RESEARCH AND ANALYSIS

Comparison of Life-Cycle
Inventory Databases
A Case Study Using Soybean Production
Shelie A. Miller and Thomas L. Theis

Keywords
agriculture
air emissions
boundary definition
economic input-output
energy use in transportation (GREET)
model
life-cycle assessment

Address correspondence to:

Shelie A. Miller
Institute for Environmental Science and
Policy
University of Illinois at Chicago
2121 West Taylor Street
Chicago, IL 60612 USA
<smille24@uic.edu>
<www.iesp.uic.edu>

Summary
Three established life-cycle inventories of agricultural operations were used to generate air emissions data for soybean production: the greenhouse gases, regulated emissions,
and energy use in transportation (GREET) model; the economic input-output life-cycle assessment (EIO-LCA) model;
and SimaPro software equipped with the Franklin database.
EIO-LCA and GREET baseline data were compared to evaluate differences in boundary definitions that apply specifically
to U.S. soybean agriculture and processing, which resulted in
several major findings. The EIO model estimated for emissions of particulate matter less than 10 micrograms (PM10 )
resulting from wind erosion that were not included in GREET,
but neglected indirect nitrous oxide (N2 O) and nitrogen oxides (NOx ) emissions from fertilizer application. EIO also assumed significantly lower process energy requirements and
lower volatile organic compounds (VOC) for soybean crushing and oil extraction. The GREET and SimaPro models were
compared using identical boundary and assumption data, to
reveal major discrepancies in fundamental assumptions of energy inventories. Key emission factors varied by several orders
of magnitude for basic energy generation and combustion
processes, potentially impacting results for any inventory analysis that contains significant energy consumption. The Franklin
database assumed VOC and sulfur oxides (SOx ) emissions
more than an order of magnitude higher than GREET for
all categories investigated, with significantly lower N2 O and
methane (CH4 ) emission factors.

2006 by the Massachusetts Institute of

Technology and Yale University
Volume 10, Number 12

http://mitpress.mit.edu/jie

Journal of Industrial Ecology

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Introduction
The life-cycle inventory (LCI) process has often been criticized for extensive data requirements, uncertainties in reported data, and the
susceptibility of results to differing assumptions
and boundary definitions (Arnold 1993; Ayres
1995; Beattie 1995; Ehrenfeld 1997; Graedel
et al. 1995; Owens 1997; Thomas et al. 2003;
White and Shapiro 1993). Due to these difficulties, previously constructed studies or models are often used to obtain inventory data. Although numerous methods and modeling tools
exist to expedite the LCI process, results may vary
greatly between models, and it is often difficult to
determine the source of inconsistencies. Differing inventory estimates result from inconsistent
boundary definitions, disagreements in source assumptions regarding material and energy use, or
fundamental differences in the assumed emissions
associated with upstream processes. Overall discrepancies are generally a combination of these
factors, making the origin of disagreements difficult to identify.
In this study, two types of comparisons were
made between three widely used models. First,
models using different approaches (input-output
and process-based) were compared to identify
boundary and source assumption differences. Second, two process-based models with identical assumptions regarding energy and material use were
compared to illuminate fundamental differences
between key datasets. Although many tools can
benefit from this type of analysis, the three models
chosen represent the most common types of LCI
models currently available. Peereboom and colleagues (1998) conducted similar comparisons on
six European datasets analyzing PVC (polyvinyl
chloride) production and found differences ranging from 10 to 1100%. Other studies have also
evaluated inventory models and found similar results, highlighting the need for greater data agreement and transparency of results (Joshi 1999;
Lenzen 2000; Lenzen and Treloar 2002; Norris
and Yost 2001).
The use of biobased material, or biocommodities, as a substitute for petroleum-based products and subsequent environmental comparisons
are important contemporary research topics. Biocommodities are products made predominantly
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from biomass and are often proposed as substitutes for nonrenewable products currently on the
market (Lynd et al. 1999). The most prominent
biocommodities are biofuels such as biodiesel or
ethanol; however, there are numerous biobased
products1 that have the potential to become important substitutes, including plastics, polymers,
inks, solvents, packaging, and lubricants (Dale
1999; Hartmann 1998; Kosbar and Japp 2001;
Lynd et al. 1999; National Academy of Sciences 2000; U.S. Department of Energy and U.S.
Department of Agriculture 2002; Warwel et al.
2001). This study focuses specifically on soybean
production. Soybeans have many potential uses,
are abundantly grown, are inexpensive, and have
readily accessible inventory data.

Methods
Description of Models
The three models analyzed in this study are:
greenhouse gases, regulated emissions and energy use in transportation (GREET); economic
input-output life cycle assessment (EIO-LCA);
and SimaPro. A summary evaluating the attributes of each model can be found in table 1.
Each model compiles a different set of inventory
metrics: EIO-LCA quantifies economic contributions, energy and water consumption, and air
emissions; GREET focuses specifically on energy
consumption and air emissions; SimaPro generates output data that depend upon the organization of process modules. Metrics vary depending
upon information contained within the modules.
Because all three models consistently report air
emission data, these are the basis of comparison
for this study. Although an analysis of air emission data alone does not constitute a complete
LCI, it is an important component, and generates
sufficient comparative information about the differences in these types of modeling tools. A more
complete inventory, which includes supplemental aqueous and solid emissions as well as energy
consumption, is currently being conducted by the
authors.
GREET Model
The GREET 1.5 model was developed by
Argonne National Laboratory in the U.S. to

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Table 1 Comparison of three inventory models for soybean farming

EIO-LCA

GREET

SimaPro

Description

Matrix-based model based

on the linkages of
economic sectors

Detailed process-based
model based on user
assumptions

Modules of process-based
inventory data that are
assembled by user

Scope

485 U.S. commodity

sectors; includes air
emissions, water, and
energy use

U.S. transportation, both

traditional and
alternative fuels,
includes air emissions
and energy use; current
and future estimates

U.S. and European data

for large variety of
sectors that is
expandable; includes
most environmental
impacts

Primary data
sources

U.S. Department of
Commerce Economic
Input-Output Model,
AIRS database

US EPA AP-42
documents, published
studies, government
documents

Franklin US LCI,
BUWAL 250,
IDEMAT 2001,
ETH-ESU 96, industry
and archival data,
others

Advantages

Quick, easy, publicly

available, uses monetary
units, boundary
expansion

Transparent, user
manipulation possible,
flexible to user
assumptions, relatively
quick, publicly available

Applicable to any process,

transparent,
multiple-user interface,
large inventory,
expandable, includes
impact assessment
capabilities

Disadvantages

Aggregation of data, only

for established sectors,
no manipulation
possible, difficult to
track data sources,
outdated data possible,
does not include use
phase

Limited to transportation
and related sectors

Expensive, laborintensive,
inconsistencies possible
between different
modules

Note: AIRS = Aerometric Information Retrieval System; AP-42 documents = U.S. Environmental Protection Agencys
Compilation of Air Pollutant Emission Factors; BUWAL = Bundesamt fur Umwelt, Wald und Landschaft [Federal agency
for the environment, forests, and land] (Switzerland); IDEMAT = Inventory Data of Materials (Technical University
of Delft, The Netherlands); ETH-ESU = Eidgenossische Technische Hochschule, Gruppe Energie-Stoffe-Umwelt [the
Energy-Materials-Environment Group at the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology in Zurich] (Switzerland).

assess the environmental impacts of using traditional and alternative fuel sources in transportation (Wang 1999; Wang 2000). GREET uses
an Excel-based spreadsheet to determine energy
consumption and material releases of criteria air
pollutants and greenhouse gases (volatile organic
compounds [VOCs], carbon monoxide [CO], nitrogen oxides [NOx ], particulate matter less than
10 micrograms (m) [PM10 ], sulfur oxides [SOx ],
methane [CH4 ], nitrous oxide [N2 O], and carbon
dioxide [CO2 ]) for both current and future scenarios. By relying on detailed user assumptions,

emission factors obtained through the U.S. Environmental Protection Agencys Compilation of
Air Pollutant Emission Factors, also known as AP42 documents (USEPA 1995), government documents, and previous studies, GREET calculates
air emissions and energy use for each stage of
fuel cycles from production to use (Ahmed 1994;
Baker and Johnson 1981; Davis and McFarlin
1997; Delucchi 1993; Delucchi and Lipman
1997; Mudahar and Hignett 1987; Shapouri et al.
1995; Sheehan et al. 1998). Because the inventory spreadsheet is entirely transparent, users can

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manipulate any of the inputs and view all calculation cells to determine how a value was derived.
In addition to detailed petroleum refining and energy generation data, GREET contains inventory
data for corn and soybean agriculture, transportation, and processing into ethanol and biodiesel,
respectively.
Of the three models examined, GREET has
the most clearly defined boundary definitions and
baseline assumptions. GREET includes material
and energy flows within the agricultural system
and the manufacturing stages of the materials
used within the system (i.e., fertilizers and chemicals). No capital goods are included, and the
model focuses solely on air emissions and energy use. Air emissions data pertain primarily to
emissions from the combustion of fossil fuels, although estimates of N2 O and NO emissions resulting from residual fertilizer in water runoff are
included. For soybeans, the emission rates of N2 O
and NO are 1.3% and 0.65%, respectively, of the
total amount of applied nitrogen fertilizer. VOC
emissions resulting from hexane extraction are
also incorporated. Particulate emissions due to

wind erosion of agricultural fields are included

for corn farming, although not for soybean farming. The default input parameters for the GREET
model are detailed in table 2, although these values may be manipulated at the users discretion.
The electricity generation mix is assumed to be
53.8% coal, 18.0% nuclear, 14.9% natural gas,
1.0% oil, and 12.3% others (predominantly renewable energy in the form of hydropower). Air
emissions from nonfossil electricity sources are assumed to be zero, although precursors of electricity generation (i.e., uranium mining for nuclear
power) are included. Efficiencies and emissions
are calculated using industry standard values, national averages, and the AP-42 documents.
A recently released beta version of GREET 1.6
uses Monte Carlo analysis to incorporate variability into life-cycle assessment (Wang 2005).
The values reported in this study are taken from
GREET 1.5; the updated version, however, only
makes minor changes in the emission factors relevant to this study. Both versions are available
at <http://www.transportation.anl.gov/software/
GREET/index.html>.

Table 2 Default inputs for the greenhouse gases, regulated emissions, and energy use in transportation
(GREET) model
Chemicals
Nitrogen fertilizer
Phosphate fertilizer
Potash fertilizer
Herbicide
Insecticide

(g/kg soybeans)
4.36
13.68
23.28
1.75 (36.2% atrazine, 63.8% metolachor)
0.018

Energy usage in farming

Diesel
Gasoline
LPG
Electricity
Transportation to extraction facility
(as diesel fuel)

(kJ/kg soybeans)
823
368
32.3
19.9
203

Inputs for soybean oil extraction

Soybeans
N-Hexanea
Natural gas for steam generation
Natural gas
Electricity

5.7 (kg/kg oil)

0.013 (kg/kg oil)
6,730 (kJ/kg oil)
6,500 (kJ/kg oil)
1,423 (kJ/kg oil)

Note: LPG = liquefied propane gas. N-Hexane = solvent used to extract soybean oil from meal. One kilogram (kg,
SI) 2.204 pounds (lbs); one gram (g) = 103 kilograms (kg, SI) 0.035 ounces (oz); one kilojoule (kJ) = 103 joules
(J, SI) 0.239 kilocalories (kcal) 0.948 British Thermal Units (BTU).
a GREET assumes hexane upstream production is similar to LPG from crude. GREET default settings show a value of
476 kJ LPG/kg oil.

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EIO-LCA Model
Economic input-output life cycle assessment
places LCI in the context of complex interactions within an economy. Originally developed
by Leontief (1986), EIO can model the interdependence of sectors within an economy, tracking
the exchange of goods and services. It tracks the
interrelations of 485 economic sectors, based on
the 1992 U.S. Department of Commerce commodity input-output matrix of the U.S. economy.
When economic activity is stimulated within a
single sector, the model quantifies the economic
impact of all relevant sectors that contribute to
the operation of that sector. EIO-LCA attributes
inventory data to each economic sector using
data collected from a variety of sources, including the Aerometric Information Retrieval System (AIRS) database, the Toxic Release Inventory, emissions factors from AP-42 documents,
commodity purchasing obtained from the inputoutput workfiles, and census data. EIO-LCA assigns emissions to each commodity sector and
then determines the aggregate emissions of a
product by examining the sectors that contribute
to that process (Hendrickson et al. 1998). An
electronic version of the EIO-LCA model and a
more detailed description of the process, developed by the Green Design Initiative at Carnegie
Mellon University, is available on the Internet at
<www.eiolca.net> (Carnegie Mellon University
2003). In addition to linking environmental impacts to economic drivers, the EIO-LCA model
reduces uncertainties concerning boundary definitions, because the system has been expanded to
include an entire economy. In this way, capital
goods are included, although they generally do
not contribute significantly to the inventory of a
product or process.
The primary disadvantage of using EIO-LCA
data is that assumptions for the model are not
readily transparent. They are drawn from numerous databases, and although specific assumption information can be gathered by examination
of source data, it can be difficult and timeconsuming. Material outputs from EIO are described as mass emission/$ activity, which must
be converted to mass emission/mass functional
unit (in this case, soybean oil) for purposes of
comparison with other models, which may lead

to additional uncertainty if there are significant

price fluctuations or market instability. If a product is new, or if the sector has changed dramatically, the information obtained through EIO may
not be reliable. This model also pertains specifically to the U.S. economy. Although this is not
a liability in the case study of U.S. soybean production, it may need to be taken into account
in analyses outside the U.S., or those including
significant international trade. It should also be
noted that the EIO model uses the 1992 matrix,
thus commodities undergoing analysis need to be
converted into 1992 dollars. The EIO sector Oil
Bearing Crops was used for values pertaining to
soybean agriculture, based on the assumption that
soybeans are the predominant oil-bearing crop
within the United States and that other common oil crops such as corn and cotton are contained within other sectors. Soybean processing
data were obtained from the EIO sector Soybean
Oil Mills.
SimaPro
SimaPro software (Version 5.1) was developed by PRe Consultants (2001). It is an expandable and transparent software program that
integrates inventory data for a broad spectrum
of industrial and economic sectors. Process-based
inventories of many common systems are compiled into modules of information to be assembled by the user into a complete inventory. In
this way, a user does not need to determine emissions data for basic inputs, such as electricity use
or transportation, but may use available information to simplify an analysis. Users may utilize
their own data to build new modules, or to update
and supplement the softwares libraries. It contains both European and U.S. databases, including BUWAL 250, IDEMAT 2001, ETH-ESU 96,
and the Franklin Database, and is expandable
with new libraries (Frischknecht and Jungbluth
2001; Goedkoop 2003; Norris 2003; Spriensma
2003). It also provides impact assessment tools,
including Eco-Indicator 99, to be used to correlate inventory data with environmental impacts.
The SimaPro software contains data on most
basic processes, with significantly more European
than U.S. data. Data completeness varies from
process to process, because the files are obtained

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from many data sources, which seldom have the

same level of detail. Like the GREET 1.6 model,
a newer version of the software, SimaPro 6, incorporates Monte Carlo Analysis to quantify uncertainty in inventory results (PRe Consultants
2005).
Because the SimaPro model is not equipped
with soybean farming or processing modules, default GREET values, as shown in table 2, were
used to create soybean-specific data. Because the
results of both SimaPro and GREET are based
on similar input data, inconsistencies in results
are indicative of discrepancies in the emissions
of fundamental processes assumed by the two
databases, such as petroleum refining, transportation, chemical production or electricity generation. All data used in this analysis were obtained
from the Franklin U.S. LCI database. The electricity generation mix from the Franklin database
is 67.0% coal, 19.1% natural gas, 6.3% nuclear,
4.0% hydropower, and 3.6% refined and distillate
fuel oils (2.4% and 1.2%, respectively).
Soybean Agriculture and Processing
The United States produces approximately
75 million metric tons of soybeans annually,
representing 45% of global soybean production.
Soybeans are produced throughout the United
States, with intensive agriculture throughout
the Midwest, especially Illinois, Iowa, Minnesota, and Indiana. Average yields throughout
this region are 4146 bushels/acre or 2,800
3,100 kilograms/hectare (Ash and Dohlman
2002). Soybeans are generally rotated with corn
or other crops to maintain soil nutrient balances.
Because soybeans are legumes, and thus nitrogenfixers, they have lower fertilizer requirements
than most other crops, with approximately 20%
of soybean acreage receiving fertilizer annually
(USDA 2003). Insecticide use for soybeans is
also relatively low. Due to the prevalence of
genetic modifications to U.S. soybeans, most
are glyphosate-resistant (Round-Up Ready);
therefore the primary herbicides used on soybean
fields contain glyphosate (Carpenter et al. 2002).
Once soybeans are harvested, they are transported to processing plants to be separated into
oil and meal. Approximately 74% of soybeans by
weight is soy meal, 18% is oil, and hulls make up
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the remaining 8%. In many cases, the hulls are

ground into the meal, except for better quality,
high-protein meal, where the soybean hulls are
separated and can be used for other purposes. The
soybeans are dried and cleaned and then cracked
into suitable pieces for dehulling and flaking. The
beans are then coarsely ground and pressed before being subjected to hexane extraction, which
draws the oil from the meal. The hexane is recovered and recycled through the process. Once
separated, the oil is usually passed through a clay
filter to refine, bleach, and deodorize the crude
oil. The soybean meal can be processed into numerous forms depending upon the end use (White
1995). This process is described in figure 1.
In todays market, soy meal is more valuable
than soybean oil, due to its abundant use in the
feed industry. In recent years, increased demand
for soy meal and reduced desirability of hydrogenated soybean oil in foodstuffs has created a
surplus of oil, which can be used for nonedible
commodity goods, including biodiesel fuel, lubricants, inks, and solvents. Because these products
are derived from soybean oil, the functional unit
for this analysis is the kg of soybean oil, which can
easily be converted to the appropriate functional
unit for the end biocommodity. Reported emissions for soybean farming have been converted
to soybean oil, but not allocated. If allocation is
conducted on a mass basis, the reported values
should be multiplied by 0.18.

Results and Discussion

Inventory data for soybean farming and processing were compiled from the three models, using default assumptions. For the purposes of this
study, only criterion air pollutants and greenhouse gases are analyzed, because these metrics
are common to all three models.
Boundary and Assumption Comparison
To make the data comparable, the inventories were normalized to mass of emissions per
kg of soybean oil. The EIO-LCA model generates data in the form of emissions/$ of activity
(in 1992 dollars), which were converted to a
mass basis. A bushel of soybeans was assumed
to cost $5.60, and soybean oil was calculated at
$0.27/lb,2 as determined by pricing data supplied

R E S E A R C H A N D A N A LY S I S

Soy Meal

Soybean
Grinding and
Flaking

Ground
Beans

Oil Extraction

Meal Processing

Soybean Oil
+

Hexane

Oil Recovery
Hexane
Crude Oil

Oil Degumming
Oil

Figure 1
(1998).

Process flow diagram for soybean crushing process. Adapted from Sheehan and colleagues

by the United States Department of Agriculture

(USDA) (Ash et al. 2002; Good 2001). Also, to
convert from soybeans to soy oil, an allocation
factor of 18% was assumed. The hulls were assumed to be incorporated into the meal, and not
separated.
The results of baseline model comparisons for
soybean farming are normalized to kg of oil produced, allocating emissions on a mass basis to
the co-products. The most apparent difference in
these data is the EIO output for PM10 emissions,
resulting from a difference in source data for the
models, with EIO and GREET containing emission values of 40.84 g PM10 /kg and 0.41 g PM10 /kg
soybean oil, respectively. The National Emissions Trends (NET) network contained within
the AIRS database on which EIO emission information is based (US EPA 1996) reports wind erosion from fields as the largest contributor of PM10
emissions in agriculture. The GREET model includes only PM10 emissions associated with fuel
combustion, and does not incorporate wind erosion. If the effects of wind erosion are subtracted
from the EIO estimates, values similar to the

GREET estimates are obtained. Similarly, this parameter, or some fraction thereof, could be added
to the GREET calculations, depending on the
scope of the assessment.
As shown in figure 2, which neglects particulate matter emissions from wind erosion, EIO
and GREET estimates of CH4 , N2 O, and SOx
emissions vary by more than a factor of 2. For
N2 O values, this inconsistency is attributed to assumptions about fertilizer application and nitrogen transport from the fields. The GREET model
incorporates the denitrification/nitrification reactions of NO
3 in agricultural runoff into N2 O
and NO emissions (assuming an aggregate 1.3%
of applied fertilizer ultimately transforms into
N2 O and 0.65% into NO). Unfortunately, the
data sources for the NET database are not readily
available, so it is uncertain whether this transformation is taken into account in their estimates.
It is a logical assumption that this information
is not included within the EIO data, because
the differential between the models is similar to
the GREET value for nitrogen transformation.
This difference is also partially responsible for

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Soybean Farming Air Emissions

Neglecting Wind Erosion
9.0

Emissions (g/kg oil)

8.0
7.0
6.0
EIO
GREET
SimaPro

5.0
4.0
3.0
2.0
1.0
0.0
CO

PM10

CH4

N2O

NOx

VOC

SOx CO2**

Figure 2 Agricultural air emissions from EIO, GREET, and SimaPro, neglecting particulate emissions due to
wind erosion. All emissions are given in grams per kilogram (g/kg) of oil, except for CO2 , which is in kg/kg
oil. CO = carbon monoxide; PM10 = particulate matter less than 10 m in size; CH4 = methane; N2 O =
nitrous oxide; NOx = nitrogen oxides; VOC = volatile organic compounds; SOx = sulfur oxides; CO2 =
carbon dioxide.

the higher value of NOx emissions in the GREET

model.
In the case of CH4 and SOx emissions, the
primary discrepancy in the data appears to be
differences in the quantity of emissions assumed
to be released through electricity generation.
Although the majority of air emission values for
electricity generation are within the same range
for EIO and GREET, air emissions of SOx and
CH4 are quite dissimilar. GREET generates values of 510 and 280 milligrams emissions per megajoule (mg emissions/MJ),3 whereas EIO gives values of 1,150 and 1,130 mg emissions/MJ for SOx
and CH4 , respectively, assuming a price of 5.12
cents per kilowatt-hour for industrial electricity consumption4 (Energy Information Administration 2003). Because the EIO calculations are
not readily transparent, the source of disagreement pertaining to electricity generation emissions cannot be verified; however, it appears that
EIO assumes greater fugitive methane emissions
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Journal of Industrial Ecology

during natural gas firing or during mining operations. This is likely due to the variability associated with methane release and whether flaring
is employed. The explanation for the SOx differential may be assumptions about sulfur emissions
generated at coal-fired plants before Title IV of
the 1990 Clean Air Act Amendments was enacted. If electricity consumption during farming
is factored out of EIO, the levels of SOx become
almost identical, and the CH4 values are also
similar.
Initially, energy consumption patterns in the
models are within a factor of 2, with total energy
consumption estimated at 3.1 MJ/kg soybeans for
GREET and 2.2 MJ/kg soybeans for EIO. This differential is a result of higher process energy allocated to upstream processes by GREET. GREET
assumes upstream energy consumption of fertilizers and pesticides to be 0.89 and 0.64 MJ/kg
soybeans, respectively. EIO assumes values of
0.23 and 0.12 MJ/kg soybeans. Although sectors

R E S E A R C H A N D A N A LY S I S

such as transportation are responsible for some

of this difference, the differences in assumed energy consumption during chemical processes are
responsible for the majority of the energy discrepancy. Although total assumed electricity consumption associated with soybean agriculture is
similar (0.067 kWh/kg soybeans for both models),
the allocation of electricity to various processes is
quite different. EIO assumes that electricity used
during agricultural operations is 0.030 kWh/kg
soybeans, and the remaining 0.036 kWh/kg soybeans is used for upstream operations. GREET assumes electricity usage of 0.006 kWh/kg soybeans
for farming operations and 0.61 kWh/kg soybeans
in upstream processes. It therefore appears that
the agreement of total electricity consumption
values is coincidental. Due to the nature of EIO,
the lower upstream electricity consumption is surprising due to the expanded system boundaries; it
would be expected that EIO would include electricity consumption from all stimulated sectors
and would therefore be greater.

Air emissions generated from soybean oil mills

are shown in figure 3. Values from the EIO model
for soybean oil processing are consistently lower
than GREET values, particularly in the case of
VOC emissions. The overall lower values are a result of lower process energy assumptions, whereas
the VOC discrepancy originates from differences
in assumptions pertaining to hexane loss. During
the solvent extraction process, which separates
the oil from the meal, large quantities of hexane are consumed. Although most is recycled,
a fraction is volatilized and lost to the environment. The GREET assumptions regarding hexane emissions derive from the study by Sheehan
and colleagues (Sheehan et al. 1998), which assumes a loss of 2.4 g solvent/kg flaked beans,
using a recovery rate of 99.8%. Other studies
have shown a range of hexane emissions from
1.4 to 2.8 g solvent/kg flaked beans (Woerfel
1995). The VOC emissions in this process are
extremely sensitive to this assumption; advances
in technology that either reduce the amount of

Air Emissions from Soybean Oil Extraction

Emissions (g/kg oil)

3.5
3.0
2.5
EIO
GREET
SimaPro

2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5

2*

C
O

SO

C
VO

N
O

2O

C
H

10

PM

C
O

0.0

Figure 3 Air emissions from soybean oil processing from the EIO, GREET, and SimaPro models. All
emissions are given in grams per kilogram (g/kg) of oil, except for CO2 , which is in kg/kg oil. CO = carbon
monoxide; PM10 = particulate matter less than 10 m in size; CH4 = methane; N2 O = nitrous oxide;
NOx = nitrogen oxides; VOC = volatile organic compounds; SOx = sulfur oxides; CO2 = carbon dioxide.
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hexane consumed or increase the recovery rate

will greatly impact the amount of VOCs emitted.
For instance, if hexane emissions are assumed to
be 1.4 g VOC/kg flaked beans, VOC emissions associated with the GREET model would decrease
by almost 50%. The sensitivity of the analysis to
this factor is important in the case of soybean biocommodities, because products such as soy-based
inks, solvents, and lubricants are viewed as favorable alternatives to the higher-vapor-pressure
petroleum counterparts currently in use. Because
it is difficult to determine the exact assumptions
for the EIO sector of Soybean Oil Mills used to
generate the EIO data, the true source of the differential cannot be determined, although lower
overall process energy assumptions appear to be
a logical conclusion.
Due to lack of consensus and uncertain inventory results, updated mills and data may have
significant impacts on this stage of the process.
Neither the GREET nor EIO model data should
be used as stand-alone data. Supplemental process data should be used to obtain the appropriate
inventory values.

Fundamental Assumptions Comparison

In the previous section, the EIO and GREET
models were used to isolate differences in overall
system assumptions, such as boundary definitions
and material and energy flows. The other major
source of model discrepancy is differences in detailed assumptions pertaining to individual processes common to many inventories. In this study,
differences between the GREET and Franklin
datasets were isolated using the same material
and energy flow data. The default GREET values shown in table 2 were inserted into the
SimaPro model, using the Franklin database for
upstream processes. Ideally, similar parameter inputs would yield similar output values. As seen
in figure 2, substantial differences are observed at
the agricultural stage for CH4 , VOC, and SOx
emissions. These inconsistencies result from different sets of emission factors associated with the
upstream processing and use phases of combustion fuels.
Table 3 demonstrates the disparities in emission factors from fundamental supply chain

Table 3 Comparison of GREET and Franklin emission factors for supply chain production of basic energy
sectors (shown as mg/MJ)
VOC
Electricity
GREET
Franklin
Diesel
GREET
Franklin
Gasoline
GREET
Franklin
Natural gas
GREET
Franklin
LPG
GREET
Franklin
RFO
GREET
Franklin

CO

NOx

PM10

SOx

CH4

N2 O

CO2

0.06
0.47

0.20
0.34

1.43
2.41

0.10
0.13

1.75
5.19

0.96
1.46

0.00
0.01

666.09
665.63

8.39
167.58

22.70
21.23

29.63
28.28

2.73
5.54

16.36
86.14

98.44
13.53

0.19
0.01

14,104.71
8,780.71

16.44
161.76

25.73
20.48

36.74
27.29

3.49
5.37

21.19
83.15

106.96
13.04

0.25
0.01

18,476.89
8,481.67

2.93
246.30

19.41
106.89

29.54
55.77

0.79
1.76

3.19
915.50

187.08
176.59

0.12
0.01

6,423.19
7,309.38

6.71
159.00

20.18
20.52

24.12
27.18

1.78
5.13

9.91
82.58

100.48
12.82

0.14
0.01

10,224.92
8,431.30

6.66
167.58

18.16
21.30

18.65
28.41

1.49
5.57

8.82
86.48

91.49
13.57

0.11
0.01

8,292.97
8,825.01

Note: VOC = volatile organic compounds; CO = carbon monoxide; NOx = nitrogen oxides; PM10 = particulate matter
less than 10 m in size; SOx = sulfur oxides; CH4 = methane; N2 O = nitrous oxide; CO2 = carbon dioxide; LPG =
liquefied propane gas; RFO = residual fuel oil. One milligram (mg, SI) = 103 grams (g) 3.53 105 ounces (oz);
one megajoule (MJ) = 106 joules (J, SI) 239 kilocalories (kcal) 948 British Thermal Units (BTU).

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Journal of Industrial Ecology

R E S E A R C H A N D A N A LY S I S

Table 4 Comparison of GREET and Franklin emission factors for combustion during basic energy
processes (shown as mg/MJ)
VOC
Natural gas industrial
boilers
GREET
Franklin
RFO industrial boilers
GREET
Franklin
LPG industrial boilers
GREET
Franklin
Coal-fired industrial
boilers
GREET
Franklin
Diesel industrial
boilers
GREET
Franklin
Diesel trucks
GREET
Franklin
Gasoline trucks
GREET
Franklin

CO

NOx

PM10

SOx

CH4

N2 O

CO2

2.56
4.41

38.96
27.86

88.05
143.92

3.51
4.36

0.29
34.82

1.04
1.62

1.04

56,738.95
54,781.53

0.86
0.86

15.35
15.39

168.90
169.25

5.83
43.08

122.88
735.48

3.07
3.08

0.34

78,360.47
80,010.22

1.79
1.33

17.44
17.44

102.36
102.58

3.07
3.08

0.00
0.09

1.02

4.61

67,816.05
69,752.50

1.42
0.36

11.91
4.15

270.15
29.50

12.00
3.33

568.91
88.51

0.71
0.43

0.28
0.21

92,108.51
12,894.44

0.67
0.67

16.78
16.83

80.28
80.78

3.35
5.05

11.95
97.61

0.17
0.18

0.37

76,206.09
75,394.25

85.30
126.89

473.91
703.46

284.34
706.82

41.25
100.30

11.95
121.84

4.18

1.90

75,212.78
76,740.57

199.04
76.47

1137.38
1417.43

189.56
217.46

7.40
161.51

9.16
16.19

32.05

1.90

69,306.96
68,655.86

Note: Dash indicates no reported emissions. VOC = volatile organic compounds; CO = carbon monoxide; NOx =
nitrogen oxides; PM10 = particulate matter less than 10 m in size; SOx = sulfur oxides; CH4 = methane; N2 O =
nitrous oxide; CO2 = carbon dioxide; LPG = liquefied propane gas; RFO = residual fuel oil.

processes for GREET and SimaPro. Table 4 reports emission factors for the combustion phase.
As seen in table 3, only 20 of the 48 upstream
emission factors are within a factor of 2, predominantly those pertaining to CO and NOx emissions. Emission factors associated with electricity
production are also consistently similar for the
two models, unlike the EIO and GREET comparison, which demonstrated significant disagreement for CH4 and SOx emissions during electricity generation. The Franklin database assumes
consistently higher emission factors for SOx ,
PM10 , and VOC emissions than the GREET values, whereas GREET demonstrates significantly
higher emission factors for CH4 and N2 O. It
is difficult to determine the source of discrepancies in these factors. GREET uses data obtained from the US Environmental Protection
Agencys (US EPA) AP-42 documents, which

rely on calculated emission factors, whereas the

Franklin database uses aggregated data obtained
from industry sources. Both datasets have been
peer-reviewed for appropriateness.
It appears that the Franklin model may neglect CH4 emissions during petroleum extraction. GREET assumes an emission factor of 86 mg
CH4 /MJ during extraction and 13 mg CH4 /MJ
during processing. The Franklin emission factor for methane is 13 mg CH4 /MJ, which appears to be solely for processing. The sources of
the other differentials are not apparent. In addition, high variability is associated with emissions from energy sectors. The recently released
GREET 1.6 beta version and SimaPro 6 version
address variability by incorporating Monte Carlo
analysis to report ranges of values. This type of
data enhances assessments, in order to show the
range of possibilities given different conditions.

Miller and Theis, Comparison of LCI Databases: Soybean Production

143

R E S E A R C H A N D A N A LY S I S

A study examining the use of uncertainty data in

LCA is currently underway.
Assumptions regarding combustion emissions
for basic energy processes are found in table 4.
For these processes, 28 of the 56 categories vary
by more than a factor of 2. Similar to upstream
process emissions, sulfur oxide emissions are consistently higher in the Franklin database. Nitrous
oxide emissions are not reported for any of the
Franklin combustion processes except coal-fired
industrial boilers. Emissions from coal-fired boilers and mobile equipment yield the most dissimilar factors, whereas the two models are most consistent in reporting emissions factors for diesel,
liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), and residual fuel
oil (RFO) boilers. Carbon dioxide emission factors are consistent throughout, with the exception of coal-fired industrial boilers, where data
from the Franklin database are obviously too
low.
To ascertain whether emission factors were
the primary contributor to discrepancies between
GREET and SimaPro values, the Franklin data
contained within SimaPro were amended to
reflect GREET emission factors. This resolved
the major disparities between the models output
values, demonstrating that the emission factors
are primarily responsible for differences in
model outputs, not material and energy flows in
upstream processes.
Figure 3 shows the default results from the
soybean oil processing stage for the models. The
differences in results from both SimaPro and
GREET are similar to those from soybean farming, resulting from differences in emission factors.
Using similar emission factors, the two models are
in good agreement.
GREET, with default values obtained from
AP-42 documentation, predicts significantly
higher greenhouse gas emission values than
SimaPro for any analysis in which combustion processes represent a significant fraction.
SimaPro generates consistently higher SOx and
VOC estimates.
Inventory Assessment and Model
Sensitivity
One of the important steps in life-cycle
assessment is to evaluate which process stage is
144

Journal of Industrial Ecology

responsible for the majority of the environmental impacts. In discussions of biocommodities,

agriculture is often cited as energy- and materialintensive. This assertion is confirmed by the
findings of this study, with soybean oil extraction
producing a smaller fraction of the aggregate
emissions, with the exception of VOC emissions.
Because LCI data can vary widely according
to user assumptions, the sensitivity of models
to changes in assumptions should be analyzed.
EIO data cannot be manipulated by the user, and
therefore cannot undergo as rigorous an analysis
as the GREET model. The GREET database was
therefore examined further to test the sensitivity
of the model.
Figure 4 shows the contribution of each sector
to the total quantity of emissions, as estimated
by the GREET model. It can be seen that nitrogen fertilizer production contributes negligible
emissions when compared to the use of the farming equipment in all cases except SOx and CH4 ,
whereas emissions from runoff are predominantly
responsible for the evolution of N2 O and for some
portion of NOx . This also implies that changes in
assumptions for the use of farming equipment will
have a much greater impact on VOC, CO, NOx ,
and PM10 than changes in fertilizer assumptions.
Emissions are sensitive to changes in each sector
commensurate with the percentage of the emissions generated by that sector. For instance, N2 O
emissions are almost directly related to changes
in the amount of nitrogen in runoff. Halving assumptions pertaining to farming equipment operation will reduce SOx emission values by 15%,
but will reduce VOC emissions by nearly 40%.
Future work will focus on significant changes in
agriculture, such as a shift to sustainable practices, but this is too extensive a topic to discuss
in this article.
Figure 4 also shows that to improve the environmental impacts of current soybean farming practices, reduction in farming equipment
use would have the greatest impact on improving the majority of air emissions. Reduction of
fertilizer inputs would have the greatest impact
on improving N2 O and SOx emissions. Changes
in agricultural practices, such as an increase in
conservation tillage farming, would allow net decreases in farming equipment use, and its subsequent emissions.

R E S E A R C H A N D A N A LY S I S

Allocation of Emissions
100%
90%

Runoff
Transportation
Herbicide
Potash
Phosphorus
Nitrogen
Farming Equip

80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
C
VO

CO

x
NO

1
PM

x
SO

4
CH

O
N2

2
CO

Figure 4 Allocation of emissions for various farming sectors contained within the GREET model. VOC =
volatile organic compounds; CO = carbon monoxide; NOx = nitrogen oxides; PM10 = particulate matter
less than 10 m in size; SOx = sulfur oxides; CH4 = methane; N2 O = nitrous oxide; CO2 = carbon dioxide.

Conclusions
Three different techniques were used to generate LCI data for the production of soybeans. This
study shows that widely accepted models contain
dissimilar data, reinforcing the need for detailed
boundary and source assumptions to help identify
the sources of discrepancies. Initial air emissions
comparisons between GREET and EIO resulted
in five of eight categories having values differing
by a factor greater than 2. The largest disparity,
PM10 emissions, was a result of whether the models included wind erosion of fields in the analysis.
Differences in N2 O emissions were traced back
to air emissions due to chemical transformation
of nitrogen in agricultural runoff. Discrepancies
in CH4 and SOx between the EIO and GREET
models were shown to be a result of differences
in electricity use assumptions during farming, as
well as differences in assumptions about emissions
during electricity generation.
Large dissimilarities were found to exist in
basic emission factors assumed for the GREET

and SimaPro models, in some cases exceeding

a factor of 300. The SimaPro data, which were
taken from the Franklin database, exhibited significantly larger emission factors for SOx , PM10 ,
and VOC, whereas GREET consistently calculated greater CH4 and N2 O emissions. These assumptions ultimately impact the output values.
While initial analysis of the three models
revealed significant differences, the major discrepancies in source assumptions were identified.
This article has sought to evaluate the different assumptions associated with each in order
to demonstrate how these will impact the final
results. Using this knowledge, it may be possible
to use one of the models, but incorporate aspects
or assumptions from other models that may seem
relevant.

Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank Dr. Michael
Wang of Argonne National Laboratories for
his valuable expertise and advisement, and Dr.

Miller and Theis, Comparison of LCI Databases: Soybean Production

145

R E S E A R C H A N D A N A LY S I S

Thomas Seager of the University of New Hampshire for his insightful comments. This research
was funded by the National Science Foundations Integrative Graduate Education Research
and Training (IGERT) (Grant DGE-9720779)
and PREMISE (Grant DMI-0225912) programs
and Alcoa, Inc.

Notes
1. Editors Note: For articles on the industrial ecology
of biobased products, see the special issue of the
Journal of Industrial Ecology on biobased products
(volume 7, issue 34).
2. One pound (lb) 0.4536 kilograms (kg, SI).
3. One milligram (mg, SI) = 103 grams (g) 3.53
105 ounces (oz); one megajoule (MJ) = 106 joules
(J, SI) 239 kilocalories (kcal) 948 British Thermal Units (BTU).
4. One kilowatt-hour (kWh) 3.6 106 joules (J,
SI) 3.412 103 British Thermal Units (BTU).

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About the Authors

Shelie A. Miller is a graduate student at the Institute for Environmental Science and Policy at the University of Illinois at Chicago in Chicago, Illinois, USA,
where Thomas L. Theis is the Institutes director.

Miller and Theis, Comparison of LCI Databases: Soybean Production

147