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CATHOLICENCYCLOPEDIA:Dialectic

Dialectic
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[Greekdialektike(techneormethodos),thedialecticartormethod,fromdialegomaiI
converse,discuss,disputeasnounalsodialecticsasadjective,dialectical].
(1)InGreekphilosophythewordoriginallysignified"investigationbydialogue",
instructionbyquestionandanswer,asintheheuristicmethodofSocratesandthe
dialoguesofPlato.Theworddialecticsstillretainsthismeaninginthetheoryof
education.
(2)Butastheprocessofreasoningismorefundamentalthanitsoralexpression,theterm
dialecticcametodenoteprimarilytheartofinferenceorargument.Inthissenseitis
synonymouswithlogic.Ithasalways,moreover,connotedspecialaptitudeoracutenessin
reasoning,"dialecticalskill"anditwasbecauseofthischaracteristicofZeno'spolemic
againsttherealityofmotionorchangethatthisphilosopherissaidtohavebeenstyledby
Aristotlethemasterorfounderofdialectic.
(3)Further,theaimofallargumentationbeingpresumablytheacquisitionoftruthor
knowledgeaboutreality,andtheprocessofcognitionbeinginseparablyboundupwithits
contentorobject,i.e.withreality,itwasnaturalthatthetermdialecticshouldbeagain
extendedfromfunctiontoobject,fromthoughttothingandso,evenasearlyasPlato,it
hadcometosignifythewholescienceofreality,bothastomethodandastocontent,thus
nearlyapproachingwhathasbeenfromasomewhatlaterperioduniversallyknownas
metaphysics.Itis,however,notquitesynonymouswiththelatterintheobjectivesenseof
thescienceofrealbeing,abstractingfromthethoughtprocessesbywhichthisrealbeing
isknown,butratherinthemoresubjectivesenseinwhichitdenotesthestudyofbeingin
connectionwiththemind,thescienceofknowledgeinrelationtoitsobject,thecritical
investigationoftheoriginandvalidityofknowledgeaspursuedinpsychologyand
epistemology.ThusKantdescribesas"transcendentaldialectic"hiscriticismofthe(to
himfutile)attemptsofspeculativehumanreasontoattaintoaknowledgeofsuchultimate
realitiesasthesoul,theuniverse,andtheDeitywhilethemonisticsystem,inwhich
Hegelidentifiedthoughtwithbeingandlogicwithmetaphysics,iscommonlyknownas
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the"Hegeliandialectic".
[Fordialecticasequivalenttologic,seeart.LOGIC,andcf.(2)above.Itisinthissense
weherespeakofdialecticintheology.]Thetraditionallogic,ordialectic,ofAristotle's
"Organon"thescienceandartof(mainlydeductive)reasoningfounditsproper
applicationinexploringthedomainofpurelynaturaltruth,butintheearlyMiddleAgesit
begantobeappliedbysomeCatholictheologianstotheelucidationofthesupernatural
truthsoftheChristianRevelation.Theperennialproblemoftherelationofreasontofaith,
alreadyablydiscussedbySt.Augustineinthefifthcentury,wasthusraisedagainbySt.
Anselmintheeleventh.Duringtheinterveningandearliercenturies,althoughthewriters
andFathersoftheChurchhadalwaysrecognizedtherightanddutyofnaturalreasonto
establishthosetruthspreparatorytofaith,theexistenceofGodandthefactofrevelation,
thosepraeambulafideiwhichformthemotivesofcredibilityoftheChristianreligionand
somaketheprofessionoftheChristianFaitharationabileobsequium,a"reasonable
service",stilltheirattitudeinclinedmoretotheCredeutintelligas(Believethatyoumay
understand)thantotheIntelligeutcredas(understandthatyoumaybelieve)andtheir
theologywasapositiveexegesisofthecontentsofScriptureandtradition.Intheeleventh
andtwelfthcenturies,however,rationalspeculationwasappliedtotheologynotmerely
forthepurposeofprovingthepraeambulafidei,butalsoforthepurposeofanalysing,
illustratingandshowingforththebeautyandthesuitabilityofthemysteriesofthe
ChristianFaith.ThismethodofapplyingtothecontentsofRevelationthelogicalformsof
rationaldiscussionwascalled"thedialecticmethodoftheology".Itsintroductionwas
opposedmoreorlessvigorouslybysuchasceticandmysticwritersasSt.PeterDamian,
St.Bernard,andWalterofSt.Victorchiefly,indeed,becauseoftheexcesstowhichit
wascarriedbythoserationalistandtheosophistwriterswho,likePeterAbelardand
RaymondLully,wouldfaindemonstratetheChristianmysteries,subordinatingfaithto
privatejudgment.Themethodwassavedfromneglectandexcessalikebythegreat
Scholasticsofthethirteenthcentury,andwasusedtoadvantageintheirtheology.After
fiveorsixcenturiesoffruitfuldevelopment,undertheinfluence,mainly,ofthisdeductive
dialectic,theologyhasagainbeendrawing,foracenturypast,abundantandpowerfulaid
fromarenewedandincreasedattentiontothehistoricalandexegeticalstudiesthat
characterizedtheearliercenturiesofChristianity.

Dialecticasfundamentalphilosophyofhumanknowledge
[cf.(3)above]
ThePlatonicdialectic

FromthebeginningsofGreekphilosophyreflectionhasrevealedatwofoldelementinthe
contentsoftheknowinghumanmind:anabstract,permanent,immutableelement,usually
referredtotheintellectorreasonandaconcrete,changeable,evershiftingelement,
usuallyreferredtotheimaginationandtheexternalsenses.Now,cantherealworld
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possesssuchoppositecharacteristics?Or,ifnot,whichsetreallyrepresentsit?For
HeraclitusandtheearlierIonians,stabilityisadelusionallrealityischangepantahrei.
ForParmenidesandtheEleatics,changeisdelusionrealityisone,fixed,andstable.But
then,whencethedelusion,ifsuchtherebe,ineitheralternative?Whydoesourknowledge
speakwithsuchuncertainvoice,orwhichalternativearewetobelieve?Both,answers
Plato,butintellectmorethansense.Whatrealities,thelatterasks,arerevealedbythose
abstract,universalnotionswepossessofbeing,number,cause,goodness,etc.,bythe
necessary,immutabletruthsweapprehendandthecomparisonofthosenotions?The
dialecticofthePlatonic"Ideas"isanoble,ifunsuccessful,attempttoanswerthis
question.Thesenotionsandtruths,saysPlato,haveforobjectsideaswhichconstitutethe
realworld,themundusintelligibilis,ofwhichwehavethusadirectandimmediate
intellectualintuition.Thesebeings,whichareobjectsofourintellectualknowledge,these
ideas,reallyexistinthemannerinwhichtheyarerepresentedbytheintellect,i.e.as
necessary,universal,immutable,eternal,etc.Butwhereisthismundusintelligibilis?Itis
aworldapart(choris),separatefromtheworldoffleetingphenomenarevealedtothe
senses.Andisthislatterworld,then,realorunreal?Itis,saysPlato,butashadowyreflex
ofreality,adissolvingviewoftheideas,aboutwhichourconscioussenseimpressions
cangiveusmereopinion(doxa),butnotthatreliable,properknowledge(episteme)which
wehaveoftheideas.Thisisunsatisfactory.Itisanattempttoexplainanadmitted
connectionbetweenthenoumenalandthephenomenalelementsinknowledgeby
suppressingtherealityofthelatteraltogether.NorisPlatoanymoresuccessfulinhis
endeavourtoshowhowtheidea,whichforhimisareallyexistingbeing,canbeatthe
sametimeoneandmanifold,or,inotherwords,howitcanbeuniversal,likethemental
notionthatrepresentsit.
AristoteleanandScholasticdialectic

Aristotletaught,inoppositiontohismasterPlato,thatthese"ideas"orobjectsofour
intellectualnotionsdonotexistapartfrom,butareembodiedin,theconcrete,individual
dataofsense.Itisoneandthesamerealitythatrevealsitselfunderanabstract,universal,
staticaspecttotheintellect,andunderaconcrete,manifold,dynamicaspecttothesenses.
TheChristianphilosophersoftheMiddleAgestookupanddevelopedthisAristotelean
conception,makingitoneofthecardinaldoctrinesofScholasticphilosophy,thedoctrine
ofmodernRealism.Theobjectoftheabstract,universalnotion,theytaught,isrealbeing
itconstitutesandisidenticalwiththeindividualdataofsenseknowledgeitis
numericallymultipliedandindividualizedinthem,whileitisunifiedasaclassconceptor
universalnotion(unumcommunepluribus)bytheabstractivepoweroftheintellectwhich
apprehendstheelementcommontotheindividualsofaclasswithouttheirdifferentiating
characteristics.Theuniversalnotionthusexistsasuniversalonlyintheintellect,butithas
afoundationintheindividualdataofsense,inasmuchasthecontentofthenotionreally
existsinthesesensedata,thoughthemodeofitsexistencethereisotherthanthemodein
whichthenotionexistsintheintellect:universaleestformaliterinmente,fundamentaliter
inre.Nordoestheintellect,inthusrepresentingindividualphenomenabyuniversal
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notions,falsifyitsobjectorrenderintellectualknowledgeunreliableitrepresentstheReal
inadequately,nodoubt,notexhaustivelyorcomprehensively,yetfaithfullysofarasit
goesitdoesnotmisrepresentreality,foritmerelyassertsofthelatterthecontentofits
universalnotion,notthemode(oruniversality)ofthelatter,asPlatodid.
Butifwegetallouruniversalnotions,necessaryjudgments,andintuitionsofimmutable
truththroughtheeverchanging,individualdataofsense,howarewetoaccountforthe
timeless,spaceless,changeless,necessarycharacteroftherelationsweestablishbetween
theseobjectsofabstract,intellectualthought:relationssuchas"Twoandtwoarefour",
"Whateverhappenshasacause","Viceisblameworthy"?Notbecauseourownorour
ancestors'perceptivefacultieshavebeensoaccustomedtoassociatecertainelementsof
consciousnessthatweareunabletodissociatethem(asmaterialistandevolutionist
philosopherswouldsay)noryet,ontheotherhand,becauseinapprehendingthese
necessaryrelationswehaveadirectandimmediateintuitionofthenecessary,self
existent,DivineBeing(astheOntologistshavesaid,andassomeinterpretPlatotohave
meant)butsimplybecauseweareendowedwithanintellectualfacultywhichcan
apprehendthedataofsenseinastaticconditionandestablishrelationsbetweenthem
abstractingfromallchange.
Bymeansofsuchnecessary,selfevidenttruths,appliedtothedataofsenseknowledge,
wecaninferthatourownmindsarebeingsofahigher(spiritual)orderthanmaterial
thingsandthatthebeingsofthewholevisibleuniverseourselvesincludedare
contingent,i.e.essentiallyandentirelydependentonanecessary,allperfectBeing,who
createdandconservestheminexistence.Inoppositiontothiscreationistphilosophyof
Theism,whicharrivesatanultimatepluralityofbeing,maybesetdownallformsof
MonismorPantheism,thephilosophywhichterminatesinthedenialofanyreal
distinctionbetweenmindandmatter,thoughtandthing,subjectandobjectofknowledge,
andtheassertionoftheultimateunityofbeing.
TheKantiandialectic

WhileScholasticphilosophersunderstandbyrealitythatwhichistheobjectdirectly
revealedto,andapprehendedby,theknowingmindthroughcertainmodifications
wroughtbytherealityinthesensoryandintellectualfaculties,idealistorphenomenalist
philosophersassumethatthedirectobjectofourknowledgeisthementalstateor
modificationitself,thementalappearance,orphenomenon,astheycallitandbecause
wecannotclearlyunderstandhowtheknowingmindcantranscenditsownrevealed,or
phenomenal,selforstatesintheactofcognition,soastoapprehendsomethingotherthan
theimmediate,empirical,subjectivecontentofthatact,thesephilosophersareinclinedto
doubtthevalidityofthe"inferentialleap"toreality,andconsequentlytomaintainthatthe
speculativereasonisunabletoreachbeyondsubjective,mentalappearancestoa
knowledgeofthingsinthemselves.Thus,accordingtoKant,ournecessaryanduniversal
judgmentsaboutsensedataderivetheirnecessityanduniversalityfromcertaininnate,
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subjectiveequipmentsofthemindcalledcategories,orformsofthought,andaretherefore
validlyapplicableonlytothephenomenaorstatesofsenseconsciousness.Weare,no
doubt,compelledtothinkofanunperceivedrealworld,underlyingthephenomenaof
externalsensation,ofanunperceivedrealego,ormind,orsoul,underlyingtheconscious
flowofphenomenawhichconstitutetheempiricalorphenomenalego,andofanabsolute
andultimateunderlying,unconditionedCauseoftheegoandtheworldalikebutthese
threeideasofthereasonthesoul,theworld,andGodaremerenatural,necessary
productsofthementalprocessofthinking,mereregulativeprinciplesofthought,devoid
ofallrealcontent,andthereforeincapableofrevealingrealitytothespeculativereasonof
man.Kant,nevertheless,believedintheserealities,derivingasubjectivecertitudeabout
themfromtheexigenciesofthepracticalreason,whereheconsideredthespeculative
reasontohavefailed.
TheHegeliandialectic

PostKantianphilosophersdisagreedininterpretingKant.Fichte,Schelling,andHegel
developedsomephasesofhisteachinginapurelymonisticsense.IfwhatKantcalledthe
formalelementinknowledgei.e.thenecessary,universal,immutableelementcomes
exclusivelyfromwithinthemind,andif,moreover,mindcanknowonlyitself,whatright
havewetoassumethatthereisamaterialelementindependentof,anddistinctfrom,
mind?Isnotthecontentofknowledge,orinotherwordsthewholesphereofthe
knowable,aproductofthemindoregoitself?Orarenotindividualhumanmindsmere
selfconsciousphasesintheevolutionoftheoneultimate,absoluteBeing?Herewehave
theidealisticmonismorpantheismofFichteandSchelling.Hegel'sdialecticis
characterizedespeciallybyitsthoroughgoingidentificationofthespeculativethought
processwiththeprocessofBeing.Hislogiciswhatisusuallyknownasmetaphysics:a
philosophyofBeingasrevealedthroughabstractthought.Hisstartingpointistheconcept
ofpure,absolute,indeterminatebeingthisheconceivesasaprocess,asdynamic.His
methodistotracetheevolutionofthisdynamicprinciplethroughthreestages:
1. thestageinwhichitaffirms,orposits,itselfasthesis
2. thestageofnegation,limitation,antithesis,whichisanecessarycorollaryofthe
previousstage
3. thestageofsynthesis,returntoitself,unionofopposites,whichfollowsnecessarily
on(l)and(2).
Absolutebeinginthefirststageistheideasimply(thesubjectmatteroflogic)inthe
secondstage(ofotherness)itbecomesnature(philosophyofnature)inthethirdstage(of
returnorsynthesis)itisspirit(philosophyofspiritethics,politics,art,religion,etc.).
AppliedtotheinitialideaofabsoluteBeing,theprocessworksoutsomewhatlikethis:All
conceptioninvolveslimitation,andlimitationisnegationpositingoraffirmingthenotion
ofBeinginvolvesitsdifferentiationfromnonbeingandthusimpliesthenegationof
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being.Thisnegation,however,doesnotterminateinmerenothingnessitimpliesa
relationofaffirmationwhichleadsbysynthesistoaricherpositiveconceptthanthe
originalone.Thus:absolutelyindeterminatebeingisnolessopposedto,thanitis
identicalwith,absolutelyindeterminatenothing:orBEINGNOTHINGbutinthe
oscillationfromtheonenotiontotheotherbotharemergedintherichersyntheticnotion,
ofBECOMING.
ThisismerelyanillustrationoftheaprioridialecticprocessbywhichHegelseeksto
showhowallthecategoriesofthoughtandreality(whichheidentifies)areevolvedfrom
pure,indeterminate,absolute,abstractlyconceivedBeing.Itisnotanattemptatmaking
hissystemintelligible.Todosoinafewsentenceswouldbeimpossible,ifonlyforthe
reason,thatHegelhasreadintoordinaryphilosophicaltermsmeaningsthatarequitenew
andoftensufficientlyremotefromthecurrentlyacceptedones.Tothisfactespeciallyis
duethedifficultyexperiencedbyCatholicsindecidingwithanydegreeofcertitude
whether,orhowfar,theHegelianDialecticandthesameinitsmeasureistrueofKant's
criticalphilosophyalsomaybecompatiblewiththeprofessionoftheCatholicFaith.
Thatthesephilosophieshaveproveddangerous,andhavetroubledthemindsofmany,
wasonlytobeexpectedfromthenoveltyoftheirviewpointsandthestrangenessoftheir
methodsofexposition.Whether,inthemindsoftheirleadingexponents,theycontained
much,orlittle,oranythingincompatiblewithTheismandChristianity,itwouldbeas
difficultasitwouldbeperhapsidletoattempttodecide.Bethatasitmay,theattitudeof
theCatholicChurchtowardsphilosophiesthatarenewandstrangeintheirmethodsand
terminologymustneedsbeanattitudeofalertnessandvigilance.Consciousofthe
meaningtraditionallyattachedbyherchildrentothetermsinwhichshehasalways
expoundedthoseultimatephilosophicoreligioustruthsthatliepartlyalongandpartly
beyondtheconfinesofnaturalhumanknowledge,andrealizingthedangeroftheirbeing
ledastraybynovelsystemsofthoughtexpressedinambiguouslanguage,shehasever
wiselywarnedthemto"bewarelestanymancheat[them]byphilosophy,andvaindeceit"
(Colossians2:8).
FortheuseofdialecticintheearlyChristianandmedievalschools,seeTHESEVEN
LIBERALARTS.

Aboutthispage
APAcitation.Coffey,P.(1908).Dialectic.InTheCatholicEncyclopedia.NewYork:
RobertAppletonCompany.RetrievedJune6,2015fromNewAdvent:
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MLAcitation.Coffey,Peter."Dialectic."TheCatholicEncyclopedia.Vol.4.NewYork:
RobertAppletonCompany,1908.6Jun.2015
<http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/04770a.htm>.
Transcription.ThisarticlewastranscribedforNewAdventbyRickMcCarty.
Ecclesiasticalapprobation.NihilObstat.RemyLafort,Censor.Imprimatur.+JohnM.
Farley,ArchbishopofNewYork.
Contactinformation.TheeditorofNewAdventisKevinKnight.Myemailaddressis
webmasteratnewadvent.org.Regrettably,Ican'treplytoeveryletter,butIgreatly
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