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STEEL STRUCTURES
Chapter 1
STEEL STRUCTURES
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1. STEEL STRUCTURES
Side wall
Roof
Structure
Cladding
Cladding
Structure
Cladding
Structure
(a)
(b)
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1. STEEL STRUCTURES
(a)
(b)
silos etc.
(a)
(b)
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(c)
1. STEEL STRUCTURES
1.2. DESIGN. FABRICATION. ERECTION
MEd
MEd
H
Truss
Beam-column
Beam
NEd
NEd
NEd
Column
MEd
MEd
VEd
VEd
VEd
All the technical activities involved, meaning design, production of shapes and
plates, fabrication of the structural members and erection must comply with
requirements contained in principles and application rules provided by the codes.
A structure shall satisfy the following requirements during its intended lifetime:
1. It must sustain with appropriate degrees of reliability all actions to occur during its
construction and intended use.
2. It must remain fit for its required use.
This usually leads to two types of requirements to be checked:
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1. STEEL STRUCTURES
strength requirement in order to resist all actions to occur during its intended
lifetime;
stiffness requirement in order to remain fit for its required use (allowable
displacements).
Calculation scheme
IB
Actual
configuration
IC
IC
L
p
Effects of actions
MEd+
VEd+
+
NEd
z
x
y
Actions
y
Fig. 1.6. Main steps to create and analyse the model of a structure
( 1.1 )
( 1.2 )
where:
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1. STEEL STRUCTURES
a the allowable deformation.
E d Cd
( 1.2 )
where:
Ed the design value of the effects of actions specified in the serviceability
criterion, determined on the basis of the relevant combination;
Cd the limiting design value of the relevant serviceability criterion.
Example
p
L
MEd
Fig. 1.7. Example
Strength requirement
E d = M Ed =
p L2
(calculated)
8
R d = M Rd = W
fy
M0
(calculated)
E d R d M Ed M Rd
f
p L2
W y
8
M0
Stiffness requirement
Ed = = f =
5 p L4
(calculated)
384 EI
Cd = a = f a =
L
(allowable)
300
E d C d a f fa
5 p L4
L
384 EI
300
1. STEEL STRUCTURES
R
fy
I shape (W shape)
channel
steel pipe
etc.
rolled plates.
Some built-up elements like plate girders or box sections are fabricated in
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1. STEEL STRUCTURES
American code ANSI/AISC 360-10 [34] it is defined as nominally horizontal
structural member that has the primary function of resisting bending moments.
p
L
M
Equilibrium relations
z
C
MEd0 VEd0
x
NEd=0
z
Ten
z
z
Fig. 1.9. Typical stress distribution for a beam
( 1.3 )
( 1.4 )
where:
MEd effect of actions (bending moment produced by external forces);
MRd resistance capacity (resistant bending moment);
C
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1. STEEL STRUCTURES
Typical problem: The risk of lateral instability (lateral buckling) (Fig. 1.11a) or local
instability (local buckling) (Fig. 1.11b) is typical for metal (steel or aluminium alloy)
members subjected to bending moment.
(a)
(b)
Depending on the practical solution adopted for a beam, the following ones are the
most commonly used cross-sections:
1.a. Rolled beam is a structural beam produced by rolling (hot rolling). The most
commonly used shapes (Fig. 1.12) for beams are the following ones:
IPN
UAP
Fig. 1.12. The most commonly used hot rolled shapes for beams
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UPN
1. STEEL STRUCTURES
1.b. Plate girder (Fig. 1.13) is a built-up structural beam, usually made of welded
rolled plates (sometimes they may be bolted or riveted, especially in the case of
aluminium alloy).
1.c. Lattice girder (Fig. 1.14) is a built-up structural beam made of a triangulated
system of bars subjected to axial forces. It is able to resist forces acting in its plane.
Top chord
Web members
L
M
Bottom chord
C
h
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( 1.5 )
1. STEEL STRUCTURES
NEd = 0 Ten + D cos C = 0 D =
CT
cos
( 1.6 )
he
buckling
buckling
(a)
(b)
Remark: The fact that practically all the compressed structural members are sized by
the buckling resistance of the member is typical for steel structures. In the concrete
structures the loss of stability is an uncommon phenomenon.
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1. STEEL STRUCTURES
For the column in fig 1.17a the strength requirement (1.1) turns into:
PEd PRd =
External force
2 EI
(2 h e )2
( 1.7 )
Critical force
NEd
MEd
P
MEd = H h
Remark: The following are typical for the cross-sections used in metal structures:
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1. STEEL STRUCTURES
Beam
Column
z
y
Beam-column
z
lip
Iy >> Iz
Iy Iz
Iz is improved by lips
(a)
(b)
(c)
Fig. 1.20. Examples of cross-sections for beams, columns and beam-columns
4.a. Vertical bracing (Fig. 1.22) is a structural wall made of a triangulated system of
bars subjected to axial forces.
P
H
P
H
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1. STEEL STRUCTURES
point A
NEd = P
(a)
(b)
Fig. 1.23. Leading a vertical force to the ground
Solution
Use a vertical bar on the acting line of the force P to connect the point A to the
point B on the ground (Fig. 1.23b).
Remarks
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1. STEEL STRUCTURES
1. This solution is the most economical, thanks to the following:
the path AB is the shortest one to carry the force P to the ground;
2. This solution, corresponding to the case of a vertical force, can also be applied in
the case of an inclined force P.
H
point A
h
General remark
In accordance with a principle of structural mechanics, a force H displaces
parallel to itself by its value H and a bending moment M. As a result, it is much more
expensive to carry a horizontal force to the ground than to carry a vertical one.
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1. STEEL STRUCTURES
H
A
VEd = H
h
MEd = H h
B
Fig. 1.25. Solution a for leading a horizontal force to the ground
Remark a
Using this solution, the required area of material to carry a horizontal force H
could be 5 to 10 times (in some cases even more) greater than the required area to
carry the same force acting vertically P = H.
Solution b (Fig. 1.26)
Use a vertical bracing; the simplest one is a triangulated system.
H
Ten
C = Ten
C cos + Ten cos = H
H
C = Ten =
2 cos
a
Fig. 1.26. Solution b for leading a horizontal force to the ground
Remark b
This solution is more economical, because the force H is carried to the ground
by axial forces. For instance, if the force H = P the steel consumption is 2 to 3 times
greater than for the same force P acting vertically, depending on the distance a
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1. STEEL STRUCTURES
between the supports. The greater the distance a is, the arm lever increases and, as
a result, the forces diminish.
x
H
point A
h
Fig. 1.27. Leading a horizontal force and a vertical force to the ground
Solutions (Fig. 1.28)
Four possible solutions are presented, based on the previously discussed ones:
(a) cantilever;
The solution (d) represents a combination between (a) and (c). The cables must be
in tension in any loading case so they need to be pretensioned. As a result, the initial
tension in the cables Teninit must be greater than the highest compression CH
produced by the force H. This solution is generally required by high rise TV towers.
P
P
H
P
H
P
H
Ten
Compressed bar
Pretensioned
cables
Teninit > CH
(a)
(b)
(c)
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(d)
1. STEEL STRUCTURES
Fig. 1.28. Solutions for leading a horizontal force and a vertical force to the ground
Some structural systems based on the solutions presented in figure 1.28 are
shown in figure 1.29. These solutions are developed in order to realise spatial
structures, required both by stability requirements and by the effects of horizontal
forces H acting on any direction.
22
44
33
11
P
H
L
C
B
VB
C
A
AA
Fig. 1.30. Steel structure for sustaining a pipe-line
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1. STEEL STRUCTURES
cantilever columns (C) (Fig. 1.30), sized to resist the vertical forces P and the
horizontal forces H transverse to the line of columns; they also provide the
required stiffness in the transverse plane (each column resists its own P and H
forces); for this reason, their cross-sections are developed in the plane of the
acting bending moment produced by the transverse forces H;
a vertical bracing (VB) (Fig. 1.30), sized to resist all the horizontal forces L
acting in the longitudinal direction and to provide the required strength and
stiffness in the longitudinal direction;
two continuous beams (B) (Fig. 1.30), sized to resist the vertical loads P acting
between columns and to transmit them to the columns; at the same time, the
beams connect the columns in the longitudinal direction.
Remarks
The vertical bracing is typical for a steel structure. It is located in the middle of the
structure, to allow a good behaviour of the structure to the effects of temperature
variations. Built-up cross-sections able to resist bending moments in two planes like
those ones in figure 1.31 are to be avoided due to their high cost of fabrication.
Fig. 1.31. Cross-sections that are not very common for steel columns
Problem 4
Lead to the ground vertical (P), horizontal (H) and inclined (I) forces acting on
the roof or on the floor of a building (Fig. 1.32).
H
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1. STEEL STRUCTURES
Fig. 1.32. Leading to the ground forces acting on the roof
Solutions
Figure 1.33 shows three possible solutions, which are compared in table 1.1
from the point of view of their strength, stiffness and ductility properties.
Strength
resistance to the forces S (NEd, MEd, VEd, TEd produced by the loads.
Stiffness
Ductility
1
plastic hinge
buckling
1
plastic zone
Fig. 1.33. Possible solutions for leading forces acting on the roof
Stiffness
Ductility
M.R.F.
good
poor
very good
C.B.F.
good
very good
poor
E.B.F.
good
good
good
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1. STEEL STRUCTURES
CRG
PH
crane
VB
HTB
Pr
CRG
TRANSVERSE SECTION
SIDE VIEW
PLAN VIEW
VB
HLB
Pr
RHB
MRF
HTB
Fig. 1.34. A typical steel structure for a single storey industrial building
transverse MRF, sized to resist vertical (P) and horizontal (H) forces and to
provide the required strength and stiffness in the transverse plane; each MRF
resists its own P and H forces and their cross-sections are developed in the plane
of the acting bending moment MEd produced by the transverse forces H;
vertical bracing VB, sized to resist all longitudinal forces L acting in the
longitudinal direction and to provide the required strength and stiffness in the
longitudinal direction;
crane runway girders CRG, to resist the forces produced by cranes and to
transmit their P and H forces to the MRF and L forces to the VB.
Remark:
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1. STEEL STRUCTURES
Trusses are often used instead of girders for long span buildings. In this case
MRF is composed of columns and trusses, usually pin connected, like in figure 1.35.
Purlin (Pr)
Truss (T)
Column (C)
Crane runway
girder (CRG)
Fig. 1.35. A steel structure for a single storey industrial building using trusses
Specific terms:
crab crucior
hoist palan
corrugated plate tabl cutat (ondulat)
a frame system (F), resisting both vertical (P) and horizontal (H and L) forces; this
could be a moment resisting frame (MRF), a concentrically braced frame (CBF)
or an eccentrically braced frame (EBF);
Rigid diaphragm floors and side frame systems provide the torsional rigidity of the
whole building, which is fundamental for the good behaviour of the structure when
subjected to horizontal loads.
Figure 1.37 shows three very well-known present-day performances in highrise skyscrapers construction.
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1. STEEL STRUCTURES
PLAN
1
CBF
EBF
Petronas Towers
Sears Tower
Empire State
381m 1931
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1. STEEL STRUCTURES
Figure 1.38a shows one of the tallest building in the world, Taipei 101,
situated in Taipei, Taiwan. Present day (2015) tallest building in the world is Burj
Khalifa (Fig. 1.38b), previously known as Burj Dubai, placed in Dubai. It was built
between September 21st 2004 and January 4th 2010.It is 828 m high and it has 163
floors; the total built surface is 334000 m2 (source Council of Tall Buildings and
Urban Habitat (www.ctbuh.org)).
Taipei 101
Burj Khalifa
(a)
(b)
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