Chapter 1.

Literature Review

1.1 Monomer Synthesis

A synthesis of vinyl acetate monomer form syngas was researched by

EASTMAN CHEMICAL COMPANY RESEARCH LABORATORIES. The overall
objective of this project is to develop a commercially viable process for the
generation of vinyl acetate monomer (VAM) based entirely upon coal-generated
syngas.
Previous attempts at this objective have generally involved the combination of
acetic anhydride (generated by carbonylation of dimethyl ether or methyl acetate)
with acetaldehyde (generated by hydrocarbonylation of methanol or a methyl ester)
to generate ethylidene diacetate (EDA), which is subsequently cracked to form VAM
and acetic acid in a separate step. Owing primarily to the need to recycle or
otherwise dispose of huge quantities of the acetic acid byproduct, these efforts have
failed to generate a commercially viable process to date. Eastman’s proposal centers
around the generation of acetaldehyde from acetic acid (AcOH) rather than methanol
or a methyl ester. The proposed linchpin technology was to develop and apply a
proprietary method for generating transient, higher energy acetic acid species
(referred to hereafter as activated acetic acid or AAA) thus permitting the normally
endothermic hydrogenation of acetic acid to acetaldehyde (AcH) to proceed in high
conversions, at acceptably low pressures, and moderate temperatures without
subsequent hydrogenation to ordinarily thermodynamically favored ethanol. The
acetaldehyde thus formed could be converted to EDA and subsequently to VAM by
known methods (i.e. combining acetic anhydride with acetaldehyde to form EDA
followed by subsequent cracking to VAM and AcOH.) Within the proposal, Eastman
presented several methods for improving this known process. However, Eastman
also proposed a very speculative application of the same (or modified) proprietary
technology for the generation of activated acetic acid to the direct esterification of
acetaldehyde to yield VAM. The normally endothermic esterification of acetic acid
with acetaldehyde would also become favorable if the endothermic AAA generation
process could be coupled with an exothermic reaction of AAA with acetaldehyde to
produce VAM. If this overall speculative conversion came to fruition, the overall
process would be represented by the following equations:

Step 1. AcOH + H 2→ AcH + H2O

Step 2. AcOH + AcH→ VAM + H2O
and would represent a synthesis of VAM entirely from acetic acid. (The commercially
preferred route to acetic acid, methanol carbonylation, is already based entirely upon
syngas.)

1.2 Chemistry of the Process

1.2.1 Chemistry of the Polymerization Reaction

Poly(vinyl acetate), or PVA for short, is one of those low-profile behind-the-

scenes polymers. It isn't blatantly obvious where it's found, as is the case with
polyethylene or polystyrene. PVA likes to hide. But it's everywhere, if you're willing to
look for it. It's a polymer that rewards one who is willing to look beyond the surface.
One place PVA can be found hiding is between two pieces of wood that are glued
together. PVA is used to make wood glues, as well as other adhesives. Paper and
textiles often have coatings made of PVA and other ingredients to make them shiny.
PVA is a vinyl polymer, as if you couldn't guess from the name. It's made by free
radical vinyl polymerization of the monomer vinyl acetate.
 This is what the monomer looks like in 3-D:

The development of the polymerization reaction, the obtained polymer

structure and consequently the obtaining technology of the polymers depend on the
structural particularities and reactivity of the monomer.
Since the vinyl acetate monomer has no conjugation between the vinyl double
bond and the substituting group, this monomer has low reactivity, meanwhile its
deriving radical has a higher activity. These two effects are compensating on each
other at the homopolymerization, but have a stronger effect in the copolymerization
reaction.
The most common and useful reaction for making polymers is free radical
polymerization. It is used to make polymers from vinyl monomers that are from small
molecules containing carbon-carbon double bonds. Polymers made by free radical
polymerization include branched polyethylene, polystyrene, poly(methyl
methacrylate), polybutadiene, and poly(vinyl acetate). But enough introduction. What
is this reaction, and how does it work? The whole process starts off with a molecule
called an initiator. This is a molecule like 2,2'-azo-bis-isobutyrylnitrile (AIBN) or
benzoyl peroxide.
What is special about these molecules is that they have an uncanny ability to
fall apart, in a rather unusual way. When they split, the pair of electrons in the bond,
which is broken, will separate. This is unusual as electrons like to be in pairs
whenever possible. When this split happens, we're left with two fragments, called
initiator fragments, of the original molecule, each of which has an unpaired electron.
Molecules like this, with unpaired electrons are called free radicals.
Initiation

C6H5 CO CO 60-800C C6H5 CO O

.
O O C6H5

Now remember, these electrons still want to be paired, so any electrons they
can find to pair up with, they will do so. The carbon-carbon double bond in a vinyl
monomer, like vinyl acetate, for example, has a pair of electrons that is very easily
attacked by the free radical. The unpaired electron, when it comes near those
electrons, can't help but swipe one of them to pair itself with. This new pair of
electrons forms a new chemical bond between the initiator fragment and one of the
double bond carbons of the monomer molecule. This leaves another electron now
without a partner, the remaining electron from the pair that had made up the carbon-
carbon double bond. This electron then, having nowhere else to go, associates itself
with the carbon atom, which is not bonded to the initiator fragment. You can see that
this will lead us back where we started, as we now have a new free radical when this
unpaired electron comes to roost on that carbon atom.

. .
C6H5 CO O + CH2 CH C6H5 CO OH + CH3 CH

O C CH3 O C CH3

O O
 Propagation

. .
CH3 CH + CH2 CH CH3 CH CH2 CH

O C CH3 O C CH3 OCOCH3 O C CH3

O O O

. .
CH2 CH CH2 CH + CH2 CH CH2 CH CH2 CH CH2 CH

OCOCH3 O C CH3 O C CH3 OCOCH3 OCOCH3 O C CH3

O O O

Wouldn't you know it, this new radical reacts with another vinyl acetate
molecule in the exact same way as the initiator fragment did. Of course, as we can
see, this gets us nowhere as far as pairing electrons goes, because we still have yet
another radical when this reaction takes place, and it just goes and reacts with
another vinyl acetate molecule. But because we keep making a new radical, we can
keep adding more and more vinyl acetate molecules, and in doing so build a long
chain of them. Self-perpetuating reactions like this one are called chain reactions. So
as long as the chain keeps growing, who really cares if a few electrons remain
unpaired?
Sadly, the electrons care. Radicals are unstable, and eventually they are going
to find away to become paired without generating a new radical, and then our little
chain reaction will come grinding to a halt. This happens in several ways. The
simplest way is for two growing chain ends to find each other. The two unpaired
electrons then join to form a pair, and a new chemical bond joining their respective
chains. This is called coupling.
Another way in which our unpaired electrons can bring a stop to our
polymerization is called disproportionation.
 Termination

. .
CH CH2 CH + HC CH3
CH2

OCOCH3 O C CH3 CH3 C O

O O
coupling disproportionation

CH2 CH CH2 CH CH2 CH2 + CH CH

OCOCH3 O COCH3 OCOCH3 O COCH3

But radicals, being unstable react also with solvents, the monomer and even
with the polymer in order to couple themselves. This way they give transfer reactions
with benzene and toluene, with styrene (which acts as an inhibitor for vinyl acetate
polymerization), with the polymer leading to longer chains and with the monomer
leading to branched polymers.

Transfer reactions with toluene, styrene, with the polymer and the monomer

.
CH2
CH3
.
CH2 CH CH2 CH + CH2 CH2 +

O COCH3 O C CH3 O COCH3

O

CH2 CH
. .
CH2 CH CH2 CH + CH2 CH CH2 CH CH2 CH

OCOCH3 O C CH3 O COCH3 O C CH3

O O
 .
CH2 CH + CH2 CH

O C CH3 O C CH3

O O
25% 75%

. CH2 CH2 + CH2 CH

CH2 CH2 + CH2 C
.
O C CH3 O C CH2
O C CH3 O C CH3
O O
O O

.
(CH2 CH )n-1CH2 CH
.
CH2 C + nCH2 CH CH2 C OCOCH3 OCOCH3

O C CH3 OCOCH3 O C CH3

O O

CH2 CH + nCH2 CH CH2 C

. .
O C CH2 OCOCH3 O C CH2 ( CH2 CH )n-1 CH2 CH

O O OCOCH3 OCOCH3

1.2.2 Chemistry of the Hydrolysis Reaction

One distinct characteristic of poly(vinyl alcohol) is that it is not obtained by

direct polymerization of its monomer, but through a polymer-analogous reaction. This
reaction is the hydrolysis of a vinylic ester – poly(vinyl acetate). The explanation lies
in the fact that this monomer having the formula of the simplest enol could not be
isolated because it gives a spontaneous tautomerization reaction in acetaldehyde.

CH2 CH OH CH3 CH

The tautomerization takes place through the migration of one hydrogen atom
and shifting of the double bond. The increased stability of acetaldehyde in
comparison with poly(vinyl alcohol) is explained by the difference in the formation
heat, which in the case of acetaldehyde is with 15 Kcal higher. The poly(vinyl alcohol)
is therefore obtained from poly(vinyl acetate) through hydrolysis. The hydrolysis can
take place either in acidic or in basic catalyst.

Hydrolysis in acidic medium

CH2 CH
+O H
CH2 CH CH2 CH
-
O: + H+ +O H + CH3OH CH3 C O

C O H O+
CH3 CH3 C O
CH3

CH2 CH + CH3COOCH3 + H+

OH

Hydrolysis in basic medium

CH2 CH CH2 CH
CH2 CH
- O O-
O: + CH3O
CH3 C O- +
CH3 C O
O CH3 CH3COOCH3

-
CH2 CH + CH3OH CH2 CH + CH3O

O- OH

If there are traces of water in the reaction medium, the last phase is no longer
reversible and acetate ions are obtained. These acetate ions lead to the catalyst
consumption and forming of sodium acetate.

CH3 CH3
CH3
- - -
-
HO + C O
HO C O HO C O + CH3O CH3OH + CH3COO
OCH3
OCH3

- -
CH3COO + NaOH CH3COONa + HO
 1.3 Process Technology

1.3.1 Bulk Polymerization

Bulk polymerization takes place in continuous installations or in reactors with

anchor mixing device. The process takes place at 75-95 0C in nitrogen atmosphere.
As initiator, the benzoyl peroxide is used and for molecular weight regulation we use
propionic aldehyde. Finally, the temperature rises at 110-1200C to completion of the
polymerization reaction. The polyacetate melt is then granulated.
The main advantages of this method are the purity of the obtained polymer, its
high molecular weight (the system does not contain other transfer agents than the
monomer and the polymer itself) and the low cost (neither solvents nor surfactants
are used, therefore the expenses these products’ utilization implies are null). But this
procedure has also some limitations:

 the necessity of frequent stopping the installation to remove the reticular

polymer crust from the reactor walls;
 unreproductable results concerning the molecular weights.

1.3.2 Solution Polymerization

This procedure is used on a large scale in industry, the polyacetate solutions

being used as lakes and adhesives or for obtaining the poly(vinyl alcohol). Solution
polymerization is a homogenous process, where the solvent is selected to solve both
the monomer and the polymer.
The polymer’s molecular weight depends not only of the initiator, monomer
and solvent type and concentration, but also of aldehyde content of the monomer.
The solvents used in this procedure depend on the final destination of the product.
Thus, for lakes we use ethyl acetate, benzene and acetone, meanwhile for poly(vinyl
alcohol) fabrication alcohols like methanol, ethanol and isopropanol. Ethanol is used
when the poly(vinyl alcohol) is used to prepare medical and cosmetic emulsions. The
nature and concentration of the solvent influence the polymer’s viscosity and
conversion.

Solvent Conversion (%) Solution Viscosity (CP)

Toluene 28.0 2.9
Ethanol 22.6 5.6
Acetone 68.5 3.0
Ethyl acetate 89.3 8.2
Benzene 55.0 18.2

The polymerization process can be batch or continuous, the batch procedure

being more used in industry. From the batch polymerization of vinyl acetate a
poly(vinyl acetate) lake is obtained. This lake is further hydrolyzed to poly(vinyl
alcohol). To obtain high molecular weight polymers a bulk-solution polymerization
procedure is applied. According to this procedure the polymerization reaction is
initially a bulk polymerization up to 30-40% conversion, allowing us to obtain a high
molecular weight polymer. In the next phase polymerization takes place in solution.
This procedure leads to a high molecular weight polymer and with few ramifications.
The solution polymerization of vinyl acetate has the following disadvantages:
low reaction rate, low molecular weight because of the transfer reactions, large
molecular weight distribution, branching of the polymer, polymer crusts are formed
inhibiting the heat transfer a.s.o., which all together limit the procedure applicability.

1.3.3 Suspension Polymerization

This polymerization is essentially a bulk polymerization in which the reaction

mixture is suspended as droplets in an inert medium (the reaction mass is
heterogeneous). Suspension polymerization of vinyl acetate takes place in aqueous
media, in the presence of initiators soluble in the monomer like benzoyl peroxide,
azoisobutyrodinitrile or mixtures of initiators. As suspension agents poly(vinyl alcohol)
(with 88-92% hydrolyses degree), methylcelulose, oxyethylcelulose a.s.o. are used.
This procedure allows the synthesis of a product with high molecular weight
and it is usually used for fabrication of poly(vinyl alcohol) for fibers.
Its major difficulty lies in the fact that besides the main polymer a gel (20%
against the polymer) is formed. This occurs due to the transfer reactions with the
polymer in the final stages of the polymerization process.
Its advantages are that the polymerization temperature might be higher than in
solution polymerization, the system’s viscosity is low, approaching water viscosity.
Also water’s high caloric capacity improves the heat removal and the suspension can
be easily separated by filtration.

1.3.4 Emulsion Polymerization

A distinct characteristic of the emulsion polymerization of vinyl acetate is the

fact that its polymerization rate does not depend of the emulsifier concentration. This
might be explained knowing that the monomer exhibits a 5% solubility in water. In
this case, the polymerization starts almost exclusively in an aqueous solution of vinyl
acetate. The such formed polymer precipitates and forms particles, which absorb the
emulsifier. Then the polymerization takes place at the surface of these poly(vinyl
acetate) particles formed.
From the practical point of view the most used emulsifier is the poly(vinyl
alcohol). The emulsions realized with poly(vinyl alcohol) have a high stability even at
very high concentration of polymer (50%). It was established that during the
polymerization process grafting of poly(vinyl acetate) on poly(vinyl alcohol) takes
place. The following structure will be obtained:
 Polymerization results in a latex phase: particles of about 100µ m protected by
an emulsifier layer, which do not separate because of their superficial charge. The
separation can be made by spray drying or coagulation with appropriate electrolytes.

1.3.5 Poly(vinyl acetate) hydrolysis in solution

The poly(vinyl acetate) hydrolysis can take place either in acidic catalyst (with
H2SO4, HCl) at approximately 800C, either in basic catalyst (with NaOH, CH3ONa) at
almost 350C.
Acidic hydrolysis has a series of disadvantages that stopped it to be
industrially applied, as follows:

 the minimum limit of temperature is of 800C at which the finished

product can suffer thermal degradation;
 low reaction rate, which leads to high reaction time, making this method
uneconomical;
 high reagents consumption;
 the obtained poly(vinyl alcohol) is unpurified with salts resulting from the
sulfuric acid;
 side reactions, like sulfonation of the poly(vinyl alcohol).

The basic hydrolysis eliminates all these disadvantages, therefore being

applied industrially using two basic technological procedures:

1. The direct method or procedure consisting of introduction of the

catalyst in a methanolic solution of poly(vinyl acetate);
2. The indirect method or procedure consisting in step-by-step
introduction of poly(vinyl acetate) in the catalyst solution.

The main disadvantage of the first procedure consists in the appearance of a

hard gel in a certain phase of the reaction (at a hydrolysis degree of almost 65%),
which in reactors with normal mixing, will block the reactor. But because of the
powerful mixing employed here the mechanical degradation of the macromolecules
appears. So our product will be nonhomogenous from the molecular weight point of
view. Its main advantage is that the hydrolysis degree is easily controlled.
In order to make this procedure functional, methyl acetate or a few drops of
water are introduced in the reaction mass to shift the reaction equilibrium at a higher
reaction rate or to slowly deactivate the catalyst after passing the gel phase. In this
case regular reactors can be used. Introducing both methyl acetate and water (in well
predetermined ratios) we can obtain a product at a desired granulation and
hydrolysis degree.
Usually, the working concentration for PVAc is of 20-30% in methanol
depending of the molecular weight of PVAc. At these concentrations the gel phase
cannot be avoided, its consistency and duration being ameliorated only by
introduction of water or methyl acetate. The gel phase can be completely avoided by
poly(vinyl acetate) hydrolysis in suspension.

The second procedure has the advantage that during the reaction the gel
phase is no longer present. Therefore we need no more special technological
measures, but the hydrolysis degree is no longer controllable. During the reaction the
small quantities of PVAc introduced in the catalyst solution are rapidly and totally
hydrolyzed (98-99%). Thus, this method is applied when we need a maximum
hydrolysis degree.
Technologically the poly(vinyl alcohol) can be obtained either by batch or
continuous procedure.

1.4 Poly(vinyl alcohol) Properties

Poly(vinyl alcohol) is a white-yellowish product with density 1.21-1.31 g/cm3

and a vitrifiation temperature of about 800C. It is a crystalline material due to the high
number of hydrogen bonds between the polymer chains.
Solubility. It is soluble in water, its solubility being dependent on the
hydrolysis degree (HD). At HD higher than 80%, the solubility in water decreases due
to the fact that the water molecules are hindered to penetrate the PVA chains
because of the high number of hydrogen bonds established between the
macromolecular chains. For example, at HD 100% PVA is soluble in water only at
high temperatures. But when HD is 20% PVA is soluble in water even at room
temperature.
Besides water, the poly(vinyl alcohol) is also soluble in polar solvents like
glycols, glycerin, dimethylformamide, monoethanolamine, phenol, urea,
dimethylsulfoxide.
From aqueous solutions the poly(vinyl alcohol) can be separated either
through water evaporation, when transparent thin layers of film are obtained, or
through precipitation with methanol or saturated solutions of inorganic salts.
PVA is hardly soluble in organic solvents.
Thermal Properties. Due to the high number of hydrogen bonds between the
chains, PVA does not melt but at increasing the temperature the polymer begins to
decompose. Up to 1200C no change is noticed. Over this temperature, the etheric
bonds are formed, leading to the alcohol insolubilization. At even higher
temperatures(1200C) its color turns yellow and double bonds appear due to water
elimination.
Mechanical Properties. It exhibits high mechanical resistance, especially
high fraction strength (σ n=3000 kg/cm2). Subjected to elongation, PVA crystallizes
and its mechanical resistance increases.
Mixing Capacity. The best plastifier for poly(vinyl alcohol) is water. Its
increased viscosity limits its uses. Because of its high higroscopicity, the poly(vinyl
alcohol) has always small quantities of water, which decreases its vitrifiation
temperature. In industry phosphoric acid, ethylene glycol, butylenes glycol and
glycerin are used.
Chemical Properties. PVA presents all characteristic reactions of
polyalcohols. The hydroxilic groups of this alcohol can give etherification reactions,
esterification reactions, acetalization reactions or they can react with metallic sodium,
ethylene or propylene oxide. By heating with anhydrides we can obtain polymers with
esteric substituting groups. Still PVA has the big disadvantage of being easily
attacked by water, so it should be made totally insoluble to water. This can be
realized by reaction with aldehydes or metal salts resulting in the PVA
insolubilization. Another good insolubilization method consists in treatment with
epychlorhydrine or by thermoforming at temperatures higher then 140 0C, with acidic
catalyst.

1.5 Poly(vinyl alcohol) Uses

Poly(vinyl alcohol) is used to obtain fibers, synthetic leather, hoses, fittings

stabile at gasoline action, rubber like products, transmission belts, surgeon threads;
or used as adhesive or emulsifier.
From PVA are made especially short fibers to replace cotton(when PVA has a
hydrolysis degree of 100%). In this case the polymer is dissolved, spinned, stretched,
dried, thermoforming and acetalized. In industry is most used wet spinning, but fibers
of PVA can be obtained also by dried spinning. Stretching is done in 2 or 3 steps at
1:5 ratio. Drying and thermoforming are done to increase the product crystallinity and
its stability towards water. Drying is done at 90-110 0C and thermoforming is a
thermal treatment at 210-2300C in organic solvents’ vapors or water. Acetalizing is
realized with formic aldehyde and sulfuric acid as catalyst at 65-700C for 30-40
minutes achieving an acetalization degree of 35-40%. This way the poly(vinyl
alcohol) fibers are totally insoluble. Acetalization is followed by water washing at
temperature, drying at 90-1000C and cutting at the desired sizes.
The usage of poly(vinyl alcohol) as thermoplastic implies its mixing with the
plastifiers. The most used plastifier is water, which reduces the polymer’s vitrifiation
temperature, increases compatibility with a higher number of plastifiers and improves
processing. Phosphoric acid has a series of advantages like: low volatility, small
tendency towards esterification and the polymer is not decomposing. The indirect
plastifiers like ethylene glycol, glycerin, some amides and alcohols, .a.s.o., make the
polymer gonflate. At a percentage of 65% (molar) of plastifier, the products based on
PVA can be sometimes used instead of rubber. For a smaller percentage of 65, the
materials obtained are leather like.
Having a high mechanical resistance, PVA is used to manufacture
transmission belts.
To obtain thin films of PVA the water is evaporated from PVA solutions
deposited on shiny metallic surfaces. As plastifiers glycerin or ethylene glycol are
used with max. 35% concentration. The aqueous solution of PVA is mixed with the
plastifier, filtrated at 1000C and deposited under pressure on transporting bands and
then dried. At one cycle a thin film of 0.1 mm is obtained. On it a new layer of solution
is deposited and so on, the max. number of layers being of 10. The such obtained
films are subjected to mechanical processing. The obtained belts have higher
mechanical resistance: 2200 kg/cm2 comparing with 480 kg/cm2 for leather belts.
Beside they have higher usage resistance. The PVA films are also used as covering
material, when insolubilization is done with dimethylol urea.
The PVA with 18-20% acetate groups is used as adhesive for gluing rubber on
metal. PVA solutions with formaldehyde are used as adhesives for paper, textiles
and leather.
Poly(vinyl alcohol) has very good tensio-active properties. Because of this is
used as protection colloid in suspension polymerization and anionic emulsifier in
emulsion polymerization. The best emulsifying properties are the one for PVA with
88-92% hydrolysis degree.
Besides all the above mentioned, the poly(vinyl alcohol) can be also used in
pharmaceutical industry, at printing inks, in photography for light sensitive layers of
films.
But one interesting place where the polymer likes to hide is in paint cans. So
what is PVA doing hiding in your paint? PVA is the latex in acrylic latex paint. So
what does that mean? Let me explain. Before PVA can hide in a can of paint, we
have to react it with NaOH and methanol like this:

When we do this we clip off all those acetate groups to end up with another
polymer, poly(vinyl alcohol). But for paint we don't really want to clip all of the acetate
groups. We can control this reaction so that when we're done we still have about
20% of the acetate groups left on the polymer. What we have then is a copolymer of
poly(vinyl alcohol) and poly(vinyl acetate) called poly(vinyl alcohol-co-vinyl acetate),
appropriately enough. It's a random copolymer, that looks like poly(vinyl alcohol),
except with vinyl acetate repeat unit every now and then, like this:

But why do we want to do this? It has to do with how acrylic paints work.
Acrylic paints in them a compound called methyl methacrylate. Now this is some
reactive stuff, and after the paint is brushed on it polymerizes to form poly(methyl
methacrylate). Its structure is similar to PVA, but it's different. Look closely. Can you
see the differences?
 Poly(methyl methacrylate) is a hard, tough, and shiny plastic, and if when it
forms in the wet paint, it makes the paint surface, hard, tough and shiny. This is
good. We want paint to do this. But there's a problem. Methyl methacrylate is
hydrophobic. It doesn't dissolve in water, and a lot of paints are water based.

This is where poly(vinyl alcohol-co-vinyl acetate) comes to the rescue. You

see, this copolymer has an identity crisis. The alcohol groups are hydrophilic. They
love water, and want to dissolve in it. But the acetate groups are hydrophobic. They
hate water and don't want to dissolve in it. So when you put the copolymer in water, it
forms into a ball. The alcohol repeat units are on the outside of this ball, happily
embracing the water, while the acetate groups are on the inside of the ball, hiding
from it.

Now ask yourself this question. If you were a molecule of methyl methacrylate,
and as a methyl methacrylate molecule you hated water, where would you go?
Would you go out into the water, or would you go into the inside of that coiled
polymer, away from the water? You'd go to the inside of the coil of course! And that's
just what the real methyl methacrylate does. The methyl methacrylate hides in the
hydrophobic center of the coiled polymer. By doing this, it can stay suspended in
water based paints! A suspension of an insoluble substance, like methyl
methacrylate, held in suspension by being wrapped in another kind of molecule, like
our copolymer, is what we call a latex. That's where we get the name latex paint.