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CATHOLICENCYCLOPEDIA:WilliamofOckham

WilliamofOckham
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FourteenthcenturyScholasticphilosopherandcontroversialwriter,bornatornearthe
villageofOckhaminSurrey,England,about1280diedprobablyatMunich,about1349.
HeissaidtohavestudiedatMertonCollege,Oxford,andtohavehadJohnDunsScotus
forteacher.AtanearlyageheenteredtheOrderofSt.Francis.Towards1310hewentto
Paris,wherehemayhavehadScotusoncemoreforateacher.About1320hebecamea
teacher(magister)attheUniversityofParis.Duringthisportionofhiscareerhe
composedhisworksonAristoteleanphysicsandonlogic.In1323heresignedhischairat
theuniversityinordertodevotehimselftoecclesiasticalpolitics.Inthecontroversies
whichwerewagedatthattimebetweentheadvocatesofthepapacyandthosewho
supportedtheclaimsofthecivilpower,hethrewhislotwiththeimperialparty,and
contributedtothepolemicalliteratureofthedayanumberofpamphletsandtreatises,of
whichthemostimportantare"Opusnonagintadierum","CompendiumerrorumJoannis
PapXXII","Qustionesoctodeauctoritatesummipontificis".Hewascitedbeforethe
pontificalCourtatAvignonin1328,butmanagedtoescapeandjoinJohnofJandunand
MarsiliusofPadua,whohadtakenrefugeattheCourtofLouisofBavaria.ItwastoLouis
thathemadetheboastfuloffer,"Tumedefendasgladioegotedefendamcalamo".
InhiscontroversialwritingsWilliamofOckhamappearsastheadvocateofsecular
absolutism.Hedeniestherightofthepopestoexercisetemporalpower,ortointerferein
anywaywhateverintheaffairsoftheEmpire.Heevenwentsofarastoadvocatethe
validityoftheadulterousmarriageofLouis'sson,onthegroundsofpoliticalexpediency,
andtheabsolutepoweroftheStateinsuchmatters.InphilosophyWilliamadvocateda
reformofScholasticismbothinmethodandincontent.Theaimofthisreformation
movementingeneralwassimplification.Thisaimheformulatedinthecelebrated"Lawof
Parsimony",commonlycalled"Ockham'sRazor":"Entianonsuntmultiplicandasine
necessitate".Withthistendencytowardssimplificationwasunitedaverymarked
tendencytowardsskepticismadistrust,namely,oftheabilityofthehumanmindtoreach
certitudeinthemostimportantproblemsofphilosophy.Thus,intheprocessof
simplificationhedeniedtheexistenceofintentionalspecies,rejectedthedistinction
betweenessenceandexistence,andprotestedagainsttheThomisticdoctrineofactiveand
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passiveintellect.Hisskepticismappearsinhisdoctrinethathumanreasoncanprove
neithertheimmortalityofthesoulnortheexistence,unity,andinfinityofGod.These
truths,heteaches,areknowntousbyRevelationalone.Inethicsheisavoluntarist,
maintainingthatalldistinctionbetweenrightandwrongdependsonthewillofGod.
William'sbestknowncontributiontoScholasticphilosophyishistheoryofuniversals,
whichisamodifiedformofNominalism,morecloselyalliedtoConceptualismthanto
Nominalismoftheextremetype.Theuniversal,hesays,hasnoexistenceintheworldof
reality.Realthingsareknowntousbyintuitiveknowledge,andnotbyabstraction.The
universalistheobjectofabstractiveknowledge.Therefore,theuniversalconcepthasfor
itsobject,notarealityexistingintheworldoutsideus,butaninternalrepresentation
whichisaproductoftheunderstandingitselfandwhich"supposes"inthemind,forthe
thingstowhichthemindattributesit,thatisitholds,forthetimebeing,theplaceofthe
thingswhichitrepresents.Itisthetermofthereflectiveactofthemind.Hencethe
universalisnotamereword,asRoscelintaught,norasermo,asAbelardheld,namelythe
wordasusedinthesentence,butthementalsubstituteforrealthings,andthetermofthe
reflectiveprocess.ForthisreasonOckhamhasbeencalleda"Terminist",todistinguish
himfromNominalistsandConceptualists.
Ockham'sattitudetowardstheestablishedorderintheChurchandtowardstherecognized
systemofphilosophyintheacademicworldofhisdaywasoneofprotest.Hehas,indeed,
beencalled"thefirstProtestant".Nevertheless,herecognizedinhispolemicalwritings
theauthorityoftheChurchinspiritualmatters,anddidnotdiminishthatauthorityinany
respect.Similarly,althoughherejectedtherationaldemonstrationofseveraltruthswhich
arefundamentalintheChristiansystemoftheology,heheldfirmlytothesametruthsas
mattersoffaith.HisefforttosimplifyScholasticismwasnodoubtwellintentioned,and
thefactthatsimplificationwasthefashioninthosedayswouldseemtoindicatethata
reformwasneeded.TheoverrefinedsubtletiesofdiscussionamongtheScholastics
themselves,themultiplicationof"formalities"bythefollowersofScotus,theundue
importanceattachedbysomeoftheThomiststotheirinterpretationoftheintentional
species,andtheintroductionoftheabstrusesystemofterminologywhichexceededthe
boundsofgoodtasteandmoderationalltheseindicatedthattheperiodofdecayof
Scholasticismhadsetin.Ontheotherhand,itmustbesaidthat,whilehispurposemay
havebeenthebest,andwhilehiseffortwasdirectedtowardscorrectinganabusethat
reallyexisted,Ockhamcarriedhisprocessofsimplificationtoofar,andsacrificedmuch
thatwasessentialinScholasticismwhiletryingtoridScholasticismoffaultswhichwere
incidental.

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Aboutthispage
APAcitation.Turner,W.(1912).WilliamofOckham.InTheCatholicEncyclopedia.
NewYork:RobertAppletonCompany.RetrievedJune6,2015fromNewAdvent:
http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/15636a.htm
MLAcitation.Turner,William."WilliamofOckham."TheCatholicEncyclopedia.Vol.
15.NewYork:RobertAppletonCompany,1912.6Jun.2015
<http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/15636a.htm>.
Transcription.ThisarticlewastranscribedforNewAdventbyRickMcCarty.
Ecclesiasticalapprobation.NihilObstat.October1,1912.RemyLafort,S.T.D.,Censor.
Imprimatur.+JohnCardinalFarley,ArchbishopofNewYork.
Contactinformation.TheeditorofNewAdventisKevinKnight.Myemailaddressis
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