent

Addition and Subtraction Formulas

Angles: ,
Trigonometric functions: sin , cos , tan , cot
1. Sine addition formula
sin( + ) = sin cos + cos sin
2. Sine subtraction formula
sin( ) = sin cos cos sin
3. Cosine addition formula
cos( + ) = cos cos sin sin
4. Cosine subtraction formula
cos( ) = cos cos + sin sin
5. Tangent addition formula

6. Tangent subtraction formula

7. Cotangent addition formula

8. Cotangent subtraction formula

Double and Multiple Angle Formulas

Angles (arguments of functions):

Trigonometric functions: sin , cos , tan , cot
1. Sine of a double angle
sin 2 = 2sin cos
2. Cosine of a double angle
cos 2 = cos2 sin2 = 1 2sin2 = 2cos2 1
3. Tangent of a double angle

4. Cotangent of a double angle

5. Sine of a triple angle

sin 3 = 3sin 4sin3 = 3cos2 sin sin3
6. sin 4 = 4sin cos 8sin3 cos
7. sin 5 = 5sin 20sin3 + 16sin5
8. Cosine of a triple angle
cos 3 = 4cos3 3cos = cos3 3sin2 cos

9. cos 4 = 8cos4 8cos2 + 1

10. cos 5 = 16cos5 20cos3 + 5cos
11. Tangent of a triple angle

12.

13.
14. Cotangent of a triple angle

15.

16.
Half-Angle Formulas

Angles (arguments of functions):

Trigonometric functions: sin , cos , tan , cot
1. Sine of a half angle

Note: The sign in front of the radical is chosen depending on the quadrant in which the angle /2 on the left
side lies. This rule also applies to formulas 2-4.
2. Cosine of a half angle

3. Tangent of a half angle

4. Cotangent of a half angle

5. Tangent half angle formula for sine

6. Tangent half angle formula for cosine

7. Tangent half angle formula for tangent

8. Tangent half angle formula for cotangent

Sum-to-Product Identities

Angles (arguments of functions): ,

Trigonometric functions: sin , cos , tan , cot

1. Sum of sines

2. Difference of sines

3. Sum of cosines

4. Difference of cosines

5. Sum of tangents

6. Difference of tangents

7. Sum of cotangents

8. Difference of cotangents

9. Sum of cosine and sine

10. Difference of cosine and sine

11. Sum of tangent and cotangent

12. Difference of tangent and cotangent

13.

14.

15.

16.
Product-to-Sum Identities

Angles (arguments of functions): ,

Trigonometric functions: sin , cos , tan , cot
1. Product of sines

2. Product of cosines

3. Product of sine and cosine

4. Product of tangents

5. Product of cotangents

6. Product of tangent and cotangent

Powers of Trigonometric Functions

Angle:
Trigonometric functions: sin , cos , tan
1. Sine squared

2. Sine cubed

3. Sine to the fourth power

4. Sine to the fifth power

5. Sine to the sixth power

6. Cosine squared

7. Cosine cubed

8. Cosine to the fourth power

9. Cosine to the fifth power

10. Cosine to the sixth power

11. Tangent squared

12. Tangent cubed

Inverse Trigonometric Functions

Argument of an inverse function: x

Angle (value of an inverse function): y

Set of real numbers: R

Real number: a

1. The inverse trigonometric functions include the following 6

functions: arcsine, arccosine, arctangent,arccotangent, arcsecant, and arccosecant.
2. Because the original trigonometric functions are periodic, the inverse functions are, generally
speaking, multivalued. To ensure a one-to-one matching between the two variables, the domains of the
original trigonometric functions may be restricted to their principal branches. For example, the function y =
sin x is considered only on the intervalx [/2, /2]. On this interval, the inverse of the sine function is
uniquely determined.
3. Inverse of the sine (arcsine)
The arcsine of a number a (denoted by arcsin a) is the value of the angle x in the interval [/2, /2] at
whichsin x = a. The inverse function y = arcsin x is defined for x [1, 1], its range is y [/2, /2].

4. Inverse of the cosine (arccosine)

The arccosine of a number a (denoted by arccos a) is the value of the angle x in the interval [0, ] at
whichcos x = a. The inverse function y = arccos x is defined for x [1, 1], its range is y [0, ].

5. Inverse of the tangent (arctangent)

The arctangent of a number a (denoted by arctan a) is the value of the angle x in the open
interval (/2, /2) at which tan x = a. The inverse function y = arctan x is defined for all x , the range of
the arctangent isy (/2, /2).

6. Inverse of the cotangent (arccotangent)

The arccotangent of a number a (denoted by arccot a) is the value of the angle x in the open interval (0, ) at
whichcot x = a. The inverse function y = arccot x is defined for all x , its range is y (0, ).

7. Inverse of the secant (arcsecant)

The arcsecant of a number a (denoted by arcsec a) is the value of the angle x at which sec x = a. The inverse
function y = arcsec x is defined for x (, 1] [1, ), its range is the set y [0, /2) (/2, ].

8. Inverse of the cosecant (arccosecant)

The arccosecant of a number a (denoted by arccsc a) is the value of the angle x at which cosec x = a. The
inverse function y = arccsc x is defined for x (, 1] [1, ), its range is the set y [/2), 0)
(0, /2].

9. Principal values of the arcsine and arccosine functions (in degrees)

arcsin x
arccos x

3/2 2/2

1/2

1/2

2/2

3/2

90

60

45

30

30

45

60

90

180

150

135

120

90

60

45

30

10. Principal values of the arctangent and arccotangent functions (in degrees)

3/3

3/3

arctan x

60

45

30

30

45

60

arccot x

150

135

120

90

60

45

30

11.
Relations between Inverse Trigonometric Functions

Real number (argument of an inverse function): x

Inverse trigonometric functions: arcsin x, arccos x, arctan x, arccot x
1. Arcsine of a negative number
arcsin (x) = arcsin x
2. Expressing the arcsine in terms of arccosine
arcsin x = /2 arccos x

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.
8. Arccosine of a negative number
arccos (x) = arccos x
9. Expressing the arccosine in terms of arcsine
arccos x = /2 arcsin x

10.

11.

12.

13.

14.
15. Arctangent of a negative number
arctan (x) = arctan x
16. Expressing the arctangent in terms of arccotangent

arctan x = /2 arccot x

17.

18.

19.

20.

21.

22.

23.
24. Arccotangent of a negative number
arccot (x) = arccot x
25. Expressing the arccotangent in terms of arctangent
arccot x = /2 arctan x

26.

27.

28.

29.

30.
Basic Trigonometric Equations

Angles (arguments of functions): x, x1, x2

Set of integers: Z
Integer: n
Real number: a
Trigonometric functions: sin x, cos x, tan x, cot x
Inverse trigonometric functions: arcsin a, arccos a, arctan a, arccot a
1. An equation involving trigonometric functions of an unknown angle is called a trigonometric equation.
2. Basic trigonometric equations have the form
sin x = a, cos x = a, tan x = a, cot x = a,
where x is an unknown, a is any real number.

Equation sin x = a
3. If |a| > 1, the equation sin x = a has no solutions.
4. If |a| 1, the general solution of the equation sin x = a is written as
x = (-1)n arcsin a + n, n Z.
This formula contains two branches of solutions:
x1 = arcsin a + 2n, x2 = arcsin a + 2n, n Z.

5. In the simple case sin x = 1 the solution has the form

x = /2 + 2n, n Z.
6. Similarly, the solution of the equation sin x = 1 is given by
x = /2 + 2n, n Z.
7. Case sin x = 0 (zeroes of the sine)
x = n, n Z.

Equation cos x = a
8. If |a| > 1, the equation cos x = a has no solutions.
9. If |a| 1, the general solution of the equation cos x = a has the form
x = arccos a + 2n, n Z.
This formula includes two sets of solutions:
x1 = arccos a + 2n, x2 = arccos a + 2n, n Z.

10. In the case cos x = 1, the solution is written as

x = 2n, n Z.
11. Case cos x = 1
x = + 2n, n Z.
12. Case cos x = 0 (zeroes of the cosine)
x = /2 + n, n Z.

Equation tan x = a
13. For any value of a, the general solution of the equation tan x = a has the form
x = arctan a + n, n Z.

14. Case tan x = 0 (zeroes of the tangent)

x = n, n Z.

Equation cot x = a
15. For any value of a, the general solution of the trigonometric equation cot x = a is written as
x = arccot a + n, n Z.

16. Case cot x = 0 (zeroes of the cotangent)

x = /2 + n, n Z.
Relations between Trigonometric and Hyperbolic Functions

Angles (arguments of functions): x, y

Trigonometric functions: sin x, cos x, tan x, cot x, sec x, cosec x
Hyperbolic functions: sh x, ch x, th x, cth x, sech x, csch x
Imaginary unit: i
1. Relationship between the sine and hyperbolic sine
sin (ix) = i sh x
2. Relationship between the tangent and hyperbolic tangent
tan (ix) = i th x
3. Relationship between the cotangent and hyperbolic cotangent
cot (ix) = i cth x
4. Relationship between the secant and hyperbolic secant
sec (ix) = sech x
5. Relationship between the cosecant and hyperbolic cosecant
cosec (ix) = i csch x
6. Sine of a complex number
sin (x + iy) = sin x ch y + i cos x sh y
7. Cosine of a complex number
cos (x + iy) = cos x ch y i sin x sh y
Basic Trigonometric Inequalities

Unknown variable (angle): x

Set of integers: Z
Integer: n
Set of real numbers:
Real number: a
Trigonometric functions: sin x, cos x, tan x, cot x
Inverse trigonometric functions: arcsin a, arccos a, arctan a, arccot a
1. An inequality involving trigonometric functions of an unknown angle is called a trigonometric equation.

2. The following 16 inequalities refer to basic trigonometric inequalities:

sin x > a, sin x a, sin x < a, sin x a,
cos x > a, cos x a, cos x < a, cos x a,
tan x > a, tan x a, tan x < a, tan x a,
cot x > a, cot x a, cot x < a, cot x a.
Here x is an unknown variable, a can be any real number.
Inequalities of the form sin x > a, sin x a, sin x < a, sin x a

Fig.1

Fig.2

Inequality sin x > a

3. If a 1, the inequality sin x > a has no solutions:
x
4. If a < 1, the solution of the inequality sin x > a is any real number:
x
5. For 1 a < 1, the solution of the inequality sin x > a is expressed in the form
arcsin a + 2n < x < arcsin a + 2n, n Z (Fig.1).
Inequality sin x a
6. If a > 1, the inequality sin x a has no solutions:
x
7. If a 1, the solution of the inequality sin x a is any real number:
x
8. Case a = 1

x = /2 + 2n, n Z
9. For 1 < a < 1, the solution of the non-strict inequality sin x a includes the boundary angles and has the
form
arcsin a + 2n x arcsin a + 2n, n Z (Fig.1).
Inequality sin x < a
10. If a > 1, the solution of the inequality sin x < a is any real number:
x
11. If a 1, the inequality sin x < a has no solutions:
x
12. For 1 < a 1, the solution of the inequality sin x < a lies in the interval
arcsin a + 2n < x < arcsin a + 2n, n Z (Fig.2).
Inequality sin x a
13. If a 1, the solution of the inequality sin x a is any real number:
x
14. If a < 1, the inequality sin x a has no solutions:
x
15. Case a = 1
x = /2 + 2n, n Z
16. For 1 < a < 1, the solution of the non-strict inequality sin x a is in the interval
arcsin a + 2n x arcsin a + 2n, n Z (Fig.2).
Inequalities of the form cos x > a, cos x a, cos x < a, cos x a

Fig.3

Fig.4

Inequality cos x > a

17. If a 1, the inequality cos x > a has no solutions:
x
18. If a < 1, the solution of the inequality cos x > a is any real number:
x
19. For 1 a < 1, the solution of the inequality cos x > a has the form
arccos a + 2n < x < arccos a + 2n, n Z (Fig.3).
Inequality cos x a
20. If a > 1, the inequality cos x a has no solutions:
x
21. If a 1, the solution of the inequality cos x a is any real number:
x
22. Case a = 1
x = 2n, n Z
23. For 1 < a < 1, the solution of the non-strict inequality cos x a is expressed by the formula
arccos a + 2n x arccos a + 2n, n Z (Fig.3).
Inequality cos x < a
24. If a > 1, the inequality cos x < a is true for any real value of x:
x

25. If a 1, the inequality cos x < a has no solutions:

x
26. For 1 < a 1, the solution of the inequality cos x < a is written in the form
arccos a + 2n < x < 2 arccos a + 2n, n Z (Fig.4).
Inequality cos x a
27. If a 1, the solution of the inequality cos x a is any real number:
x
28. If a < 1, the inequality cos x a has no solutions:
x
29. Case a = 1
x = + 2n, n Z
30. For 1 < a < 1, the solution of the non-strict inequality cos x a is written as
arccos a + 2n x 2 arccos a + 2n, n Z (Fig.4).
Inequalities of the form tan x > a, tan x a, tan x < a, tan x a

Fig.5

Fig.6

Inequality tan x > a

31. For any real value of a, the solution of the non-strict inequality tan x > a has the form
arctan a + n < x < /2 + n, n Z (Fig.5).
Inequality tan x a
32. For any real value of a, the solution of the inequality tan x a is expressed in the form

arctan a + n x < /2 + n, n Z (Fig.5).

Inequality tan x < a
33. For any value of a, the solution of the inequality tan x < a is written in the form
/2 + n < x < arctan a + n, n Z (Fig.6).
Inequality tan x a
34. For any value of a, the inequality tan x a has the following solution:
/2 + n < x arctan a + n, n Z (Fig.6).
Inequalities of the form cot x > a, cot x a, cot x < a, cot x a

Fig.7

Fig.8

Inequality cot x > a

35. For any value of a, the solution of the inequality cot x > a has the form
n < x < arccot a + n, n Z (Fig.7).
Inequality cot x a
36. The non-strict inequality cot x a has the similar solution:
n < x arccot a + n, n Z (Fig.7).
Inequality cot x < a
37. For any value of a, the solution of the inequality cot x < a lies on the open interval
arccot a + n < x < + n, n Z (Fig.8).
Inequality cot x a
38. For any value of a, the solution of the non-strict inequality cot x a is in the half-open interval
arccot a + n x < + n, n Z (Fig.8).