Energy Conversion and Management 76 (2013) 11171124

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Energy Conversion and Management

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/enconman

Braking energy regeneration control of a fuel cell hybrid electric bus

Junzhi Zhang , Chen Lv, Mingzhe Qiu, Yutong Li, Dongsheng Sun
State Key Laboratory of Automotive Safety and Energy, Tsinghua University, China

a r t i c l e

i n f o

Article history:
Received 8 July 2013
Accepted 2 September 2013

Keywords:
Braking energy regeneration
Coordinated control strategy
Fuel cell hybrid electric bus
Fuel economy
Brake safety

a b s t r a c t
This paper presents the braking energy regeneration control of a fuel cell hybrid electric bus. The conguration of the regenerative braking system based on a pneumatic braking system was proposed. To recapture the braking energy and improve the fuel economy, a control strategy coordinating the regenerative
brake and the pneumatic brake was designed and applied in the FCHB. Brake safety was also guaranteed
by the control strategy when the bus encounters critical driving situations. Fuel economy tests were
carried out under China city bus typical driving cycle. And hardware-in-the-loop tests of the brake safety
of the FCHB under proposed control strategy were also accomplished. Test results indicate that the present approach provides an improvement in fuel economy of the fuel cell hybrid electric bus and guarantees the brake safety in the meantime.
2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
Due to the shortage of fossil oil sources, along with concerns
about environmental issues, alternative fuels and hybrid technologies are being more widely investigated and utilized. The fuel cell
vehicle (FCV) is favored in automotive applications due to its
characteristics of zero emission, high efciency and low noise
[13]. The research, development, demonstration and commercialization of the FCV are paid massive attention by governments and
automotive manufacturers. As one type of the FCV, fuel cell buses
(FCBs) are especially promising in China since buses are the most
widely used transportation tools. The rst FCB in China was developed in 2002, and three FCBs have been demonstrative serving in
Beijing since 2008.
Some disadvantages brought by the fuel cell technology, such as
the high price and the short lifetime, emerged in the commercialization proceedings. To overcome these shortages, hybrid technology has been widely applied in FCV to enhance the durability of
fuel cell system, and the fuel economy can be improved by utilizing
the braking energy regeneration technology, leading to the prolongation of the lifetime of the fuel cell system and reduction of the
hydrogen consumption [4]. Some FCVs based on hybrid technology
have been developed by ISE, MAN and Daimler [5], and similar
technology has been also applied in fuel cell hybrid electric bus
(FCHB) in China.
As one of the key technology in hybrid electried vehicles,
regenerative braking system (RBS) has been researched throughout

Corresponding author.
E-mail address: jzhzhang@mail.tsinghua.edu.cn (J. Zhang).
0196-8904/$ - see front matter 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2013.09.003

the history of power source hybridization. The RBS provides hybrid

electric vehicles with the capability to recapture kinetic energy
during braking processes. To realize it, the electric motor will be
controlled to operate as a generator converting the vehicles kinetic
energy into electricity [6]. The potential impacts of RBS on fuel
consumption of the vehicles can be remarkable. The percentage
of the consumed energy during deceleration procedure in the overall consumed energy under the three different driving cycles (ECE
in Europe, UDDC in USA and 1015 in Japan) can achieve 60.1%,
43.3% and 52.5% respectively [7]. The recovered energy stored in
the battery can be a signicant assistant of the energy used in
the future during driving processes.
To the best of our knowledge, the regenerative braking technology and FCHB have been discussed in many of the recent literatures respectively.
The RBS applied in hybrid electric passenger cars were widely
investigated [6,7] and has been already commercialized by automotive makers and component suppliers, such as Toyota, Honda
and Continental [8]. But regenerative braking systems equipped
in electried buses have been rarely seen. Especially for FCHB,
few regenerative braking systems with detailed control strategies
have been released.
On the other hand, researchers worldwide have been carried
out comprehensive studies on FCHB. The topologies of the power
system and control strategies of energy management for fuel cell
hybrid vehicles were investigated [914]. However, the existing
studies mainly focus on system design and energy management
for driving control. The regenerative brake is regarded as the integration with the mechanical brake and the emphasis stays on
power split rather than going further into the braking force distribution and the coordination between regenerative braking and

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J. Zhang et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 76 (2013) 11171124

Nomenclature
Flf
Flr
Fmot
Ftgt

pneumatic braking force of the front wheels (N)

pneumatic braking force of the rear wheels (N)
regenerative braking force (N)
brake demand of the driver (N)

Abbreviations
ABS
anti-lock braking system
AC
alternating current
BFD
braking force distribution
CAN
controller area network
DC
direct current
FC
fuel cell
FCB
fuel cell bus
FCHB
fuel cell hybrid electric bus

mechanical braking. The detailed braking control strategies for FCV

were rarely involved.
Since the performance of RBS is related with the conguration
of the vehicle, the efciency of the accessories, the energy management strategy and the driving cycles [15,16], to evaluate the
control effect of RBS comprehensively, the conguration of the
vehicle, control methods of the key components of RBS, the cooperation between RBS and mechanical brake system and road test
validation should be investigated.
The present authors have been dedicated to the research and
development of regenerative braking for a long period and made
some progress [8,1720]. Further study on regenerative braking
technology is ongoing for a fuel cell hybrid electric bus. The present
work deals mainly with RBS which is designed for a fuel cell hybrid
city bus. It proceeds as follows: Section 2 details the scheme of RBS
and the regenerative braking control strategy coordinating RBS and
pneumatic braking system (PBS). The fuel economy test results are
described and analyzed in Section 3. Section 4 discusses the
cooperation between regenerative braking and anti-lock braking
system (ABS) when the bus encounters emergency braking conditions. Section 5 gives the conclusions.
2. Regenerative braking system design
The regenerative braking system is realized based on the pneumatic braking system of the adopted city bus. With the two modulating valves being installing in the pneumatic brake lines, during the
regenerative braking control process, the brake pressures can be regulated by modulating valves which are driven by the brake controller. The coordinated regenerative braking control strategy is adopted
to distribute the overall brake demand between the regenerative
brake of the electric motor and the original pneumatic brake.
2.1. Conguration of FCHB
The conguration of the adopted FCHB is shown in Fig. 1. The
main parameters of the FCHB are listed in Table 1.
The hybrid powertrain conguration of the FCHB is illustrated
in Fig. 2. The FCHB is driven by an AC motor with the rated power
of 100 kW, the peak power of 180 kW and the maximum torque of
1121 Nm. The fuel cell stack, the battery and the AC motor are connected as shown in Fig. 2. The battery stack is a Ni-MH one. A direct
current to direct current (DC/DC) converter, which is used to control the output power of the fuel cell stack, has a rated power of
80 kW matching with the power of fuel cell stack. The fuel cell system is utilized as the main power source of the FCHB and the battery is used as the auxiliary power. As an electrochemical device,

FCV
FD
FL
FR
HIL
LHV
PBS
RBS
regen
RL
RR
TC

fuel cell vehicle

friction drag
front left
front right
hardware-in-the-loop
lower heating value
pneumatic brake system
regenerative braking system
regenerative
rear left
rear right
transmission consumption

Fig. 1. Conguration of the FCHB.

the fuel cell system converts the chemical energy into electrical energy directly to drive the vehicle. In the FCHB studied, two fuel cell
stacks, each with a rated power of 40 kW, are connected in parallel.

2.2. Scheme of RBS and coordinated regenerative braking control

strategy
As a key aspect of regenerative brake technology, the control
strategy determines the distribution between the regenerative
braking force generated by the electric motor and the mechanical
braking force generated by the PBS. In general, regenerative braking control strategies can be divided into the parallel type and
the coordinated type. The parallel strategy is relatively simple,
exerting the braking torque of the electric motor via transmission
on the wheels without modulating the frictional braking torque.
The correspondence between brake force and brake pedal stroke
of the parallel regenerative braking control strategy is illustrated
in Fig. 3. However, in the coordinated strategy, the regenerative
braking torque is exerted and the frictional braking torque is

Table 1
Key parameters of the FCHB.
Parameter

Value

Overall length/width/height (mm)

Occupant capacity (persons)
Maximum speed (km/h)
050 km/h acceleration time (s)
Grade ability (%)
Hydrogen consumption rate (kg/100 km)
Range (km)

11,980/2550/3400
70
P80
625
P20
68
P200

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1119

Fig. 2. Conguration of the hybrid electric powertrain of the FCHB.

Fig. 3. Parallel regenerative braking control strategy.

modulated simultaneously, targeting the need to give a certain

overall braking torque according to the stroke of the brake pedal.
Since the coordinated strategy can result in as much recovered
brake energy as possible in the precondition of brake safety, the
regenerative braking control strategy designed in this paper is
based on the coordinated type. The principle of the coordinated
regenerative braking control strategy can be explained as shown
in Eq. (1). The overall braking force of the regenerative brake and
the pneumatic brake should meet the brake demand of the driver.

F lf F lr F mot F tgt

where Flf is the pneumatic braking force of the front wheels, Flr is
pneumatic braking force of the rear wheels, Fmot is regenerative
braking force, Ftgt is the brake demand of the driver.

To describe the coordinated strategy clearly, the correspondence between the brake force and the brake pedal stroke, and
the braking force distribution (BFD) are both shown in Fig. 4. As
shown in the left plot, the regenerative braking force is always applied to its maximum extent based on the brake request of the driver and the power limit of the powertrain, to ensure a high
regeneration efciency of the braking energy. If the regenerative
braking force cannot meet the vehicles brake demand, the pneumatic braking force will applied to supplement the rest of the
brake request. The right plot of Fig. 4 shows the design of the
BFD between the front and the rear axle. The ideal BFD can be gured out based on vehicle dynamics and parameters of the bus. But
to make it easy to be realized, the BFD of a conventional bus is usually implemented as a xed proportion between the braking forces
of the front-axle and the rear-axle. Based on the original one, the
BFD for RBS is designed. To recover more braking energy, a slight
regenerative braking force will be exerted on rear axle during the
free travel of the brake pedal. Since the adopted bus is a rearwheel-drive one, to guarantee the vehicle stability during deceleration process, when friction brake is needed, the pneumatic brake
on front-axle will be applied rstly. If the vehicles braking demand
still cannot be met, the pneumatic brake on rear-axle will be exerted. The overall braking force of the regenerative brake and the
pneumatic brake will always keep consistent with the brake demand of the vehicle.
Fig. 5 shows the conguration of the regenerative braking system applied in FCHBs. When the vehicle brakes with regenerative
braking, the total brake force will be provided by the friction braking devices and the electric motor (or solely from the electric motor in small deceleration conditions). The brake system of the FCHB
is comprised of the existing PBS, the powertrain, the axles, the nal
drive, the electric motor with motor controller, and the energy

Fig. 4. Coordinated strategy of RBS.

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J. Zhang et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 76 (2013) 11171124

Fig. 5. Conguration scheme of RBS.

Fig. 6. Conguration of the modulating valve.

storage system, including the battery and ultra capacitors. The PBS
and the powertrain are the basis of the proposed regenerative
braking system.
As mentioned above, a coordinated regenerative braking control
strategy requires the real-time adjustment of the pneumatic braking force. To carry out the control strategy, two RBS modulating

Fig. 7. Hardware-in-the-loop test bench of the pneumatic brake system.

valves are required to be added in the conventional pneumatic

brake lines as shown in Fig. 5. The RBS modulating valves are pulse
width modulated by a brake controller, which detects the brake
pedal stroke by a position sensor and receives information from
the ABS controller and the motor controller via CAN bus.
The modulating valves adopted here are used formerly as pneumatic ABS modulating valves in buses, featuring fast response and
the capability of accurate adjustment of the pressure. Each valve
consists of two solenoid sub-valves as shown in Fig. 6. Valve 1 is
a normally opened valve, and valve 2 is a normally closed one. Under pulse width modulation control mode, the RBS modulating
valves can regulate the pneumatic pressure to be increased or
decreased.
To control the pneumatic braking force accurately, the brake
pressure variation based on the modulating state of the valve is
calibrated in the hardware-in-the-loop (HIL) test bench shown in

Fig. 8. Modulating results of the pressure in the brake line.

J. Zhang et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 76 (2013) 11171124

Fig. 7. The ABS module developed by WABCO, which is the same as

the one equipped in the FCHB, is applied in the HIL test bench. The
experimental results of the relationship between the pneumatic
pressure and the modulating time of the valve are shown in
Fig. 8. According to the experimental results, the actual pressure
keeps consistent with the target pressure very well.
Applying the calibrated data of the relationship between the
pneumatic pressure and valve modulating time in the control
strategy, the pneumatic pressure in the brake line can be regulated
by the electric control unit to follow the required pneumatic braking force, cooperating with the regenerative braking force without
any feedback pressure signals detected by pressure sensors. Thus,
the expensive pressure sensors are not necessary to be utilized in
the designed regenerative braking system, which can decrease
the development cost signicantly. So far the RBS applied in the
FCHB has been realized with convenient and inexpensive modications based on the conventional PBS.
3. Test and results analysis of fchb fuel economy
The fuel economy test is carried out in the test center of the
Ministry of Transport of the Peoples Republic of China. China city
bus typical driving cycle is selected as the test driving cycle to evaluate the fuel economy of the FCHB. Fig. 9 shows the vehicle test results with the proposed regenerative braking control strategy
under China city bus typical driving cycle. And to show the advantage of the coordinated regenerative braking control strategy
applied in the FCHB, vehicle tests with the parallel regenerative
braking control strategy and without regenerative braking are also
carried out respectively.
The test results are listed in Table 2. According to Table 2, compared to the vehicle without regenerative brake, the hydrogen consumption of the test FCHB can be reduced by 16.1% with the
utilization of the proposed coordinated regenerative braking control strategy. Moreover, the coordinated control strategy is more
advantageous than the parallel type, increasing the fuel economy
of the vehicle by 9%. The results demonstrate that the application
of the proposed coordinated regenerative braking control strategy
in the FCHB can save considerable energy and is one of the effective
ways to reduce hydrogen consumption under the precondition of
the same prototype bus, the same assemblies and the same driving
energy management strategy.
Being distinguished form the FCHB mentioned above, an upgraded version of FCHB which has been developed recently adopts
Li battery instead of Ni-MH battery. As a result of application of

Fig. 9. Vehicle test results under China city bus typical driving cycle.

1121

new type of the battery, the fuel economy has been improved
greatly. The comparison results are listed in Table 3.
According to the results of Table 3, the application of the Li battery results in a better fuel economy, improving the hydrogen consumption of the test bus by 11.5%. The energy loss of the battery
during charging and discharging processes can be regarded as the
main reason for the difference described above. The energy loss of
the Li battery is much lower than the Ni-MH battery. Considerable
energy can be saved when fuel cell system or RBS charge the battery,
and both of the two ways can decrease the consumption of hydrogen.
Fig. 10 shows the energy ow through the various components
of the FCHB during the road test based on China city bus typical
driving cycle. According to the gure, in the power bus, the overall
output energy of the fuel cell system is 54.2 MJ, in which 26.0 MJ of
the energy is delivered to the power bus for diving the electried
drive train, and the other 28.2 MJ is consumed as the energy loss.
Besides, the battery stack outputs 6.1 MJ of the energy to the
power bus during the test cycle. Among the overall energy in the
power bus supplied by the fuel cell system and the battery,
24.4 MJ is utilized to drive the electric motor and 7.7 MJ is consumed by accessories, including the dashboard and lights. During
the test cycle, 6.4 MJ of the energy is recaptured in the electried
drive train by the RBS, but only 4.4 MJ of the regenerated energy
is charged to the battery, mainly due to the efciency of the powertrain. Based on the test data, during the whole driving cycle, the
4.4 MJ of the regenerated braking energy takes up 13.7% of the
overall consumed energy provided by the fuel cell system and
the battery in the power bus.

4. Test and analysis of fchb brake safety

Since the RBS works cooperated with the based on original PBS,
to ensure that theres no negative effect on ABS under critical driving situations brought by the regenerative brake, the coordination
between the RBS and ABS should be studied. Two main concerns
are as follows:
(1) The electric motor connected to the rear axle increases the
equivalent inertia moment of the rear wheels, which may
affect the system response under ABS modulation.
(2) The introduction of the regenerative braking force may
affect the modulating performance of ABS during emergency
driving situations, resulting in the rear wheels being out of
control.
To solve the rst issue introduced above, experiments are carried out in HIL (hardware-in-the-loop) test bench. HIL test bench
is utilized to simulate the PBS of FCHB. To make clear the ABS control performance affected by the electric motor, four groups of
electric motor inertia moment and three groups of road surface
adhesion coefcient are researched in 12 different braking scenarios. The HIL test results are shown in Table 4.
Though the modulating period of ABS becomes longer with the
increase of the inertia moment of the electric motor, the average
deceleration changes little on the same kind of road. The wheels
never lock up during the braking processes. The results indicate
that conventional ABS can adapt to the RBS equipped with different
inertia moments of the electric motor without worsening the brake
safety. Actually the electric motor equipped on the FCHB owns an
inertia moment of 0.63 kg m2, which leads to a good performance
in the brake safety according to the HIL test results.
Besides, the cooperation between regenerative braking and ABS
should be considered to solve the second issue. The principle of
determining the transition between regenerative braking and
ABS is as follows: CAN signal from ABS controller and the signal

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J. Zhang et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 76 (2013) 11171124

Table 2
Fuel economy test results of the FCHB under China city bus typical driving cycle.
Control strategy

Regenerative energy (kJ)

Hydrogen consumption (kg/100 km)

Fuel economy improvement (%)

Without regen brake

Parallel regen braking strategy
Coordinated regen braking strategy

2200
5100

9.3
8.6
7.8

7.5
16.1

Table 3
Fuel economy test results based on two kinds of batteries.
Battery type

Hydrogen consumption (kg/100 km)

DC/DC output energy (kJ)

Battery energy loss (kJ)

Regenerative energy (kJ)

Ni-MH
Li

7.8
6.9

24,000
23,800

2500
600

5100
5400

Fig. 10. Energy ow of the FCHB during fuel economy test.

Table 4
HIL test results based on different motors and different surfaces.
Inertia moment (kg m2)

Equivalent moment of the inertia (kg m2)

Adhesion coefcient of surface

Average deceleration (m/s2)

ABS modulating period (s)

0
0.63
1.26
2.0
0
0.63
1.26
2.0
0
0.63
1.26
2.0

57.6
141.4
225.2
323.6
57.6
141.4
225.2
323.6
57.6
141.4
225.2
323.6

0.7
0.7
0.7
0.7
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.7 ? 0.3
0.7 ? 0.3
0.7 ? 0.3
0.7 ? 0.3

6.2
6.22
6.17
6.19
1.3
1.29
1.29
1.3

0.67
0.8
1
1.3
0.5
0.61
0.79
0.875

of brake pedal stroke are used to control the two braking systems.
The ABS active signal controls the modulation of pneumatic braking. This signal will be set high when:
(1) The brake pedal reaches 80% of its maximum position.
(2) The slip ratio of any wheel is higher than the threshold
value.
When each of the two conditions described above occurs, the
vehicle control unit will control the electric motor to remove the
regenerative braking torque at once and only the pneumatic

braking torque will be exerted. This can be realized by closing

the RBS modulating valves in the brake line until the ABS active
signal recovers to be inactive again. Therefore, the RBS will not affect the control performance of the ABS.
This decision is adopted mainly due to the following two factors: (1) ABS is now a mature technology which can be easily used
in different kinds of vehicles; (2) the electric motor is not suiTable
for the rapid and large-scale modulation of the brake intensity.
The experimental validation is also accomplished in test center
of the Ministry of Transport of China. The FCHB during the vehicle
test is shown in Fig. 11.

J. Zhang et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 76 (2013) 11171124

1123

Fig. 11. The FCHB during the test driving cycle.

Fig. 13. ABS test results on low adhesion road.

wheel speed of rear-right wheel of the FCHB. The RBS will only
affect the ABS control in the very beginning of the ABS modulating process. Once the regenerative braking torque of the electric
motor being decreased to zero, the ABS works as a conventional
one. The pneumatic brake takes over all of all the braking operation of the bus, leading to the ABS restricting the slip of the rear
wheels. And during the whole braking process, no wheel was
locked up.
All of the test results satisfy the national regulation of China
(Chinese GB/T 13594-2003 and Chinese GB 12676-1999). And
based on the test results described above, the RBS cooperates well
with ABS, guaranteeing the brake stability and ensuring the brake
safety of the vehicle, which also validates the feasibility and effectiveness of the proposed control strategy.
5. Conclusion
Fig. 12. Vehicle test results on low adhesion road.

The scenarios of the tests are set as: emergent braking procedures on road surface with low adhesion coefcient (the adhesion
coefcient is 0.15), high adhesion coefcient (the adhesion coefcient is 0.15) and the road with transition surface between the
two surfaces mentioned above.
Test results on the road with low adhesion coefcient surface
are shown in Fig. 12. During the test, the brake pedal is depressed
gradually until ABS module starts to work to control the wheel
speed, and under this condition, the pedal stroke is still lower
than 80%. In the beginning, brake force generated by the electric
motor is added gradually according to the pedal stroke, and the
pneumatic braking force is supplemented when it is needed. Once
the slip ration of a wheel reaches a high value, the ABS active signal is set as high. Vehicle control unit controls the RBS modulating valves to be closed immediately, and removes the
regenerative braking force of the electric motor quickly. At the
meantime, the pneumatic braking force controlled by ABS is
added to take over all the brake operation of the vehicle. From
then on ABS module starts to regulate the wheels speed until
the vehicle stops safely.
Fig. 13 shows the variations of the wheel speeds during the
test. The FL Wheel Speed stands for the wheel speed of frontleft wheel of the FCHB and RR Wheel Speed stands for the

The regenerative braking system has been designed and implemented in a fuel cell hybrid electric city bus. By adding only two
modulating valves to the layout of the conventional PBS, the conguration of the RBS is designed.
With the aim of high regeneration efciency, the coordinated
regenerative braking control strategy is proposed. According to
the vehicle test results carried out based on China city bus typical
driving cycle, the improvement of the fuel economy of the FCHB
enhanced by the proposed coordinated control strategy reaches
16% and 9% respectively, compared to bus without regenerative
brake and with the parallel regenerative braking control strategy.
The comparison of the fuel economy between different kinds of
battery under the proposed regenerative braking control strategy
is also accomplished. The test results show that the application
of the Li battery is advantageous over the Ni-MH battery, improving the hydrogen consumption by 11.5%.
Brake safety of the vehicle under the proposed control strategy
is also studied in the HIL tests. The test results indicate that the RBS
will not affect the control performance of the ABS, guaranteeing
the vehicles brake safety and verifying the feasibility and effectiveness of the proposed regenerative braking control strategy.
The FCHB equipped with the proposed RBS has been demonstrative serving in Beijing. Based on the present technology, the
RBS can sufciently recapture the potential braking energy of the
vehicle and decrease the hydrogen consumption, improving the
driving range of the FCHB signicantly.

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J. Zhang et al. / Energy Conversion and Management 76 (2013) 11171124

Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank the Natural Science Foundation
of China [Project no. 51075225] and National High Tech Project
863 of China [Project no. 2011AA11A243] for funding this work.
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