Presented at the 13th Annual Electric power Conference & Exhibition

May 10-12, 2011, Rosemont, IL Donald Stephens Convention Center

Lessons Learned When Designing Chutes and Hoppers Handling Synthetic Gypsum
Over the past few years flue gas desulfurization gypsum, synthetic gypsum, or FDG gypsum, has earned
the reputation for being an extremely difficult bulk material to convey through hoppers, bins, and chutes.
An increasing number of coal fired power plants are installing flue gas desulfurization scrubbers and
experiencing the problems associated with handling this bulk material such as plugged chutes and hoppers,
excessive material build-up, spillage and no flow conditions.
Synthetic gypsum is a bulk material capable of developing negative angles of repose. Synthetic gypsum can
be characterized as an extremely cohesive bulk material that adheres to vertical surfaces, building-up on
small ledges, box corners, shallow angle plate work and minor surface protrusions or interruptions.

As a result of its cohesive strength synthetic gypsum can plug-off transfer points and chutes within seconds,
making the transfer of this bulk material extremely challenging. The geometric construction of transfer
chutes and hoppers that convey synthetic gypsum is an important element of effective design. Geometries
that incorporate shallow wall angles, box corners, valley angles, and high friction surface materials are
major contributors to issues such as plugging, bridging, arching and loss of flow.
This paper will investigate lessons learned in achieving smooth reliable bulk material flow in chutes and
hoppers handling synthetic gypsum. Topics discussed will include: the evaluation of the bulk material using
flow property data, the incorporation of construction geometry using proper sloping wall angles and
discharge outlet openings and the use of low coefficient lining materials. Recent case histories and
reworked installations will be discussed to back-up and support these claims.
Bulk solids flowing in bins and chutes can exhibit several flow problems, the most common of which is
called no flow. A no flow condition occurs when flow is initiated and an arch or a rathole forms. Arches
and ratholes are a function of a material's cohesive strength. If a material is cohesive, it can form a stable
arch and/or rathole that will stop material flow. Sometimes extreme methods are used to encourage flow,
such as sledge hammers, air lances, air cannons, vibrators, and fluidization.
There are two types of flow patterns that can develop in a bin or hopper; funnel flow and mass flow. Funnel
flow occurs when some of the material in your bin moves while the rest remains stationary. The walls of
the hopper section of your bin are not steep or smooth enough to overcome the friction that develops
between them and your bulk solid. Funnel flow can result in decreased live or usable capacity, stagnant
material that can cake, segregation problems and/or in fact, can cause structural failure. The first material
that enters your bin is usually the last material to discharge. Mass flow occurs when all the material in your

bin is in motion whenever you discharge product. The hopper walls are steep and smooth enough to
overcome the friction that develops between the wall surface and bulk solid, ensuring mass flow. Because
all the material is moving, stable ratholes cannot form, making mass flow suitable for cohesive solids,
powders, materials that degrade or spoil, and solids that segregate.
Solids flow property tests identify how a solid will flow and allow you to design a reliable bin to store and
discharge your product. Knowledge of a material's flow properties is essential to the development of proper
bin and feeder design. Dr. Andrew W. Jenike developed test equipment and procedures considered today to
be the standard in the industry for evaluating solids flow properties. Direct shear tests are run to measure a
material's friction and cohesive properties. This allows the designer to determine hopper geometry from
laboratory tests and theoretical analysis instead of trial and error. There is a science to bulk solids handling.
Wall friction is important when characterizing the flow properties of a bulk solid. Wall friction values are
expressed as a wall friction angle or coefficient of sliding friction. The lower the coefficient of sliding
friction, the less steep the hopper walls need to be to ensure mass flow. The coefficient of sliding friction
can be measured by sliding a sample of material across a stationary wall surface. For a given bulk material
and wall surface the wall friction angle is not necessarily a constant but often varies with normal pressure,
usually decreasing as normal pressure increases. Once wall friction angles are measured, hopper angles for
mass flow are determined using Dr. Jenikes Bulletin 123.
Another important bin design consideration is to determine the opening size required to prevent arching.
Particles can bond together physically, chemically, or electrically causing a flow obstruction to occur. This
tendency to bond is termed a material's cohesive strength. Many bulk solids, when poured from a container
will flow like a liquid. Under these conditions, such a material has no cohesive strength. Some solids have
significant cohesive strength, such that when it is squeezed in your hand, it will exhibit enough strength to
retain the shape of your hand. In order to characterize this bonding tendency, the solid's flow function must
be determined. This is generated in a testing laboratory by measuring the cohesive strength of the bulk
material as a function of consolidation pressure applied to it. Such strength is directly related to the ability
of the bulk material to form arches and ratholes in bins and hoppers.
Synthetic gypsum is a very difficult flowing material. Typically it contains moisture contents that range
between 5% and 25%. This wide variation in moisture content can affect material flow properties
tremendously. The following test results for synthetic gypsum are not intended for general use in bin
designs as test results will vary widely between test samples and it is incorrect to assume that all gypsum is
the same:
Note: synthetic gypsum does not flow well in a funnel flow bin; therefore mass flow is required to ensure
reliable flow.
Moisture, %

Time at Rest, hr

8.6%

0
24

24.8%

0
24

Conical Opening to
Prevent Arching, ft
7.1
13.4
8.0
23.6

Slot Opening to
Prevent Arching, ft
3.4
6.1
4.1
12.2

Wall friction tests (to determine hopper slopes for mass flow) were run on TIVAR 88 an abrasion
resistant polymer liner manufactured by Quadrant EPP USA, Inc. and carbon steel. The values listed below
are given as an example of how to use the results of the testing, such that, if a conical or wedge shaped
hopper was fabricated from or lined with the tested wall materials, had a circular opening 4 in diameter or
a slot 2 wide by 6 long, the following hopper angles would be required for mass flow:
Note, the opening sizes were selected for use as an example only and do not necessarily indicate the
required opening to prevent arching. Please refer to the appropriate table for opening size requirements, and
then determine the required hopper angle for mass flow.

Recommended Conical
Hopper Angle for
Mass Flow,

Recommended Wedge
Hopper Angle for
Mass Flow,

Moisture

Wall Surface

(deg. from vertical)

(deg. from vertical)

8.6%

TIVAR 88
Carbon steel

16
2

27
14

24.8%

TIVAR 88
Carbon steel

10
6

22
17

As shown above, synthetic gypsum is a difficult flowing bulk material that requires sloping wall surfaces
that are steep and smooth enough to initiate flow. Low surface friction polymer liners such as TIVAR 88
can significantly reduce sloping wall angles of hoppers, bins, and chutes when storing or conveying
synthetic gypsum. For more than 40 years, TIVAR 88 has been one of the most commonly used
engineered materials for industrial purposes. Its sliding wear and impact resistance, low coefficient of
friction, high chemical resistance and relatively low cost are just some of the most popular properties of
this material. With the ability to add certain additives to enhance specific performance properties,
Quadrants TIVAR 88 family of products represents one of the most versatile materials for use in the
bulk material handling industry. New formulations of TIVAR 88 are now available for handling synthetic
gypsum such as TIVAR 88-2 with silicone oil for enhanced lubricity and TIVAR 88-2 ESD
(electrostatic dissipative) for reducing static build-up between the bulk material and liner surfaces.
In addition to additive enhancements, new procedures for fabricating and installing TIVAR 88 materials
have been developed. The geometric shapes of hoppers and chutes often require that liner installations be
completed using individual pieces of material and attached with multiple fasteners. Many refer to this
installation approach as conventional. Although an effective installation method with many bulk
materials, it has a disruptive effect when handling synthetic gypsum creating unwanted seams, ledges, and
contact points. The cohesive properties of synthetic gypsum enable this bulk material to stick and build-up
on the slightest inconsistencies in the interior surface finish of hoppers, bins and chutes, causing the rapid
build-up thus creating flow stoppages and plugging issues.
Employing the use of 3D-modeling is another tool that may be used to determine proper geometric design
for handling synthetic. Couple this technology with state of the art manufacturing techniques, the
conventional multiple piece liner installation can now be replaced with pre-fabricated liner kits.

These kits could be manufactured using welded over-sized panels or could be assembled as a one-piece
seamless drop-in liner. Incorporating these new concepts and techniques, various shapes and sizes may now
be installed using minimal fasteners which enable the liner to expand and contract freely without

obstruction. As a result, complex transition geometries can now be lined in less than one-half the time
verses the conventional installation. One-piece drop-in liners, for example, can be installed very quickly
using only a limited number of fasteners and in some cases no fasteners at all. Along with reduced
installation downtime, wear life typically increases 25 % and difficulties associated with expansion and
contraction are eliminated.
To support the premises of the previous discussions a series of application case histories has been included.
Each of these application case histories involves power companies handling synthetic gypsum and focuses
on the solutions and techniques that were employed to effectively handle this bulk material.
A power company located in eastern United States installed new wet scrubbers on their (2) 780 MW
generating units in 1996. The fuel burned at the facility is bituminous coal and the synthetic gypsum
produced from the desulfurization process is either transferred to a local wall board plant for further
processing or loaded out for disposal.
The design of the wet scrubber system uses belt filter presses to extract moisture from desulfurization
slurry producing synthetic gypsum with a targeted moisture content of 8%. The material is then conveyed
via belt conveyors to a transfer house where the gypsum is either directed to a large storage building or to a
barge loading dock. An emergency reclaim hopper was incorporated into the storage building design as an
emergency by-pass in the event the traveling reclaimer became inoperative. A front end loader could then
be used to continue the load-out process.
The design capacity of emergency reclaim hopper is approximately 5 tons, measuring 14 length x 6
width at the top and tapering down to an 11 length x 2 6 width outlet. The corresponding sloping wall
angles of the hopper are 75 and 74 respectfully, with valley angles of 62 degrees. The vertical height of
the hopper is 5 4.
To assure reliable discharge of synthetic gypsum the design engineering firm for the material handling
system specified that the sloping wall surfaces of the emergency reclaim hopper to be lined with TIVAR
88-2 ESD material. The TIVAR 88-2 ESD liner was fabricated as a one-piece drop-in unit minimizing
the number of seams and attachment fasteners. This installation approach also reduced the on site labor
hours required to complete the lining project. The TIVAR 88-2 anti-static properties eliminated any static
build-up that might impede the discharge of the gypsum material. Tapered score cuts were incorporated in
each of the four corners of the liner. The score cuts permitted the liner to bend and transform what were
square corners into a rounded or radius corners. This design also helps to promote better release and flow of
the synthetic gypsum. Steel leading edge protectors were incorporated around the top perimeter of the
TIVAR 88-2 ESD drop-in to keep the gypsum from migrating behind the liner.
After a number of years of operation, the liner has proven to be a positive benefit in handling the synthetic
gypsum that was produced by the plant. Synthetic gypsum flows reliably through the reclaim hopper
whenever it is called into service.
In a continuing effort to meet Clean Air Act compliance standards, a upper Midwest Power Plant installed
flue gas desulfurization scrubbers on (2) of the plants 820 MW generating units. Both of the FGD scrubbers
were wet exhaust extraction systems, which used crushed limestone spray slurries to remove S02,
producing synthetic gypsum as a by-product, with an average moisture content of between 7 and 10%.
Consistent and reliable conveying of the de-watered synthetic gypsum presented challenges for plant
operations.
Issues with the conveying of the synthetic gypsum began during the commissioning process of the first
scrubber at several of the belt conveyor transition points. Synthetic gypsum coming from belt filter presses
would begin to build-up in the box corners of pyramidal shape transfer housings and then rapidly migrate
out into the primary flow stream. At a conveying rate of 75 tons per hour the synthetic gypsum would plug
off transfer points within 30 to 45 minutes after start up, tripping plugged chute switches and shutting down
the entire de-watering system. The problems with plugged chutes resulted even though the carbon steel
transfer chutes where lined with TIVAR 88, a low coefficient of friction lining material.

An analysis of the FGD filter cake plugging problem was undertaken by plant engineers, system designers
and material suppliers. A series of trail experiments were initiated to eliminate the problems which
included; the installation of mechanical vibrators, improved balancing of the filter press de-water process to
lower the inherent moisture content of the FGD filter cake and finally the installation of different
formulations of TIVAR liners and improved geometric design configurations.
After an extensive series of trials the final solution for the FGD filter cake plugging problems was a hybrid
system involving the installation of pre-fabricated TIVAR 88-2 inserts, with radius corners and the
addition of mechanical vibrators to the exterior of the transfer housings. Results from this modification
have proven successful and synthetic gypsum flows more reliably through the transfer housings.
Based on the difficulties associated with handling synthetic gypsum various design considerations should
be taken into consideration. Traditional hoppers and chutes which utilize sharp 90corners, flat plate
surface geometry and complex transitions for changing material flow should be avoided. Sloping wall
angles and outlet sizes in hoppers, bins and chutes should be determined using measured flow property
data. The use of 3D modeling can help develop structures and interior liners that are free of sharp corners,
hard transitions and impact points. Walls of hoppers, bins and chutes should be sufficiently steep and
smooth with rounded corners and zero surface protrusions such as plugged chute switches, access doors,
attachment fasteners, weld splatter or paint over spray. When designing directional changes into conveying
system it is important to maintain the velocity of the synthetic gyspum by creating smooth transitions using
curved and radius surfaces with minimal seams and low coefficient of friction liners. The lessons learned
from handling synthetic gypsum boil down to the fact this is an extremely difficult handling bulk material
due to its composition and moisture content, which requires a tailored design approach for hoppers, bins,
and chutes to ensure unrestricted bulk material flow.