Figures of Film

Metaphor, Metonymy, and Repetition1

Eduardo Urios-Aparisi
Abstract
This article is a comparative analysis of Sofia Coppolas films Lost in Translation (2003) and Isabel
Coixets Map of the Sounds of Tokyo (2009). I argue that repetition is an important resource to metaphorical
mappings as a result of the cinematic style of both directors. The repeated presence of food items and
activities and also of Tokyo as a city are transformed from metonymic elements of the films background
to personifications or sources mapped on the concept of Self (Lakoff and Johnson Philosophy) or of
national identity. In these films Coppola and Coixet attempt to break away from the Hollywood cinema
style by using all the resources to represent and communicate emotional states onto their audiences.
Rsum
Le prsent article est une analyse comparative des films Lost in Translation (Sofia Coppola, 2003) et
Map of the Sounds of Tokyo (Isabel Coixet, 2009). Lauteur prtend que la rptition est une source
importante de mtaphores lie au style cinmatographique des deux cinastes. La prsence rpte
de nourriture, dactivits et de Tokyo en tant que ville est transforme dlments mtonymiques de
larrire-plan du film en personnifications ou sources mtaphoriques pour le concept de Soi (Lakoff et
Johnson Philosophy) ou didentit nationale. Dans ces films Coppola et Coixet essaient de rompre avec
le style hollywoodien en utilisant toutes les ressources pour reprsenter et communiquer des motions.

Keywords
Metaphor, metonymy, repetition, film, Tokyo, food, Self, Sofia Coppola, Isabel Coixet

Sofia Coppolas Lost in Translation (hereafter Lost 2003) and Isabel Coixets Map of the Sounds of
Tokyo (hereafter Map 2009) are two films that share formal and thematic similarities. This article is a
comparative analysis of both films with the purpose to identify the motivations underlying the aesthetic
choices of both directors. I concentrate on three figures: metaphor, metonymy and repetition and how
they are meaning creation devices that interact. In recent years, applications of Conceptual Metaphor
Theory (Lakoff and Johnson Metaphors; Philosophy) have contributed to the explanation of how the
discursive instantiations of these conceptual processes are dynamic and negotiable (see Forceville
and Urios-Aparisi). Film metaphor involves the presence and integration of multiple modes and their
conventions and resources. For this reason, a comparative approach is in order since figurative meanings
1. I would like to thank the comments and suggestions by Maarten Cognarts, Peter Kravanja and an anonymous
reader. All remaining errors are my own.
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surface in a synthesis of modes and intertextual references.

Lost deals with the relationship between a famous Hollywood actor, Bob Harris (Bill Murray)
and a young woman who has recently finished college, Charlotte (Scarlett Johansson). Both are in Tokyo
for different reasons, but, as they spend more time together, they start being more comfortable with each
other, and eventually they fall in love. Nevertheless, the relationship never goes beyond friendship.
Throughout the film, we learn that Bob is going through family and financial problems. Charlottes
relationship with her husband John (Giovanni Ribisi) is not good either.
Maps protagonist is Ryu (Rikko Kikuchi). She works in Tokyos fish market at night and is a
contract killer during the day. David (Sergi Lpez) is a Catalan man who owns a wine shop in Tokyo.
Nagara-san (Takeo Nakahara), the CEO of a company, and Ishida-san (Hideo Sakaki), Nagara-sans
assistant, want Ryu to kill David in order to avenge Nagara-Sans daughter and Davids girlfriends
Midori. Nagara-san views him as the main reason for his daughters suicide. Instead, Ryu and David
start a passionate relationship.

Both Sofia Coppola and Isabel Coixet are auteurs and are more interested in representing
emotional states and existential questions according to King (Indiewood and Lost) and Cerrato. They try
to distance themselves from Hollywood style cinema and King (Indiewood) identifies Coppola as part
of what he calls indiewood, a new independent cinema associated to branches of larger production
companies, and alternative ways of funding and promoting their work.

They also use alternative filming techniques like the hand-held camera or ways to break down
linear narratives as well as lengthening some scenes beyond the average (see King Lost 105). Coppola
and Coixet establish the storyline and dialogue in relation with the space and search for alternative ways
to express emotional states rather than a single narrative structure that surrounds an event or an action.

Research on metaphor in film has focused on the classification of metaphor types. Identifying
the presence or absence of the domains that interact is a complex matter due to the overarching role of
narrative in cinema but several classifications have been made regarding the kinds of metaphors found in
cinema and how they are signaled (see Whittock; Forceville Pictorial Metaphor, Identification; Rohdin).
Integrating those classifications with Gradys primary metaphors, Ortiz has shown how complex the
classification of metaphor is bearing in mind multimodal or monomodal data. Nonetheless, the features
of film metaphors are clearly different from metaphors in other multimodal texts like printed advertising.
Fiction films have considerably more freedom to use different techniques to cue metaphorical mappings
between items in the film, and the mappings between the domains can be increased as long as it does not
affect the plausibility of the storyline (Forceville Course).

Image schemas have been shown to determine narrative structures (Forceville Journey; Varda;
Forceville and Jeulink) or film scenes by using basic structures of body-mind interaction to map abstract
meanings based on our own bodies while the audience can mentally replicate the actions shown on
the screen via the activation of mirror neurons (Cognarts and Kravanja Embodied Visual Meaning).
Kappelhoff and Mller insist on the importance of the felt experience that triggers the emergence of
metaphorical meanings. Such a felt experience is based on the bodily movement through the texture

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quality of space and even [i]n cases when we do not move our bodies, we feel our emotions as if
something within us has moved as Gibbs (246) suggests.

Metaphor scenarios have been identified as complex cognitive structures of terror films
(Eggertsson and Forceville) or of reconceptualizations of the body (Urios-Aparisi). This corresponds
with the importance of movement and narrative in cinema (see, e.g., Deleuze; Whittock 23). Cinematic
movement can transfer any item in the multimodal text of the film to being part of the narrative structure
and its characters, the generic tradition and the artistic intention of the director and his or her team.

Repetition bridges the dynamic dimensions of film and how images, words, music, sounds,
characters and other elements of the mise-en-scne interact with the narrative dimension. It has been
studied in different perspectives such as discourse analysis (Tannen) and literature (Toolan) and its roles
in evaluating and creating cohesion. Clifton proposed that repetition in film should be called rhetorical
or significant repetition (55) and should classify repetitions in various types according to the number
of repetitions, the variation between the instances of repetition or the functions of the repetition. He
highlights the importance of the context, the slight changes in the image that can alter the appearance
of the repeated item. Repetition can have several functions such as humour, creation of patterns of
experience or a narrative element of structure. Clifton explains this with a series of examples (66-67).

Repetition in cinema can be neither identical nor tautological. The image on the screen can be
characterized by two features: its concreteness and also its specificity. As Forceville (Framework) has
shown, metaphors in visual data can produce the metaphor concrete a is concrete b. Such a metaphor
contradicts the general assumption that metaphors are generally formed by a mapping between a concrete
and an abstract domain although Cognarts and Kravanja (Keaton) suggest that in Buster Keatons film
this kind of metaphor precedes the revelation of the type abstract is concrete (143). The feature
specificity is related to the metonymy generic for specific (Radden and Kvecses).2 So when we see a
character or an object with its most concrete particular features, it represents the whole genre of objects
or characters within that species. In cinema, this metonymy motivates the choice of objects in the miseen-scne, casting, actions, and locations, among others.

A comparative analysis of the films by Coppola and Coixet shows how repetition occurs in
different layers of the multimodal text: items of the mise-en-scne, activities, landscapes and cityscapes.
Those elements of the mise-en-scne are part of the film scenario as well as the action and the source
domain in metaphorical mappings (see Forceville Metaphor colin). The repetition contributes to the
establishment of metonymical and metaphorical mappings, integrating the narrative and emotive sides
of film rhetoric as a dynamic reality. In this case, I focus on how both films share a common topic that
is conceptualized in different ways: the concept of self or identity. According to Lakoff and Johnson
(Philosophy 297), the metaphoric conceptualizations of inner life can be either a person, an object,
or a location (298). They distinguish a five level hierarchical structure.
At the highest level, there is the general Subject-Self metaphor, which conceptualizes a person as
2. generic is specific was first considered a metaphor (Lakoff and Johnson Metaphors) or a blend (Sullivan and
Sweetser).
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bifurcated. The exact nature of this bifurcation is specified more precisely one level down, where
there are five specific instances of the metaphor. These five special cases of the basic Subject-Self
metaphor are grounded in four types of everyday experience: (1) manipulating objects, (2) being
located in space, (3) entering into social relations, and (4) empathic projection conceptually
projecting yourself onto someone else, as when a child imitates a parent. The fifth special case
comes from the Folk Theory of Essences: Each person is more than one Self, but only one of those
Selves is compatible with that Essence. This is called the real or true Self. (Lakoff and Johnson
Philosophy 269)
The choices of source domain are determined by the storylines, but subtle changes in the particular
features of those source domains create different conceptualizations of the self. The films dramatize the
interaction between those conceptualizations as I show in the following sections.
1. Food and eating activities
The repetition of simple elements throughout a film can help identify a feature, a role, the social or
cultural status of the character. Those objects can be deemed eloquent similarly as Pearson calls some
gestures of silent cinema eloquent because theater in early cinema influenced in the performance of
highly conventionalized gestures. These objects are generally embedded in the activities in which they
are used. Food and activities connected to food are found both in Lost and in Map.
In Lost, Bob is shown having breakfast in one of the first scenes after his arrival in Tokyo
(0:18:54). Charlotte and Bob eat at a Sushi restaurant (0:58:42). In this case, Charlotte shows Bob that
her toe is swollen and he jokes about something that would be served in the sushi restaurant. Finally, Bob
and Charlotte meet in the restaurant with Japanese barbecue (1:24:24) just after Charlotte learns Bob has
had an affair with the jazz singer (Catherine Lambert) in the hotel bar. In these cases, the food item is
chosen according to the humoristic intention, the state of confusion or disappointment of the characters.
But besides this narrative purpose, food appears as a major topic in the dialogues. Kelly (Anne Harris),
an obviously anorexic actress, denies to Charlottes husband, John (Giovanni Ribisi), that she is anorexic
because I eat so much junk food, you wouldnt believe it. Id have a heart attack. Then, she goes on to
tell the story about her father being anorexic.

Eating well is metonymically associated with the general wellbeing and having a good life by
Bob in the phone conversation with his wife Lydia (Nancy Steiner) as is transcribed on Imdb (http://
www.imdb.com/character/ch0003806/):
Lydia Harris: [over the phone] Is this a bad time?
Bob: [pauses] No, its always a good time.
Lydia Harris: The burgundy carpet is out of stock: its going to take twelve weeks. Did you like
any of the other colors?
Bob: Whatever you like - Im just completely lost.
Lydia Harris: Its just carpet.
Bob: Thats not what Im talking about.
Lydia Harris: What are you talking about?
Bob: I dont know. I just want to... get healthy. I would like to start taking better care of myself.
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Id like to start eating healthier - I dont want all that pasta. I would like to start eating like
Japanese food.
Lydia Harris: [icily] Well, why dont you just stay there and you can have it every day?
Bob: [biting his tongue] How are the kids doing?
Eating well and physical wellbeing are metonymically related, but in the folk view of the body, eating
well is mostly associated with psychological wellbeing. The humour of this dialogue is partly due to
the conflict between both. Obviously Bob is talking about being psychologically well while Lydia,
sarcastic and overwhelmed by her role as a homemaker, understands the metonymical meaning and
recommends that he should stay in Japan if he wants to eat well (and feel well).
In Map food appears repeatedly in the preparation of fish in the Tokyo market, but also when the
characters appear eating sushi, Ramen noodle soup, gyoza, and strawberry mochi (a kind of Japanese
sweet). At the beginning of the film, a slow camera moves from the head down over the body of a naked
woman on a table strategically covered with sushi while business men eat off her body. The traditionally
minded Nagara-san shows his disgust towards this rather obscure custom called Nyotaimore while his
practical assistant Ishida-san sees it as a practical way of doing business with Westerners. When Nagarasan learns his daughter has just died he starts a sushi-fight which the other participants happily join.
Fish appears again in the fish market of Tokyo where Ryu works at night. She is shown carrying big
pieces of tuna, cutting the frozen tuna with a machine into small pieces, but eating sushi does not appear
anymore.

Having noodle soup appears repeatedly throughout, as many interactions are done around eating
especially at the Museum of Noodle, an eatery with all kinds of noodle restaurants (see about it Tamotsu
226-227). At the same time, it is also connected to the cultural acceptance of slurping the noodles. The
narrator explains how he fell for Ryu when he heard her slurping noodles and how it reminded him of
how his mother did it. David and Ryu meet in one of those restaurants and he points out how he cannot
get used to eating the noodles the Japanese way: slurping and without getting the soup all over his shirt.
Davids learning how to slurp noodles is parallel to Ryus learning to appreciate wine. While slurping
becomes a symptomatic element of the changes David experiences / undergoes due to his life in Tokyo
and his relationships to Midori and Ryu.

Food is highlighted as part of eating habits and of physical and psychological wellbeing.
Although there is a metonymic relation with wellbeing, foods connection to socio-cultural identity is
metaphorical. The metaphor self as food is related to the conventional views of the Self, as described
by Lakoff and Jonhson (Philosophy) above. Self is experienced through the food items (manipulating
objects), places (being located in space) and habits (entering into social relations).
Self as food is also related to geo-political and historical features which are stereotypically presented
with the Essence or the true Self (Lakoff and Johnson Philosophy 298). On the one hand, food
and eating represent the basic human activities, especially connected to the world of the senses in
contrast with and in opposition to the world of the mind and intellect. On the other hand, food also has
a contradictory meaning. In the context of Japan and Japanese culture, the presence of this topic in both
films can be linked to Western preconceptions of the East. At the same time, research (Ohnuki-Tierney;
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Goldstein-Gidoni; Hiroko) has shown how food is part identity and self in modern Japan. Popular dishes
and Japanese food habits have also been parodied in Tampopo (1985) (see further Ashkenazi). Therefore,
self as food is connected to the national identity as the foreign characters struggle to understand the
local Japanese culture.
2. The city: Labyrinth and Self
In both films we see several scenes of the female protagonists looking outside the window of their rooms.
The cityscape reflects the emotional state of the characters. In Lost Tokyo vistas from the hotel room are
found as either the backdrop of the characters while doing something like showering (00:07:19), having
breakfast (0:07:00) or bathing (00: 30:40) or as the cityscape the characters watch from their room. In the
first vista of Tokyo, Charlotte is in the position she appears later on: sitting on the windowsill looking at
the lights of the city below when she cannot sleep because of the jetlag. In the second one, the following
morning the curtain opens up and the city illuminated by the morning light wakes Charlotte up. Third,
after her husband leaves in a hurry, she sits in the same place and contemplates the city holding her
legs. The bright morning light is now grey and cloudy. The fourth is another view from the same room
towards some buildings illuminated by the afternoon sun. This is an emotional scene in which Charlotte
is talking to her sister expressing her anguish and the sister is unable to reciprocate. The shots focus on
the verticality of the buildings and the narrow streets. A little later, the city is grey and dark and the sun
lights up the clouds. This transition sequence connects with Bobs arrival at the hotel after the first day
of recordings. Finally, the last view from the hotel room of the city is very similar to the first morning
light that wakes up Charlotte above, but in this case it is Bob who is watching the skyline with a similar
golden light. The end of the film is a series of POV shots of the city as it gets dark from a taxi. Bob is
leaving towards the airport. The film starts with Bobs arrival and finishes when he leaves.

The relationship between space and the viewers emotional state would suggest that we need to
invoke our knowledge of the plot and of the characters in order to understand the motivation of these
scenes. Therefore, when Charlotte looks at the city in the first and second instance described above, she
shows a mixture of awe and curiosity. The third time she is observing and exploring the space shrouded
in a grey light. The fourth time she is watching the verticality and the sense of vertigo. The view of the
city in the last scene shows Bob in profile standing and looking away. As we know that he is leaving
soon; the city, the profile shot and the standing position suggest a mixture of contemplation and sadness.

As both Bob and Charlotte are transformed by their experience together in the city, the city is
also a locus of their emotional union and therefore the circularity in the scenes. Tokyo is also the locus
of what can be called the honey-moon experience. In the modern wedding ritual, the honeymoon is a
rite of passage by which the newlyweds leave the place of origin in order to create a new family unit by
associating themselves to a new space. Following the metaphor self is location mentioned above (see
Lakoff and Johnson Philosophy 274), modern society seems to have ritualized the creation of a new self
from single to married status, to a new family unit by travelling to a new location for a short period of
time. Charlotte expresses it clearly in 1:08:53 in the following dialogue:

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Charlotte: Why do they switch the rs and the ls here?

Bob: Uh, for yuks. You know? Just to mix it up. They have to amuse themselves, cause were
not making them laugh.
Charlotte: Lets never come here again because it will never be as much fun.
Bob: Whatever you say. Youre the boss.
Coixets choices of vistas of Tokyo are markedly different. She purposefully chooses nonstandard views
of the city. For instance, the film starts by showing the city from a boat down the Sumida River. The city
from the boats perspective does not appear again. Only towards the end an image shows a boat sailing
in the middle of the Tokyo Bay. Although there is no obvious link, the time of day and the kind of tour
boat could be related to the one in the first scene of the film.

This scene is perhaps one of the most compelling of the film. We see a general shot of Ryu
standing facing Tokyos skyline on a windy night. As the camera moves closer she is crying holding the
gun she was supposed to kill David with. By a quick series of cuts, the camera shows the dark waters and
the single boat just mentioned. Together with the aerial night views of the city shown in two transition
shots, this view from the other side of the bay with water in the foreground completes the views of the
city from all perspectives.

Other repetitions of city views are meant to define Ryus life as one of monotony and emptiness.
Her loneliness is contrasted against the other lonely train passengers or the couple holding each other
after the first encounter in the love hotel with David. At the same time, the film shows unusual and
original urban performances like the man-plant in the subway hall or the flash mob performance after
exiting the station in a park surrounded by elevated highway as she walks towards her apartment. When
she goes into her house, she looks at the driving lesson area. These parking classes are short stories of
frustration and anger, a mechanic repetition by those who are learning how to drive as Ryu is learning
how to love.

These repeated changing views of the city suggest the metaphor city as animate character.
It conveys the metonymical relation of the human being with her environment while at the same time
it transfers human emotions onto inanimate beings and becomes the lasting representation of their
emotional experience. Tokyo as a person therefore is a dynamic mapping that is transformed by the
cinematographers viewpoints and artistic intentions. Both directors use the metaphor city as a person
and stress the continuous movement of people and cars through the crowded streets, avenues, or in the
subway. At the same time, Coppola and Coixet redefine the metaphor of self as location.
In Lost the city is a place of transition and continuous movement walled by skyscrapers. The
sequences from the hotel room contribute to the metaphorical meaning of the city as a labyrinth observed
from above and the sense of awe and curiosity. The views of the city follow the characters point of
views: from the hotel, through the city streets, and particularly one night of bar hopping, singing karaoke
at a party. Therefore, we can see the city from a variety of takes and perspectives, but the main path is
circular. Bob and Charlotte leave the hotel room and return to the same room or to the hotel bar at some
point of the night. In this circular movement, the city is a self-contained space.

The repetition in Map distinguishes several spaces in the city: the narrow streets, low buildings

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where the narrator lives, Ryus modern apartment building and Davids shop, the kitschy love hotel and
karaoke bar and the restaurants like the Ramen Museum or small eateries, and finally the skyscrapers
and luxurious apartments and offices of Nagara-san, Midori and Ishida-san. This dichotomy follows the
two generic traditions of Japanese cinema that are conflated in this film: the Yakuza films (e.g., Akira
Kurosawas Drunken Angel (1948) or Takeshi Kitanos Sonatine (1993)) and Yoshihiro Ozus Tokyo
Story (1953). The former genre depicts a male-centered society of violence and power. This traditional
Japan is opposed by the cinema of Ozu, whose protagonists are old people or children or women. Tokyo
in Map is a person with memories divided between contrasting worlds, and in which the characters
struggle to deal with loneliness and pain. The duality between traditional and modern Japan is related to
the spatial division and the opposition between these characters. Repetition via contrast and opposition is
therefore central in plot development, characterization and especially contrasting ideological positions.
3. Conclusions
In Table 1 I summarize how the items repeatedly presented throughout both films are transformed
to construe them as metonymical and metaphorical rather than just literal items participating in the
storyline. As I have shown, both meanings coexist in the film because of the nature of the image. The
objects integrate a triple dimension: literal realities of the mise-en-scne, source for metaphorical
mappings onto more abstract realities, and also they can be the target of other realities more specific
within the metonymy generic for specific mentioned above. This metaphor motivates the interpretation
of a specific for the prototypical category element.
Item
Food

L i t e r a l Metonymies
meanings
Food items
Eating habits

Eating places

City

Streets

Spaces
living
Characters

Story backdrop

for

Participants in Protagonists
the story

Metaphorical meanings in Metaphors associated

Lost and Map
Wellness is eating well
Physical wellbeing

Psychological wellbeing
Person Location Self

Self as food

National Identity
Characters emotions

(National) identity as food

Self as Location

Labyrinth

City as labyrinth

Characters emotions and City as person

Person
Self-Subject metaphor
Self as location
Self as social relations
Self as empathic projection

Table 1: Repetitions and metaphorical and metonymic mappings.

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In the first case, food is literally the product consumed, but from the beginning in both films food is
related to the cuisine and the eating habits of the Japanese culture the characters are involved with. This
symbolic feature is connected through the relationship between location and self, but together with this
metaphorical meaning, food is associated to psychological wellbeing and also to the person as a whole.
Especially in the culture in the United States in Lost, features such as social attractiveness and success
are associated to psychological and physical wellbeing.

The city is a spatial distribution of buildings, streets and people that serves mostly as a backdrop
to the action. As both films dramatize the encounter of foreigners with Tokyo, the figurative meanings
associated to this reality are a combination of the characters experience when interacting with this
space and also of their own emotions. Tokyo is conceptualized as a labyrinth as the characters appear
to wander in its streets in a series of scenes in which the only goal is going back to where they started.
The city is a closed container of streets and skyscrapers. It can be a frightening and confusing place
of wandering, a model of order and of chaos, depending on the observers knowledge and perspective.
Otherwise, as the characters relationships unravel and the space changes to be a honeymoon experience
associated to their situation of bliss and harmony, even if temporary. The motivating feature in both is its
exotic character connected to the cultural and spatial distance to the place of origin where the subject is
located.

The city is endowed with memories, with a multidimensional reality as it feels and reacts to the
characters emotions and at the same time tells its own stories. This is particularly important in the case of
Map. The view from Ryus window adds a silent story to the storyline of the film. Every time Ryu looks
out a story occurs that echoes what happens in her life. Both Lost and Map are in some way indebted
to the Japanese cinema of Ozu, which coincides with the stereotype of a peaceful and meditative world
view of the Japanese religion and individual (see King Lost 135).

Besides animating the city, repetition contributes to the exploration of the emotional development
of the characters, the changes in the self as the characters relate to a foreign reality. The ultimate view
of these films is that real interaction needs to surpass the metaphor self as location by focusing on the
social self and finally they realize that they can interact and are able to understand the world that is
beyond their own comfort zone because of the metaphor self as empathic projection.

Among these characters, Ryu is the only one who does not need to figure it out (the expression
used by Bob when Charlotte told him about her writing anxieties and her professional future). This
rational view of the world determines the actions of at least David, Bob and Charlotte. Their search
for a real self is thwarted by the sense of loss because they may be looking in the wrong places. For
instance, Bobs need for translation and clarity while doing the photo shot contrasts with the moment of
laughing together with the Japanese person in the waiting room of the hospital. David is unable to see
how much the experience in Japan has changed him until he moves back to Barcelona and opens a shop
of Japanese products.

Repetition can work as a form of character motivation and attach new meanings to prototypical
representations of the culture and society that are part of the semantic script of the spectator. Consequently,
the items that inhabit that world acquire new life and are active in creating the emotional state of the film.
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Also, they are a poetic device that affords compelling storytelling and nuances in characterization and
creativity in cinema.
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Eduardo Urios-Aparisi is Associate Professor in the Literatures, Cultures and Languages Department at
the University of Connecticut. He specializes in applications of cognitive linguistics to film, advertising
and art, and humor studies. His main publications are Prosody and Humor (co-edited with S. Attardo and
M. Wagner, 2013), Puro Teatro: Metfora y espacio en el cine de Pedro Almodvar (2010), Multimodal
Metaphor (co-edited with Ch. Forceville, 2009), and articles in cinema and humor in the Foreign
Language Classroom and in Television.
E-mail: eduardo.urios-aparisi@uconn.edu

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