Module 7 (Maintenance Practices) Sub Module 7.5 (Engineering Drawings, Diagrams & Standards) Edited PDF

PIA TRAINING CENTRE (PTC)
Module 7 - MAINTENANCE PRACTICES
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Sub Module 7.5 - Engineering Drawings, Diagrams & Standards
MODULE 7
Sub Module 7.5
ENGINEERING DRAWINGS, DIAGRAMS & STANDARDS
ISO 9001:2008 Certified

PTC/CM/B1.1 Basic/M7/02
7.5
For Training Purpose Only

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Contents
ENGINEERING DRAWING, DIAGRAMS AND STANDARDS -- 1
TYPES OF DRAWINGS AND DIAGRAMS -------------------------- 3
SYMBOLS ------------------------------------------------------------------13
DIMENSIONS -------------------------------------------------------------29
TOLERANCES ------------------------------------------------------------36
PROJECTIONS -----------------------------------------------------------40
IDENTIFYING TITLE BLOCK INFORMATION --------------------50
MICROFILM, MICROFICHE AND COMPUTERISED
PRESENTATIONS -------------------------------------------------------53
AERONAUTICAL STANDARDS --------------------------------------55
AIR TRANSPORT ASSOCIATION SPECIFICATION NO. 100 55
INTERNATIONAL ORGANISATION FOR STANDARDISATION
(ISO) -------------------------------------------------------------------------58
BRITISH STANDARDS (BS) -------------------------------------------58
MILITARY STANDARD (MS) ------------------------------------------58
AIR FORCE AND NAVY (AN) -----------------------------------------58
NATIONAL AEROSPACE STANDARD (NAS) --------------------58
WIRING DIAGRAMS AND SCHEMETIC DIAGRAMS -----------59
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAMS ----------------------------------------------61
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ENGINEERING DRAWING, DIAGRAMS AND STANDARDS

The purpose of an engineering drawing is to record and convey
the designers requirements to other, interested, people. The
drawing must, therefore, include sufficient information to enable
production planning, manufacture, assembly, testing, inspection
and subsequent maintenance of the particular component or
assembly to be achieved in the most cost-effective manner.
So that there can be no misrepresentation of drawings, it is
essential that the person preparing the drawing and those using
the drawing should have a knowledge of the methods of
presentation symbols, terms, and abbreviations, used in the
preparation of an engineering drawing.
This section is not intended as a standard for the production of
drawings, but should be regarded as a general guide to drawing
procedures and interpretation.
The reference for drawing practices, in the United Kingdom, is
that produced by the British Standards Institution, (BSI), in their
publication BS 308. There are other standards available, which
supplement BS 308, such as the Society of British Aerospace
Companies (SBAC) Technical Specification (TS) 88.
Companies, that have design approval from the CAA or the
JAA, can modify these standards to suit their own particular
drawing requirements. They must, however, publish their
preferred standards of drawing, to obtain the approval of their
National Aviation Authority (NAA).
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There are four main types of drawings recommended by the

BSI, although there are many other types and sub-types of
drawing used at different times.
The main drawing types are the:
Single-part: unique parts or assemblies
Collective: parts or assemblies of similar shape, but of

different dimensions
Combined: complete assemblies, including all individual

parts on a single drawing
Constructional: assembly drawing with sufficient

dimensional and other information to describe the
component parts of a construction.
A complete set of drawings for an aircraft, and any documents

or specifications referenced on the drawings, represents a
complete record of the information required to manufacture and
assemble that aircraft. The manner, in which a set of aircraft
drawings is arranged, enables any particular component,
material, dimension, procedure or operation to be traced.

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Drawings of individual parts contain all the information

necessary to enable the parts to be manufactured to design
requirements. The material specification, dimensions and
tolerances, machining details and surface finish, and any other
treatment required, would all be specified on the drawings.
The sequence of assembly is given where appropriate but the

information contained in single-part or sub-assembly drawings
is not repeated. Parts, as such, are referenced but, in the case
of sub-assemblies, only the sub-assembly will be referenced
and not its individual parts.
Sub-Assembly drawings are issued to convey specific

information on the assembly of component parts. When the
method of assembly involves welding or a similar process, the
drawing will include details of any heat treatment or anticorrosive treatment that may be necessary. Sub-assembly
drawings are sometimes issued in connection with spares
provisioning and also in instances where assembly would be
difficult without special tools, jigs or techniques.
There are a number of other drawings, which are used to

display alternative views of a component, or to show where that
component appears in a system, while pictorial diagrams or
charts, are used, to show complete or part representations of
functional systems such as hydraulic and electrical systems.
Installation drawings are issued to clarify the details of external

dimensions and attitudes of components, locations,
adjustments, clearances, settings, connections, adapters and
locking methods between components and assemblies.
A main General Arrangement (GA) drawing of the aircraft and
GA drawings of main assemblies and systems are also
provided. These drawings usually contain overall profile
particulars only, with locations and references of the associated
main assembly and installation drawings. They also provide a
guide to the identification of drawing groups used by the
particular design organisation.
Main Assembly drawings may also contain profile particulars
only, but will include the information required for the assembly
of individual parts of sub-assemblies.
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TYPES OF DRAWINGS AND DIAGRAMS

As an aircraft technician there are several types of drawings
and graphic representations you must become familiar with.
Each type of drawing is designed to transmit a certain piece of
information. The most common type of drawing you will use is
the working drawing. There are three classes of working
drawings, the detail drawing, the assembly drawing, and the
installation drawing. Other types of drawings include sectional
drawings, exploded view drawings, block diagrams, logic
flowcharts, electrical wiring diagrams, pictorial diagrams, and
schematic diagrams. Each type of drawing is designed to
transmit a certain type of information.

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Detail drawings
When an aircraft is designed, a detail drawing is made for every
part. A detail drawing supplies all the information required to
construct a part, including all dimensions, materials, and type of
finish.
When needed, an enlarged section or a drawing of another view
is added to make the drawing easier to understand.
When a detail drawing is made, it is carefully and accurately
drawn to scale and dimensioned. However, when a print is
made, the copy may be made to shrink or stretch. Therefore, a
measurement should never be scaled from a print. Instead, all
measurements should be derived from the dimensions given.
An example on detail drawing is given in fig. (a)

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Assembly drawings
After individual parts are fabricated, they are assembled into
various subassemblies with the aid of an assembly drawing. An
assembly drawing depicts the relationship between two or more
parts.
These drawings reference individual parts by their part number
and specify the type and number of fasteners needed to join
them. Because there are detail drawings for each component,
no materials are specified and only those dimensions needed to
assemble the parts are included.
An assembly drawing is shown in figure (a)

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Installation drawings
All sub-assemblies are brought together in an installation
drawing. This type of drawing shows the general arrangement
or position of parts with respect to an aircraft and provides the
information needed to install them. Like the assembly drawing,
the bill of material on an installation drawing lists the fasteners
needed, as well as any instructions required for the installation.
In the figure (a) below dimensions are given only for those
adjustments necessary for the part to function. Often, portions
of an aircraft that are not involved in the installation are shown
using phantom lines. This helps you locate where a part is
installed. Parts that are used only as a reference are often
identified by their part name and the word "Ref" is noted beside
it.

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Sectional drawings
Complete sections
When it is necessary to show the internal construction or shape

of a part a sectional drawing is used. There are four types of
sectional drawings, the revolved section, the removed section,
the complete section, and the half section.
Complex assemblies like cable connectors are typically shown

incomplete sections. With this type of view, it is easy to identify
individual parts within a complex assembly. This feature is
further enhanced through the proper use of section lines.
Revolved section
In the example given in figure (c), the use of a sectional view to

illustrate a cable connector makes it easy to identify the units
separate parts.
In a revolved section, a portion of an object is turned or revolved

to show a different view. In the example shown in figure (a), the
I-beam has been broken in two places with long break lines and
the cross section is shown between the breaks.
When only the shape of a part needs to be shown, it is shown
with either a revolved or removed section. The revolved section
drawing is often used to illustrate simple items with no interior
parts. Basically, a revolved section drawing shows how a part is
sectioned and revolved to illustrate it from a different view.
Removed section
Like the revolved section drawing, the removed section drawing
is also used to illustrate simple objects. However, to do this, the
object is cut by a cutting plane line and a section is removed to
illustrate another angle.
Half-sections
When it is helpful to see the outside of a part as well as the
inside, half-sections are made. With this type of drawing,
typically the upper half of a drawing shows the internal
construction of the assembly, while the lower half shows the
entire assembly as it appears from the outside.
The half-sectional view allows the inside and outside of a part to
be seen at the same time.
An example for the half sections is given in figure (d)
In a removed section drawing, the object illustrated is cut and a

section is removed to illustrate another angle. An example of a
removed section is given in figure (b)
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Exploded- view drawing

Illustrated parts drawings often make use of exploded view
drawings to show every part in an assembly. In this type of
drawing, all parts are typically in their relative positions and
expanded outward. Both its physical appearance and its
reference number, which is used on the parts list, identify each
part.
An exploded view of a cable end assembly is given in figure (a).
Block diagrams
With electrical systems and electronic components becoming
more complex, procedures and graphical aids have been
developed to aid you in locating problems. One such aid is the
block diagram. A block diagram consists of individual blocks
that represent several components such as a printed circuit
board or some other type of replaceable module. Since most of
the maintenance needed on complex systems consists of
identifying a malfunctioning subassembly and replacing it, block
diagrams greatly enhance this process. When using a block
diagram you must trace the problem to the module that receives
the correct input, but does not produce the required output.
Once this is done, the module is removed as a whole and
replaced.
An example of such Block Diagram is given in figure (b).

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Logic flowcharts
Logic flowcharts are another aid used in troubleshooting. A logic
flowchart represents the mechanical, electrical, or electronic
action of a system without expressing construction or
engineering information. When using a logic flowchart, go to the
oblong START symbol and follow the arrows through the logical
testing sequence.
As it can be seen on the example in figure (c) below, on most
flow charts rectangular boxes explain a procedure, while
diamonds identify questions that require a specific answer. In
other words, after using a rectangular box to test something,
you must match the existing condition before proceeding to the
next course of action. Each diamond has one input and at least
two outputs. In order to assure that all discrepancies are
addressed, you must follow a flow chart to the oblong END.OF
TEST symbol.
In addition to identifying the probable cause of a problem, many
flow charts specify a fix for each circumstance. By using this
information, troubleshooting time is reduced to a minimum.
Figure C: Flow charts

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SYMBOLS
Material symbols
Purpose
The American National Standards Institute (ANSI) has

standardized certain symbols used to represent materials in
section view. It must be clearly understood that, when used,
these symbols are intended only for general information and not
to indicate specific types of material. For example, in the upperleft-hand corner of figure (a) below there is a symbol for iron,
including cast iron and malleable iron, but it does not tell the
specific type of iron to be used. Such information appears
elsewhere on each print.
A symbol is a visible sign used instead of a word or words to

represent ideas, operations, quantities, qualities, relations, or
positions. It may be an emblem, such as a picture of a lion to
represent courage or an owl to represent wisdom.
Symbols and abbreviations are used extensively in place of long
explanatory notes on drawings and prints. A few of these
symbols and abbreviations are common to every trade, whereas
special trades have special symbols and abbreviations of their
own.
The print reader must determine what metal is intended in each

case.
These material symbols are not generally used on section views
unless it is desired to call special attention to section parts;
hence their appearance is an invitation to observe the drawing
closely.
Colors are used more and more in modern illustrations in
manuals and other textbooks or reference material, especially to
show the flow of fluids or the movement of parts. However, the
blueprinting process does not permit the use of color on
ordinary drawings.

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Finish and surface-roughness symbols

The surface of a metal part is "finished" by performing a
machining, coating, or hand-finishing operation on that surface.
Scraping, file-fitting, reaming, lathe turning, shaping, and
grinding are some finishing operations.
On many existing blueprints the symbol for a finished surface is
a letter V with its point touching the surface to be finished,
drawn with an angle of 60 between the sides of the V.
Numbers may be placed within the angle formed by the sides of
the V to represent the type of finish to be applied to that
particular surface. When a part is to be finished on all surfaces,
the abbreviation F.A.O. is sometimes used to represent "finish
all over."
Many manufacturers in the aerospace industry have adopted
the root-mean-square (rms) micro-inch system of surfaceroughness designation. This system has been standardized by
the National Aerospace Standards Committee in Specification
NAS30 and is also set forth in MIL-STD-10A. All new drawings
of machined castings, machined forgings, and other machined
parts will use this method of specifying surface finished. Surface
roughness is a term used to designate recurrent or random
irregularities that may be considered as being superimposed
upon a plane or wavy surface. On smooth-machined" surfaces,
these irregularities generally have a maximum crest-to-crest
distance of not greater than 0.010 in. and height that may vary
from 0.000001 to 0.00005 in.

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Waviness" should not be confused with roughness, as the crest

distances are much greater, generally running from 0.04 to 1.00
in and the height as much as several thousandths of an inch.
The need for a simple control of the surface quality of a
machined part by means of production drawings has long been
apparent. Dimension tolerances as well as process notes such
as "rough machine, " "smooth machine Finish", "grind", and
"polish limit the surface characteristics in a general way but are
not sufficiently specific to describe the desired result.
By means of the rms system of surface-roughness designation,
it becomes possible for the engineering department of any
company to specify precisely the degree of finish required and
for the shop to produce the specified finish without resorting to
judgment. The rms average is a unit of measurement of surface
roughness and is expressed in micro-inches. The micro-inch is
one-millionth (0.000001) of an inch. The rms average is chiefly
affected by the highest and lowest deviations from a mean
surface and is a mathematical indication of average surface
roughness.
Figure (a) below symbolizes roughness numbering for surfacefinish. The roughness number must always be on the left side of
the long leg close to the horizontal bar as indicated in the figure
(a). Figure (b) shows a straightened wavy profile with cuts due
to machining.

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The NAS Committee has selected a series of preferred

roughness numbers that cover the range of aircraft
requirements. These numbers are 2, 5, 10, 20, 40, 100, 250,
and 500. They indicate maximum allowable or acceptable
roughness of the surface on which they are specified in rms
micro-inches. Figure (a) below shows some of the roughness
numbers.
Rms 500. This is a very rough, low-grade machine surface
resulting from heavy cuts and coarse feeds in milling, turning,
shaping, and boring, as well as from rough filing and rough disk
grinding. This is also the natural finish of some forgings and
sand castings.
The extremely smooth finishes are indicated by rms 10, 5 & 2.
Honing, lapping, micro-hone, polishing, or buffing produce these
finishes.
Root-mean-square 10 and the finer finishes may have either a
dull or bright appearance, depending upon the method used to
produce them. The surface appearance must not be considered
in judging quality, but the degree of smoothness must be
determined by "feel" or roughness-measuring instruments.
Lay of a machined surface may be defined, for the purpose of
this discussion, as the direction of tool marks or the grain of the
surface roughness. Waviness and tool lay designations also
covered in the National Aerospace standards Committee
Specification NAS30.

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Process and identification markings

Drawings will often call for identification markings on parts, and
will indicate both the position of the markings and the method of
application, e.g. rubber stamp. In addition, it is sometimes
necessary to mark the component to show that a particular
process has been carried out, and this will also be specified on
the drawing. Symbols are normally used for this purpose, and
some of the more common ones are shown in figure below.
Some Design Organizations may use different symbols or code
letters, which should be obtained from the Drawing Office
Handbook, or similar publication, produced by the organization
concerned. Some of the commonly used markings are given
below.

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Abbreviations
The use of abbreviations is not encouraged in the aerospace
industry except where a saving of space is necessary. Use of
capital letters is preferred on drawings and generally restricts
the use of small (lowercase) letters to reports, manuals and
other technical publications, where they are used along with
capital letters.
The period (.) is used after an abbreviation only when the
abbreviation spells an English word. For example ADD. for
additional, and AIL. for aileron are used with periods because
the words add and ail are common English words. In any case
of doubt about the use of an abbreviation, the work or words
should be given in full. Each company standardizes its
abbreviations in accordance with MIL-STD-12, a military
specification for government drawings. An example list of
abbreviations & symbols are shown in table (a) below

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/Fine

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Drawing practices
Types of lines
Before you can properly interpret drawings, you must first
become familiar with the types of lines used to illustrate various
concepts. Different line widths, arrowheads, and alternating
breaks in lines all identify specific things.
In order to display information contained in a drawing, lines with
different appearances are needed. Lines can be in the form of a
solid line, a dashed line, or a combination of the two.
Furthermore, several drawings use three line widths or
intensities, thin, medium, and thick. Figure (a) shows lines of
different types and the following list describes the properties of
lines used on aircraft drawings.
Visible lines on outlines are used to illustrate a visible part. A
visible line consists of a medium-weight solid line and is the
most common type of line used on most drawings.
Hidden lines indicate invisible edges or contours. Hidden lines
consist of a dashed line of medium weight.
Centerlines are made up of alternating long and short dashes
and are used to show the middle of a symmetrical part. In the
case of a hole, the exact center is marked by the intersection of
two short dashes.

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Extension lines are light lines that extend from the point where a
measurement is made. These lines do not actually touch the
visible lines of an object, but are approximately 1/16 inch from a
part's edge.
Dimension lines are light lines that are broken in the center so a
dimension can be inserted. Typically, dimension lines have an
arrowhead placed at each end and touch an extension line. This
shows the exact location from which the dimension is made. All
dimensions are placed so that they read from left to right.
The dimension of an angle is indicated by placing the degree of
the angle in its arc. Circular part dimensions are always given in
terms of the circle diameter and are usually marked with the
letter "D" or the abbreviation "DIA." The dimension of an arc is
given in terms of its radius and is marked with the letter R
following the dimension.
Cutting-plane lines consist of medium or heavy alternating long
dashes and two short dashes with an arrowhead at each end. A
cutting-plane line is used to indicate the plane in which a
sectional view of an object is taken. The arrowheads show the
direction in which the view is seen and have letters to identify
the section shown.
Phantom lines are light lines made of alternating long dashes
and two short dashes. These lines indicate the presence of
another part and are included for reference or to indicate a
part's alternate position. For example, a movable part is
illustrated by solid lines in one position, and by phantom lines
for its alternate position.
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Short break lines are used across small dimensions to show

that a part continues. Break lines are medium weight lines that
are often drawn freehand.
Long break lines are used across a large part and consist of a
light line with a series of irregular breaks or zigzags. Long break
lines usually extend beyond the solid lines indicating the edges
of the part.
Leader lines are light lines with arrowheads that extend from a
note, number, or information box to a part. To minimize
confusion, leader lines should never cross a dimension line, an
extension line, or another leader line.
Section lines are used to show differences in types of materials
or exposed surfaces. Although different section lines can
illustrate various materials, if the materials used are listed in the
bill of materials, the symbol for cast iron is frequently used to
represent all metals

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Lettering
The most important consideration for an aircraft drawing is that
it accurately portrays information. Therefore, lettering is often
used to help identify some items. For legibility and speed, all
lettering is done freehand, using single-stroke Gothic uppercase letters.
For ease of reading, single-stroke Gothic letters are used on
most aircraft drawings.
When it comes to placing letters on a diagram it is common
practice to draw very light guidelines and to space letters so
there is approximately the same distance between them for
uniformity. Appearance is what makes the lettering attractive
and easy to read. Words should be separated by the amount of
space required for the letter "I" with space on each side of it.
Fractions are always made with a horizontal division line and
numbers should be two thirds as high as whole numbers.
The letters on a drawing are normally in a range of inch to as
large as one inch high and may be drawn vertically or on a
slant. Slanted letters make an angle of 68 from the horizontal.
Since all notes, dimensions, material specifications, etc., are

read from the bottom of a drawing, all lettering and numbering
should be made in horizontal lines with the letters and figures
upright as viewed from the bottom of the drawing. This makes it
unnecessary for the person using the drawing to turn it at an
angle or sideways in order to read it easily.
The lettering pencil should be of a hardness that will make a
solid, black line on the drawing paper; the point of the pencil
should be reasonably sharp but should have a slightly rounded
point. This is necessary so that the pencil will not cut through
the paper and so that the line will be of the proper width.
The spacing of letters and words is important so that each word
and figure will be clear and distinct from the others. The letters
in each word should be close together with a uniform amount of
white paper between each letter
Proper and improper character spacing are shown in figure (b)
Figure (a) below shows standard lettering and the directions for
making each stroke. Straight portions of lettering are drawn with
one stroke from top to bottom or from left to right. Curved
portions may be made with a clockwise or counterclockwise
stroke, depending upon to which direction will produce best
results.

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DIMENSIONS
Working drawings must indicate all the necessary dimensions in
a way most convenient for the workman. The size of the object
or its separate parts is usually indicated in drawings by means
of dimension lines, complete with figures showing the actual
measurement irrespective of the scale. Dimension lines are
made with fine continuous lines, so as to contrast with the
heavier outline of the drawing. They are drawn parallel to the
sections whose length they indicate and are terminated by
carefully made arrowheads at the ends of the dimension line.
Dimension figures must be written clearly and neatly to avoid
confusion and possible errors. They should be written above
and parallel to the dimension line and as close to its center as
possible. An example is given in figure (a)
The figures may also be inserted in a gap in the dimension line.
If a view has a break, however, the dimension line must be
drawn without a gap.
On the other hand, the outlines, axial, center and extension

lines must not be used as dimension lines. Arrowheads
terminating the dimension lines must just touch the
corresponding outlines, or centerlines, or extension lines. The
size of arrowheads depends on the thickness of visible outlines
and must be one and the same for all dimension lines of a given
drawing. Extension lines must extend 2 to 5 mm beyond the
ends of the arrowheads. When dimensioning very narrow
spaces do as shown in figure (b). As is seen from the figure (b),
if there is no room for arrowheads at the ends of dimension
lines, arrange in a continuous chain, draw a leader line and
place the dimension next.
On half-sectioned views with an axis of symmetry it is
permissible to dimension as in figure (c). In this case the
dimension line must extend somewhat beyond the axis of
symmetry.
Each dimension in a drawing must be given only once; duplicate

dimensions should be avoided.
Dimension lines are preferably (but not obligatory) drawn
outside the drawing outlines. Avoid intersection of extension
and dimension lines. When a series of parallel dimension lines
are in close proximity to one another, the dimensions should be
staggered. Dimension lines must not be the continuation of
outlines, axial, center or extension lines.
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For a circle the diameter is the only essential dimension. The

diameter should always be given for a circle, since this is the
dimension the workman will use. The correct method of placing
dimension lines and numerals for diameters is shown in figure
(a).
When dimensioning a number of equi-spaced similar elements
of a machine part, say, holes proceed as in figure (a) (usually
only one hole is dimensioned and the number of holes
indicated). It should be noted that for circular and angular
dimensioning, centerlines could be used as reference. Also note
that radius can also be used for arcs and circular dimensions.
Figure (b) illustrates dimensioning circular arcs, while Figure (c)
shows how spherical surfaces are dimensioned.
Fig (C) Dimensioning Spherical Surfaces

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Where the center of an arc cannot conveniently be shown in its

correct position, and yet needs to be located, one of the
methods illustrated in figure (a) may be used. The portion of the
dimension line, which touches the arc, should be in line with the
true center.
Figure (b) and (c) show the recommended practice for placing
angular dimensions.
Where space limitations do not permit giving a separate line for
each dimension, the dimensions may be placed in one line as
shown in fig. (c). in this method, called progressive (or
consecutive) dimensioning, there is only one arrow for each
dimension, thus indicating that each dimension goes back to the
original base line.
Fig. (a) Dimensioning Where The Center of Arrow is not visible

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A curved line composed of circular arcs should preferably be

dimensioned by radii as in figure (a). or by ordinates as in figure
(b). Ordinates method should only be used if the radii method is
impracticable. Where the ordinates method is used, the
ordinates should be close enough to reduce possible deviations
of curves to reasonable amounts. The co-ordinates may be
rectangular or polar.

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TOLERANCES
A tolerance dimension defines limits of size of a feature, and
also has bearing on the geometrical form of the feature.
Where the work piece is defined by limits of size only, accuracy
of form may be achieved as a result of the inherent accuracy of
the process used. In theory, the maximum material limit of size
(i.e. the high limit of size of an external feature or the low limit of
size of an internal feature) defines a maximum limit of perfect
form for the relevant surfaces. In other words, if an individual
feature is everywhere in its material limit of size, it should be
perfect in form. If the individual feature is not on its maximum
material size, errors of form are permissible provided no part of
the finished surfaces crosses maximum material limit of perfect
form and the feature is everywhere in accordance with its
specified limits of size. Figure (a) shows the drawing
specifications and figure (b) shows diagrammatically typical
extreme errors of form.
A tolerance of size, when specified alone, affects a degree of

control of form, but in some circumstances dimensions and
tolerances of size, however, well applied, and would not impose
the desired control. If a different degree of control of form is
required form tolerances should be specified in accordance with
these standards. Such form tolerances then take precedence
over the form control implied by the size tolerance.
Drawings prepared for widespread quantity production at home

or abroad, or for subcontracting in workshops of widely varying
equipment and experience, may be quoted as particular case in
which the most complete and explicit tolerance is necessary.
This demands that the information given on the drawing be so
complete in dimensional and geometrical requirements that the
part may be made, and inspected, to suit the full requirements
of the designer.

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Geometrical tolerancing
Geometrical Tolerance is the maximum permissible overall
variation of form or position of a feature. It defines the size and
shape of a tolerance zone within which the surface or median
plane or axis of the feature to lie. The zone within which the
feature is required to be contained is called Tolerance zone.
The diagram composed of the constructional dimensions, which
serve to establish the true geometrical relationships between
the positional features in one group, is called Geometrical
Reference Frame Figure (a) shows the details of the Tolerance
Zone and Geometrical Tolerance Frame.
Unless otherwise specified, a geometrical tolerance applies to
the whole length or surface of the feature. The requirement
given in figure (a) is such that the centers of the 4 circles may
be at the intersections of the geometric reference frame and
each center should lie within a circle of 0.02 diameter tolerance
zone. The geometric reference frame is a geometrically perfect
square of side 40 mm.
The geometrical tolerance is indicated in a rectangular frame,
which is divided into compartments as shown in figure (a). The
symbol for the characteristic [see table (a)] being tolerance is
shown in the left hand compartment. The tolerance value (total
value) in the units used for linear dimensions is shown in the
second compartment from the left. In cases where datum or
datum system is to be identified, a third compartment can be
used. The height of this tolerance frame should not more than 7
mm.
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PROJECTIONS
Several methods are employed in representing threedimensional, solid objects on the flat surface of a sheet of paper
(or of other materials, used in producing engineering drawings).
The two common methods, used to depict components, in
drawings, are by:
Pictorial Projections
Orthographic Projections.

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Pictorial projections
Pictorial Projections provide a three-dimensional, single image
of the object, as if it were being viewed, in perspective, by eye
(in a similar manner to a painting or a photograph).
The main types of pictorial projections (refer to Fig. 1) may be
considered as the Perspective Projection, Oblique Projection
and Isometric Projection.
Plan
A Parallel Perspective Projection is when one of the principal

faces is parallel to the picture plane.
Front
Whilst perspective and oblique projections are not normally,

used in aircraft engineering drawings, they may sometimes, be
used in Maintenance or Overhaul manuals, to provide initial
images of uncomplicated components or to portray a general
view of a constructional assembly.
Isometric projections are the types mostly used for sketches
and for the majority of images in Maintenance and many other
manuals, used in aircraft servicing.
Vanishing Point
Side
Parallel Perspective Projection

Plan
Plan
Side
Side
Front
Front
45 or 30
30
30
Oblique
Isometric
Pictorial Projections
Fig. 1
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Orthographic projections
Orthographic Projections are the types mainly used in the
production of aircraft (and most other) engineering drawings of
components and structures. They are drawn as if the viewer is
infinitely remote from the object and rays (or projectors) lead out
from the object so that the projection lines of opposite sides
appear to be parallel.
This method of projection provides a two-dimensional view of
only one surface of the object. This means it must have multiple
views (usually three, but there can be as many as six) of the
relevant surfaces (drawn on three mutually perpendicular
planes) to provide an accurate depiction of the whole object.
There are two conventions, used for orthographic projections

(refer to Fig. 2), and they are:
The older First Angle Projection

The more recent Third Angle Projection.
The internationally recognised symbol, of the truncated cone

(frustum), is the key as to whether the First or Third Angle
projection is being portrayed on a drawing.
Side View
Plan View
Front View
Front View
Plan View
FIRST ANGLE PROJECTION
Side View
THIRD ANGLE PROJECTION
Orthographic Projections
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Fig. 2

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The First Angle projection is being used when the truncated end
of the cone is viewed and the two concentric circles are drawn
at the remote end of the cone.
In the same way, the surface of interest (of the object) is drawn
remote from that surface in First Angle projections.
Third Angle projections show the surface of interest drawn
adjacent to that surface, in the same manner that the two
concentric circles are drawn adjacent to the truncated end of the
cone.
Note; It is possible, on some drawings, to find the cone reversed
(end for end), but the location of the two concentric circles,
relative to the truncated end, will always provide the information
as to how the drawing is to be read.

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Axonometric projections
Types and methods of axonometric projection
Axonometric projections are widely used in engineering due to
their pictorial force and simplicity of construction. Axonometric
projections differ from orthographic projections in that in
axonometric an object is projected only onto one plane of
projection called the axonometric {or picture) plane. The
drawing of the object is placed on the picture plane so as to
expose three sides. This is shown in figure (a). In figure (a) the
3-plane orthographic projection is drawn in one plane
axonometric projection.
Exercises in constructing axonometric projections of objects
help a great deal in acquiring the skill of reading and
understanding the language of engineering drawings, as well as
in developing the ability to visualize the shapes of threedimensional objects and to feel the proportions of machine
parts.
In mechanical engineering axonometric projections are used as
an auxiliary to orthographic projections of a mechanical part
when the necessity is felt to give a clearer picture of its shapes,
which are difficult to visualize from the orthographic projections.
Axonometric projections of individual complicated parts or of a

whole unit are often of great help in designing and developing
new products.
Also it is very difficult to read orthographic projections of piping
or electrical network diagrams, especially where sections of
piping or wire are situated in a vertical or a horizontal plane,
since their projections overlap. The axonometric projection of
the same piping or wiring makes it possible to easily realize the
relative positions of the various sections.
Axonometric projections are obtained on the projection plane by
the usual method of projecting. One such projection is shown in
figure (b). There are two such axonometric projections largely in
use. They are
Isometric Drawings (Rectangular Isometric Projections)
Oblique Drawings (Rectangular Dimetric Projections).
Without the axonometric picture it is very difficult to visualize the

shape of the object from the three orthographic projections
alone.

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Isometric drawings
Oblique drawings
Shown on figure (a) below is a simple geometrical object in

isometric projections.
An oblique drawing is a drawing with one object face parallel to

the drawing plane. In other words, two axes are perpendicular
to each other, with the front of the object identical to the front
view of an orthographic drawing. The depth axis of the oblique
drawing is typically 45 degrees. Shown in figure (c) is an
example for an oblique drawing and the plane arrangement is
shown in figure (d).
With Isometric Drawings, the object is rotated so three sides are

visible. In other words, to make an isometric drawing, an object
is rotated so that three views are visible and touching the
drawing plane. Also note that the three sides of the object are
drawn at an angle of 120. This can be seen figure (b).
In isometric drawings, all the edges of the object on the drawing
must form the same angle to the drawing plane. And all
distances are of same length for equal lengths in the object.
This makes an isometric drawing fairly easy since no changes
are made to any dimension.
Since isometric drawing aids in visualizing a part, most pictorial
drawings are illustrated in this way.
An oblique drawing is similar to an isometric drawing in that

three sides of the object are visible. However, one of the object
faces is parallel to the drawing plane.
There are two special types of oblique drawings.
The cabinet drawing, and
The cavalier drawing
A cabinet drawing gets its name from drawings used for cabinet
work. In these drawings, the oblique side is at a 45 degree
angle to the front side and is 1/2 the scale. This allows for an
accurate and undistorted front view. The remainder of the
drawing is present only to illustrate depth.
Cavalier drawings use the same scale for the front view as the
oblique side lines. However, the oblique sides are still set at a
45 degree angle to the front view. This creates a distorted
picture of an object's true proportions. These drawings are
primarily used when detailing is required on the oblique side.
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Perspective drawings
A perspective drawing is used when you need to see an object
similar to the way the human eye sees it. The basic difference
between a perspective drawing and an oblique or isometric
drawing is that on a perspective drawing the lines, or rays of an
object meet at a distant point on the horizon. This point is
referred to as the vanishing point. Perspective drawings are not
generally used in aircraft drawings.
In perspective drawings the rays that project from the drawing
intersect at a vanishing point on the horizon.

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IDENTIFYING TITLE BLOCK INFORMATION
Drawing number
An aircraft engineering drawing (refer to Fig. 7), must certain

data, which is used to prove its validity (and legality). All
alterations to drawings must be made in accordance with a
drawing amendment system, which will ensure amendment to
design records. If an alteration is made, a new issue number
and date must be allocated to the drawing.
No two drawings should bear identical drawing numbers and a

design office should maintain a register of all drawings issued.
The Drawing Number may refer to elements such as the project
identity, the group breakdown, and the individual register
number. Except for repair drawings, the Drawing Number is also
generally the Part Number.
To comply with legislation, procedures must be introduced to

progressively amend the total definition of the product in terms
of its associated list of drawings at specific issues. Each
particular variant of a product and its state of modification must
be identifiable in relation to the appropriate list of drawings.
Handed parts
Title block
The title block is generally pre-printed and contains the
essential information required for the identification,
administration and interpretation of the drawing. It is
recommended that the title block should be at the bottom of the
sheet with the drawing number in the lower right hand corner.
Adjacent to this drawing number should be the title and issue
(alteration) information. For convenience, the drawing number
may appear elsewhere on the drawing, usually inverted so it
can be read whichever way it is filed.
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Drawings of handed parts usually have the left-hand, upper,

inner or forward part drawn. This item is allocated the odd
number, with the opposite hand the consecutive even number.
The drawing sheet bears the legend AS DRAWN and OPP
HAND in the item quantity column. Where necessary the
handed condition is indicated by a local view or annotation.
Sheet numbers
Where a complete drawing cannot be contained on a single
sheet, successive sheets are used. The first sheet is identified
as SHEET 1 of X SHEETS, as applicable and subsequent
sheets by the appropriate sheet number. Where a Schedule of
Parts (Parts List), applicable to all sheets, is required, it appears
on Sheet 1.

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Drawing changes
Part referencing
Change to a design drawing, with the exception of minor clerical
corrections, is usually accompanied by a new issue number and
date. New parts added to the drawing, or drawn on parts
affected by the change, take a new issue number, and parts,
which are not affected, retain the original issue number. In all
cases where interchangeability is affected, a new Drawing
Number and Part Number are allocated.
Details of the drawing changes are recorded in the appropriate
column on the drawing, or recorded separately on an Alteration
Sheet, which is referenced on the drawing.
The issue number may, sometimes, be represented by a letter.
Some organisations use alphabetical issues for prototype
aircraft drawings and numerical issues for production aircraft
drawings; thus all drawings of a prototype aircraft become
Issue 1 when production commences.
An alteration to a single part drawing may also result in changes
to associated drawings, and it may be necessary to halt
manufacture or assembly of the product. The Drawing Office
system usually makes provision for the proper recording of
drawing changes, by publishing concurrently with the re-issued
drawing, an instruction detailing the effects these will have on
other drawings, on work-in-progress and on existing stock.
As a further safeguard, some organisations publish Drawing
Master Reference Lists, which give details of the current issues
of all drawings which are associated with a particular
component or assembly.
7.5 - 51
Every item called up on a drawing is given an item number,

which is shown in a balloon on the face of a drawing. No other
information is given in, or adjacent to, the balloon, with the
exception of information necessary for manufacture or
assembly, such as equally spaced or snap head inside. A
Schedule of Parts is, normally, also included.
Materials such as locking wire and shimming, which are
available in rolls and sheets, will be detailed by specification
number in the Part No column and the quantity will be entered
as As Required or A/R.
Validation of modification/repair drawings
When a modification or a repair is required to be embodied into
an aircraft structure or component part, it usually necessitates
the use of a working drawing to assist with the work.
To ensure the authenticity (and legality) of the drawing, it should
bear a Validity stamp (using red ink) which is applied by the
issuing department.
The stamp consists of the authorisation stamp and signature of
the issuing person and the date on which the drawing is
obtained from the issuing department. In addition the stamp
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The additional date will be that of the date of the next scheduled
revision (usually Quarterly January, April, July, October or
similar) to the relevant manual or document from which the
working drawing has been copied.
Summary of recommended drawing information

Table 3 provides a fairly comprehensive summary of the
recommended basic and additional information, which is likely
to be found on typical aircraft engineering drawings.
Working drawings must not be used beyond their validation

date, but must be returned to the issuing department for
checking and re-validation before use.
Table 3
Recommended Basic and Additional Drawing Information
Recommended Basic Drawing Information
Company Identifier (Name, Logo etc.)
Copyright clause
Date of drawing
Issue information
Projection symbol
Sheet number
Number of sheets
Validation stamp for working drawings
Recommended Additional Drawing Information
Material and specification
Surface texture
Screw thread forms
Sheet size
Print-folding marks
Supersedes
7.5 - 52
Drawing number
Descriptive title of part/assembly
Units of measurement
General tolerances
Original scale
Warning: DO NOT SCALE
Grid or zoning system
Signature(s)
Treatment/hardness
Finish
Tool references
Gauge references
Reference to drawing standards
Equivalent part

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MICROFILM,
MICROFICHE
PRESENTATIONS
AND
COMPUTERISED
Due to the increased complexity of modern aircraft, the amount

of information needed, within the Maintenance, Spares and
Repair manuals, has grown to an enormous extent.
For example, the Maintenance manuals, for one modern aircraft
alone, consist of twenty volumes, each of which would be more
than 76 mm (3 in) thick.
To compress even greater amounts of data, other media are
utilised, to make the information more easily available to aircraft
servicing technicians. These include:
Microfilm
Microfiche
Computers (CD-ROM).
MICROFILM
Because of the condensing of the hard copy books into a small

space; a complete set of maintenance manuals can, thus, be
contained in a small number of microfilm cartridges which can
be stored close to the Reader.
A number of these projectors are provided with a printing facility
that allows the person, reading the film, to print a copy of any
sheets which contain information that is required away from the
machine. All copies, removed from the microfilm reading room,
must be used once only, and not retained for later work. This
practise ensures that amendments and updates are not missed.
MICROFICHE
A similar process to microfilm, with the exception that many
pages of the manuals are reproduced on one clear sheet of film,
measuring approximately 100 mm x 150 mm (4 in x 6 in). Each
sheet is capable of storing a large number of pages (over 100)
of text/drawings and takes up very little space.
This method entails one publication being reproduced, on a roll

of film and contained in a special cartridge case, approximately
three inches (76 mm) square. The pages are sequentially
copied onto the film and wound upon a drum, within the
cartridge case.
A microfilm Reader (a projector) is used, to wind the film
through a gate and display a single page of text/drawing upon
a screen, which is large enough to enable the text and
illustrations to be read and understood.
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The Reader is similar to the microfilm Reader except that the

film slide is moved about, beneath the viewing lens, until the
relevant page appears upon the screen.
By simply pressing a button on the machine, a photocopy of the
page being viewed can be produced for remote use and, once
again, any copies should not be retained for future use.
Amendment of both this and the microfilm system is by direct
replacement, with local disposal of the unwanted items.
Computer cd-rom
The use of computers, with respect to aircraft maintenance
manuals, (and other publications), has the primary advantage of
the huge amount of information that can be stored on one
Compact Disc (CD).
A single computer, located within a maintenance facility, could
have all the necessary publications (such as the Maintenance
Manual, Illustrated Parts Catalogue and Wiring Diagrams), for
the relevant aircraft type, held on one CD.

Supplementary information
It is important that only the current issue, of whichever system is
in use, is supplied to servicing technicians. This means that the
amendment procedures must be carefully monitored (and
especially the disposal of the out-dated material). The new
amendments come with a Letter of Transmittal, from the
relevant authority, in exactly the same manner as they do with
the hard copy technical publications.
Because of the need to dispose of large amounts of information,
whenever even a minor update or amendment is carried out, it
is normal to produce Supplementary Information in hard copy
form, as an intermediate source of current information. These
issues are in addition to either the film/fiche/CD-ROM systems
in use and must be not only carefully monitored, but also well
publicised.
This ensures that the technicians know that the information,
contained in the system they are using, could, possibly, contain
small items of out-of-date information.
As with the other two systems, there should be the facility to

print the necessary information required with, of course, the
limitation that the information is only valid on-the-day, and must
not be used for repetitive jobs.
Updating of computer-based systems is by the simple
replacement of the relevant CD-ROM, although there may be
intermediate amendments.
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AERONAUTICAL STANDARDS
A standard is variously defined as:
Something, established for use as a rule, or basis of

comparison, in measuring or judging capacity, quantity,
content, extent, value or quality, or a level or grade of
excellence
Any measure of extent, quality or value, established either
by law, or by general use, or by consent.
In the normal performance of their duties, technicians can find a

wide array of standards, establishing the characteristics of the
materials and components that they encounter in their day-today work of maintaining and repairing aircraft.
AIR TRANSPORT ASSOCIATION SPECIFICATION NO. 100
Since 1 June 1956, the Air Transport Association of America
(ATA), has used a specification, to establish a standard for the
presentation of technical data, by aircraft, engine or component
manufacturers, that is required for their respective products.
Chapter 2 of the ATA 100 covers policies and standards

applicable to specific manuals and it details the names and
contents of the various manuals that must be prepared by the
manufacturer. Such manuals include the:
Aircraft Maintenance Manual

Wiring Diagrams
Structural Repair Manual
Aircraft Illustrated Parts Catalogue
Component Maintenance Manual
Illustrated Tool and Equipment Manual
Service Bulletins
Weight and Balance Manual
Non-Destructive Testing Manual
Power Plant Build-up Manual
Aircraft Recovery Manual
Fault Reporting and Fault Isolation Manuals
Engine Manual
Engine Illustrated Parts Catalogue.
This specification is known as ATA Specification No.100 (ATA

100), and its two Chapters clarify the general requirements of
the aircraft industry, with reference to the coverage, preparation
and organisation of all technical data.
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Chapter 1 of the ATA 100 covers policies and standards

applicable to all publications and provides a uniform method for
arranging technical material, within the relevant publications, in
an effort to simplify the technicians problem in locating
instructions and parts.

Table 4
Example of ATA 100 Numbering System
In the Arrangement of Material section, in Chapter 1 (1-2) of

the ATA 100, the standard details the use of a three-element
identifier number. Each element of the identifying number
consists of two digits. The first element is designed to provide
identification of all topics or systems, within the respective
manuals, by reference to specific Chapters. The second
element identifies sub-systems (sub-topics) as Sections, while
the third element identifies associated sub-sub-systems (subsub topics) as Subjects.
Table 4 illustrates an example of how the ATA 100 numbering
system (in this instance using numbers ranging from 27-00-00
to 27-31-14) is used, to identify the material which is covered at
particular locations within a typical Maintenance Manual.
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The subject is broken down yet further into Page Blocks to

provide maintenance personnel with more detailed information
on specific topics (or sub-topics) which relate to the Subject
material.
Chapter 1 of the ATA 100 also details the policies and

standards applicable to all publications with reference to the:
Physical Requirements: Format of media (Paper, Film,

Page layout/numbering etc.) and Indexing (List of
Effective Pages [LEPs], Table of Contents [TOC], Text,
Divider Cards, Sequence, etc.)
Issuance and Revision Service
Aircraft and Engine Zoning: Access Door, Port, Panel

and Area identification.
Table 5 shows an example of a Page Block system along with

the topics and sub-topics, which are allocated to the relevant
Page Block numbers.
Table 5
Example of ATA 100 Page Block Numbering System
Topic or sub-topic
Page Block
Description and Operation
1 to 100
Trouble-shooting
101 to 200
Maintenance Practices (if brief)
201 to 300
(Otherwise) Servicing
301 to 400
Removal/Installation
401 to 500
Adjustment/Test
501 to 600
Inspection/Check
601 to 700
Cleaning/Painting
701 to 800
Approved Repairs
801 to 900
Many airlines and similar companies also organise their spare

parts in stores departments under the relevant ATA
specification numbers and, irrespective of the aircraft type,
information on similar components will be found in the same
Chapter and Section. A complete table of the ATA numbering
system, sub-system and titles, allows the technician to
establish, precisely, where the information required can be
found in the respective manuals.
Note: The word EFFECTIVITY - which may appear on the left

hand side of the bottom of a page is used to identify the
aircraft serial number, or manufacturers serial number (MSN),
or aircraft model to which a particular Subject topic may refer
and those numbers will be shown. If the word ALL appears
adjacent to the Effectivity then the information concerns all
types of aircraft (or components), regardless of any serial
numbers.
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INTERNATIONAL
STANDARDISATION (ISO)
ORGANISATION
FOR
This is an international organisation, which has representatives

from each member country, usually consisting of that countrys
own standardising organisation.
AIR FORCE AND NAVY (AN)

The AN system is one of the most widely used standards in
aircraft hardware. It was developed, together with the MS
system, by the US military to ensure quality and uniformity.
Items manufactured to this standard are not limited to the
military and are found in all classifications of aircraft.
BRITISH STANDARDS (BS)

NATIONAL AEROSPACE STANDARD (NAS)
These are controlled by the British Standards Institution (BSI)
and are the recognised body for the preparation and
promulgation of national standards and codes of practice. The
BSI represents the United Kingdom on matters pertaining to
ISO.
Items of hardware used within military aviation, which have

been proven satisfactory by the aerospace industry, can be
granted a NAS designation.
MILITARY STANDARD (MS)

This standard was developed by the military, and has found its
way into all aspects of aviation. The MS (also MIL) standard
has, all but, replaced the AN system and, in many cases, former
AN parts are now being produced as MS or MIL parts.
The suffix usually consists of a letter, which identifies the item
(R for rivet, S for steel, C for cable, etc.), and a serial number.
These standards apply both to hardware and materials. For
example, MIL-C-5424 is a standard 7 x 19, aircraft cable, made
of carbon steel.
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WIRING DIAGRAMS AND SCHEMETIC DIAGRAMS

In addition to the conventional Engineering Drawings, uses are
made of other diagrammatic means of presenting information,
for specific purposes, during maintenance operations. These
auxiliary diagrams can include:
Electrical Wiring Diagrams

Component Location Diagrams
Schematic Diagrams
Block Diagrams
Logic Flowcharts.
On modern aircraft, wiring diagrams can vary from a single

page diagram (applicable to a light aircraft, for example), to
those of a modern jet airliner, which might need to have many
dozens of wiring diagrams to give each system and sub-system
enough clarity to make them useful.
Because some aircraft have very complex electrical and
electronic systems, a separate Wiring Manual is often produced.
The Wiring Manual can include full wiring diagrams, component
location diagrams, and schematic diagrams to provide a system
overview (which show all connections to the components etc.)
to assist in trouble shooting.
Electrical wiring diagrams

Electrical wiring diagrams are included in most aircraft
maintenance manuals and they will specify details such as the
size (gauge) of the wires and the types of terminals used for
each application. Wiring diagrams, typically, identify each
component within a system by its part number, (and sometimes
by its serial number), and will include any changes that were
made during a production run of an aircraft.
There are several types of electrical wiring diagrams. Some
diagrams show only one circuit while others show several
circuits within a system. More detailed diagrams show the
connection of wires at splices and junction boxes in addition to
the arrangement of components throughout the aircraft.
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Component location diagrams

In a Component Location Diagram (refer to Fig. 8), components,
within a specific system, are shown as they actually appear, and
not as symbols or as cut-aways.
This simplifies understanding of the overall system operation.
Electrical Power Receptacle
Component Location Diagram

Fig. 8
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SCHEMATIC DIAGRAMS
Schematic diagrams can be found in maintenance manuals to
represent and give information on aircraft systems such as
electrical, hydraulic, pneumatic, lubrication, air-conditioning, and
pressurisation, and also to provide details for engine and (where
applicable) propeller operation.
Coloured diagrams are not used in maintenance manuals, but a
system of hatching and shading is normally used to indicate
how the system functions.
A typical electrical system schematic diagram (refer to Fig. 9), is
used to give an overview of the complete aircraft system so that
maintenance and diagnosis can be initiated. The diagram may
show sources of electrical power and the distribution of that
power to a wide range of bus-bars. Each sub-system would
have an additional diagram, showing the circuits, in detail, from
those bus-bars.
Gen 1
AC Ext
Gen 2
DC Ext
Automatic AC Bus Transfer System

AC Bus 1
TRU 1
AC Bus 2
Battery
Charger 1
TRU 2
Battery
Charger 2
Battery
1
Battery
2
Batt
Bus 2
Batt
Bus 1
DC Bus Transfer System
Typical Electrical System Schematic Diagram

Fig. 9
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Dec, 2013

Module 7 (Maintenance Practices) Sub Module 7.5 (Engineering Drawings, Diagrams & Standards) Edited PDF

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Module 7 (Maintenance Practices) Sub Module 7.5 (Engineering Drawings, Diagrams & Standards) Edited PDF

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PIA TRAINING CENTRE (PTC)