CHAPTER III

OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE OF WATER DISTRIBUTION

NETWORK FOR URBAN WATER SUPPLY
A Maintenance system
A pipeline maintenance system must ensure that all required maintenance work can be carried
out with ease. The system is actually determined by the scale and type of facilities, the
number of employees, and other aspects, but the system must also be able to cope with
operation under both normal and emergency conditions.
1 Normal operation
1.1 Facility patrols and inspection
Capital equipment and personnel qualified to conduct periodic patrols, inspections, servicing
and surveys must be provided in order to prevent pipeline accidents from occurring.
1.2 Pipeline drawing preparation
Pipeline drawings are essential for the maintenance of pipelines, and they must be absolutely
correct because they are used on regular basis. This is why pipeline drawings must be
prepared, and a system for their control must be established.
2 Emergency operations
Pipeline leaks may cause flooding of homes, traffic accidents and traffic jams due to sunken
roads, insufficient flow, and turbid water. In order to minimize such damage when a leak
occurs, a system must be in place to initiate repairs immediately. As part of the system, it is a
good idea to establish a stand-by system or an on-duty system organized into a cohesive unit
that can respond in the event of an emergency.
3 Night and holiday dispatch
A dispatch system must be established for nights and holidays since leaks can occur just as
well outside business hours. In order to prepare for unexpected accidents, a mobilization plan
must be set up ahead of time that designates essential restoration personnel and outlines
notification arrangements so personnel can be summoned immediately and assigned to
departments and sections.
4 On-call contractors
In order for designated contractors to perform repair work, there must be a system of
contractors, a method for designating emergencies, and annual contracts signed for handling
accidents. An emergency call-out system must be established using a shift system that
includes a number of companies, and a base must be set up with permanently stationed
communications personnel to cope with unexpected accidents at any time, including nights
and holidays.

5 Emergency water supply

Water wagons and portable cans must be prepared to provide emergency supplies to areas cut
off from water. Coupling to distribution pipes in surrounding areas and neighbouring cities as
well as other measures are highly desirable for providing immediate water supply assistance
in order to keep the area cut off from water to an absolute minimum.
6 Equipment and repair material preparation
Spare pipes for repairs organized by type and diameter as well as restoration machines and
equipment must be kept in a constant state of readiness. In particular, a chart showing the
amount of materials stored for emergency, a chart summarizing work equipment, an
emergency mobilization plan and a work division chart must be prepared and inspected
periodically each year. Ideally, materials stored for an emergency will be shared by
neighbouring cities.
Examples of work equipment include chain hoists, winches, pipe cutters, welding equipment,
grinders, pipe work tools, service connection tools, and lighting equipment.
7 The Osaka Municipal Waterworks Bureau system
7.1. Maintenance office functions

Construction site inspections on work by other utilities, such as gas lines, power lines and
telephone lines:
Exposed pipeline protection inspections;
Water pipeline leak and damage inspections;
Leak repairs.

Pipeline facility repair:

Pipeline leak detection and repair;
Pipeline appurtenance repair;
Test excavations for surveys.

Line patrols:
Pipelines, pipe bridges, easements.

Sluice valve operation:

Prior surveys (position checks, operating sluice valve checks);
Operation (water shutoff, water flow, pipe flushing).

Pipeline appurtenance inspection:

Sluice valve, air valve and fire hydrant inspection and servicing;
Valve chamber inspection and, servicing.

Public notification:
Water shutoff, turbid water occurrences, noise due to construction, construction
schedule plans.

g) Patrol of construction sites along water lines.

h) Surveys for pipe laying and positioning.

2

Measurements of water pressure, flow rates and residual chlorine densities.

j) Pipe flushing:
Draining turbid water;
Systematically flushing sediment deposits and scale deposits in the distribution
pipes.

7.2 Number of staff

Maintenance office

Eastern Western Southern Northern Total

Office manager

Assistant manager

Executive engineers

12

Executive officers

Engineers

15

13

14

16

58

Clerical personnel

11

12

12

11

46

Pipe fitters

58

57

56

56

227

Drivers

15

Warehouse personnel

10

Delivery personnel

7.3 Number of vehicles owned

Maintenance office Eastern Western Southern Northern Total
Pickup trucks

Trucks

12

Jeeps

1;

Small vans

17

16

16

16

65

7.4 Main equipment and tools

Maintenance office

Eastern Western Southern Northern Total

Flowmeter

Water pressure gauge

10

15

11

11

47

Transceiver

27

Submergible pump

11

Drain pump

13

Generator

15

15

14

44

27

20

37

15

99

25

70

19

38

152

Pipe cutters
3

Water tank (1m )

Plastic containers (10 litre) for emergency water
supplies
Plastic containers (20 litre) for emergency water
supplies
7.5 Materials stored for an emergency

Name of Material
Straight pipe
Fitting bend 45
22.5
Collar
Flanged socket
Flanged spigot
Double flanged pipe
Gate valve
Fire hydrant Single-type
Double-type
Flange packing
Rubber gasket
Retainer gland
Bolt and nut
Leak clamp
Split repair sleeve

075mm0350mm
1 each
4 each
4 each
2 each
1 each
1 each
2 each
1 each
1 each
I each
2 each
8 each
8 each
8 sets each
6 each
3 each

0400mm01000mm

2 each

4 each
4 each
4 sets each
2 each
l each

7.6 Contractor agreements for repair work

One of the following methods may be used for contracting repair work:
Major non-emergency repair work. Regular contracted work agreement.
Major emergency repair work. Only certain contractors are eligible, and these contractors
have first priority for this work. The contractor's agreement is concluded after work has
been completed.
Minor repair work. Contracts are concluded per unit cost of the work type, such as
excavation, backfilling, pipe laying, work on joints, steel sheet piling, concrete, etc.
4

The procedures for minor repair work are as follows:

Work per unit cost is contracted every six months.
In the event of an accident, the Maintenance Office will dictate repairs to the
contractors.
Engineers from the Maintenance Office will monitor the repair work and
prepare the records.
Contracted companies will submit photos and repair reports as well as requests
for payment every two months.
An inspector will compare the volume of work with the work records and
photographs, and will make sure that payment requests are in order.
Payment will be made to the contracted companies for completed work.
7.7 System procedure for unexpected accidents
One engineer, four pipe fitters and one driver will serve as on-duty emergency personnel at
each Maintenance Office during the day and night all year around, including holidays, to
handle unexpected accidents along pipelines.
One of the repair companies contracted for minor repair work will always remain on call at
night. The system ensures that someone will be on the scene of an accident within thirty
minutes of receiving notification if an accident occurs anywhere in the city, so that accidents
can be processed as quickly as possible.
The trust of our citizens starts with quick repairs.
B Line patrols
There is a constant danger of leaks occurring because pipelines are exposed to various types
of construction work, traffic loads, corrosion, uneven settling of the ground and earthquakes;
and the pipes themselves suffer from ageing. Frequent leaks can have a major impact on the
lives of citizens not only because of water shutoffs and reduced water flow, but roads and
other underground facilities may be damaged or homes may be flooded. This is why it is so
important to constantly patrol pipelines and inspect facilities in order to prevent leaks or to
find them as quickly as possible.
1 Factors leading to leaks from pipeline facilities
1.1 Leaks from iron pipes
Leaks from iron pipes are broadly classified as either cracks or corrosion. The main factors
leading to cracks are unusual stresses and external damage, while most corrosion is caused by
rust on the inner and outer surfaces.
1.1.1 Pipe cracks
Grey cast iron is neither as strong nor as tough as ductile iron and it cannot withstand harsh
laying environments, such as high traffic volume, so leaks do occur. Osaka City has been
using ductile iron pipes for new installations and old pipe replacement ever since ductile iron
was first developed, so the number of pipes cracking has decreased every year.

Differences in the mechanical properties of ductile iron pipes and grey cast-iron pipes are
shown in Table 3.1.
Table 3-1 Mechanical properties

min. 420
min. 590
min. 10

Grey cast-iron
pipe
150 - 260
200 - 360
Negligible

15-17 x 104

10-12 x 104

Approx. 20 x 104

max. 230

max. 230

Approx. 140

Ductile iron pipe

Tensile strength (N/mm2)
Bending strength (N/mm2)
Elongation (90)
Modulus of elasticity
(N/mm2)
Hardness (HB)

Steel pipe
min. 400
min. 400
min. 18

1.1.2 Pipe corrosion

Damage to the coating on the outer surface of pipes during laying, as well as damage due to
various types of constriction after laying, are two of the factors leading to corrosion.
Corrosion gradually eats its way into the inner surface, and ultimately carbonizes the pipe.
This type of corrosion reduces the strength of the pipe, and is a major factor in breaks and
other damage.
Some of the factors leading to corrosion in underground pipes are attributed to the effects of
soil, such as the composition and non- uniformity, as well as the electrical resistance, aeration,
pH levels, dissolved salt content and bacterial activity.
When pipes are laid in corrosive soil areas, using the polyethylene-sleeving corrosionprotection method is recommended. In the polyethylene-sleeve encasement method, the entire
length of the pipeline is covered with a 0.2mm thick polyethylene sleeve on site. These
polyethylene sleeves prevent direct contact between the soil and the pipes, even though the
polyethylene film does not adhere to the surface of the pipe.
Even if a polyethylene sleeve is damaged and ground water enters the gap between the sleeve
and the pipe, such water remains stagnant and unable to move. Then the depolarizers, such as
oxygen, are consumed and, as a result, corrosion is suppressed.
With regard to the polyethylene sleeve standards, national standards such as BS6076 and
ANSI/AWWA C105 are popular. Recently, the polyethylene sleeve has also been
standardized in ISO 8180.
Corrosion from the inner pipe surface is caused by rust forming in iron pipes that are not
internally lined and the rust may, in some cases, markedly reduce the fundamental water flow
capacity of the pipe. The rust is not only a factor leading to leaks caused by cracking because
the strength of the pipe is reduced by pipe carbonization, but rust effluent is a factor leading to
turbidity in tap water.

Figure 3.1 Polyethylene sleeve encasement methods

1.1.3 Leaks from joints
Until 1955, iron pipes were joined by hemp yarn and lead. One of the drawbacks of this type
of joint was that joint sections were easily loosened by vibrations, such as traffic loads and
earthquakes, so that if recaulking the lead on joint sections every time a leak occurred was
inadequate, leak prevention fittings had to be attached in addition to the caulking.
Around 1955, a mechanical joint that offset the drawbacks of lead joints and offered both
superior installation and leak prevention characteristics was developed. Osaka City used pipes
with the mechanical joint for new installations when existing pipes were replaced. This
effectively resulted in fewer leaks from joint sections in iron pipes every year. These new
connecting methods take advantage of the elasticity of rubber. Generally, loosening and
slippage are prevented by bolting the rubber in place. Maintenance on the pipelines should not
be overlooked, however, because rubber degrades, bolts come loose, and there is a danger that
the pipes will disconnect if vibrations from road works and the ever-increasing traffic volume
continue for a long period of time.

Figure 3.2 Mechanical joint

1.2 Leaks from steel pipes

The features of steel pipes are the basic characteristics of steel, i.e. strength, and full
integration through welding. Like the joint sections in iron pipes, leaks from steel pipes may
be generated in the expansion joint installed to absorb pipe expansion and contraction caused
by earthquakes and temperature fluctuations.
When leaks are generated by corrosion of the steel pipe, electrolytic corrosion is often the key
factor leading to the leak. This is because steel pipes, which form a continuous tube welded
together by joint sections, are excellent conductors, and thus are highly susceptible to
electrolytic corrosion caused by stray current in the ground. Therefore, measures for cathodic
protection must be implemented for the particular pipe-laying environment, such as under
electric train tracks and near high-voltage power cables.
Pinhole corrosion due to improper coating causes some leaks. Other leaks on exposed
pipelines, such as pipe bridges, are caused by advanced corrosion as the coating deteriorates
due to progressive oxidation caused by rain or temperature fluctuations connected with
seasonal changes. Therefore, periodic repainting of the exposed steel pipes before the onset of
advanced corrosion due to coating deterioration is essential for extending the service life of
pipes.
1.3 Leaks from asbestos cement pipes
Asbestos cement pipes are made by adding asbestos fibres to water mixed with cement and
quartz sand, prior to curing in water and treatment by autoclave curing. The pipes are
lightweight, resistant to corrosion, and generate neither electrolytic corrosion nor rust
tubercles because the pipes are non-metallic and are not subject to reduced water flow
capacity. On the down side, the pipes have less shearing strength than either iron or steel
pipes, so they often leak because of breaks and cracks.
There has been tremendous interest in recent years in using asbestos cement pipes for water
pipelines as a result of growing concerns about asbestos being carcinogenic when used as a
building material. Unlike asbestos fibres that disperse into the air, very little asbestos fibre
dissolves into water from water pipes, so the pipes are considered relatively safe for now.

1.4 Leaks from plastic pipes

Plastic pipes are lightweight and inexpensive, they resist corrosion and rust, and they are easy
to install. These pipes, however, have relatively low resistance to external shocks and heat,
and volatile liquids such as thinner can seep through the pipes with relative ease. Ultraviolet
rays also break down the plastic pipes when the pipes are exposed. These drawbacks should
be kept in mind when using plastic pipes.
Plastic pipes are connected with either a bonding agent or with rubber rings.
2 Line patrols
The most basic maintenance of pipelines will be a line patrol carried out periodically by the
staff concerned. Preventive maintenance is particularly, important for pipelines, to detect any
problems in advance and hence avoid serious damage. Preventive maintenance is based in
principle on three senses: walk, look and touch. Line patrols must be implemented
systematically based on a set implementation programme. At the same time, some type of
system must be set up to deal quickly and appropriately with a situation deemed abnormal.
2.1 Equipment carried along for patrols

Pipeline drawings (1/3000 and 1/1000);

Measuring tape;
Inspection report sheets.

2.2 Patrol targets

Underground pipelines;
Patrols should pay particular attention to trunk pipelines, pipelines where leaks
frequently occur, and pipelines buried along main roads;
Pipe bridges;
Pipeline easements;
Construction sites for other utilities.

2.3 Frequency of patrols

Patrols should be initiated whenever required, and they should check for damage especially
immediately after heavy rains or earthquakes.
3 Underground pipelines
3.1 Details of tasks
3.1.1 Presence of leaks
If roads are wet or the cracks in the pavement are moist, even though it has not rained or
water has not been sprinkled on them, there is a possibility of a leak. Apparently, there does
not seem to be any imminent danger in the case of such leaks, but water storing up under the
pavement may sometimes be creating empty spaces so moisture could be a prelude to a street
cave-in.

3.1.2 Presence of dips or cave-ins on roads above pipelines or in neighbouring areas

When an underground leak occurs, earth and sand in the surrounding area may be washed
away, or the earth and sand may be compacted by the water to form an empty space
underground. This type of situation most often occurs when sand is used for backfilling.
Even if an empty space develops under paved roads, the road is supported solely by the
strength of the pavement at first. But the road eventually gives way under its own weight and
the weight of vehicular traffic, and it starts to sink. Roads with heavy vehicular or crowded
foot traffic may sink just as a heavy vehicle passes over, and thus pose the very real danger of
pedestrian and other accidents.

Figure 3.3 Road cave-in

3.1.3 Water flowing into manholes
Since various lines and facilities for other utilities, such as electricity, telephones, water
and sewer lines, are laid under roads, manholes are installed at regular intervals in order to
service those lines and facilities. When manholes are opened for inspections or
construction work, water may be flowing out from the cracks in the side walls, or may be
brought from other lines to form standing water, and leaks from water pipes should be the
first consideration in most of these cases. There are times when leaking water is brought
from a long way away, and inspecting the manhole on the upstream side of the water flow
with the cooperation of the utility companies concerned is required. In some cases, more
detailed surveys based on pipeline drawings may be imperative.
Water seeping into pipes from the joints of sewer pipes is often discovered with sewer
lines. Exceptionally heavy rains and underground water may also be the cause, but often
the blame can be laid on leaks, so surveys on leaks from inside sewer manholes are very
important.
When U gutters and street gullies are installed on both sides of a road, just rain water or
general waste water from households and factories normally flow into the U gutters and
street gullies. But if surprisingly clear water can be seen flowing in when the cover to the
street gully is lifted, then there is a high probability that the water is leaking from service
lines. This is a key point in discovering leaks during U gutter and street gully surveys.

10

Figure 3.4 Leakage flowing into manhole

3.2 Handling
Check for the presence of leaks if any signs of leakage or any abnormalities are found along
the pipelines. Repairs should begin immediately if it is determined that there is a leak.
The strength of patrols comes from observation and attentiveness

11

Table 3.2 Line patrol inspection report

12

4 Pipe bridges and bridge-attached pipes

When water pipelines have to traverse rivers and other natural obstacles, often pipe bridges
are installed, or pipes are attached to road overpasses. Maintenance on water pipelines in such
locations is not very easy, so it tends to be overlooked. Attached pipes are, along with the
overpass, constantly subjected to vibrations from vehicular traffic, while the pipe bridges are
constantly subjected to wind and direct sunlight. Both types of pipe are directly exposed to
variations in the ambient temperature, and therefore have to cope with much more severe
conditions than underground pipes. As a result, there is a very high risk of leaks because the
pipe itself tends to corrode due to the coating breaking down and peeling, and joints tend to
loosen due to vibrations and other factors.
Pipe sections that are attached to bridge abutments often leak at the joints of the pipes because
of differential settlement at the boundary between the ground and the bridge abutments, and
water sometimes runs from the bridge abutment into the river.
4.1 Details of tasks

Superstructures:
Check water leakage from pipes, air valves and expansion joints.
Check that the structures are not rusted.

Substructures:
Check for settling, sloping, and cracks in the concrete.
Survey whether every anchor bolt is fastened tightly against every concrete base
(whether there is no loose anchor nut).
Survey whether any excessive scouring/corrosion by river water flowing around
abutments and/or piers.

4.2 Handling

Initiate repairs immediately if there is a leak.

If rust is observed, repaint every structure with designated paint after removal of any
rust.
With other types of damage, initiate repairs if the damage is prominent.

Pipe bridges are the only pipeline installations clearly visible to the outside world.

13

Table 3.3 Pipe bridge inspection chart

Pipe bridge no.

Inspection month/day/year

Name of pipe bridge

14

15

5 Pipeline easements
Table 3.4 shows the details of tasks for pipeline easements.
Table 3.4 Details of tasks for pipeline easements
Details of tasks
Check whether boundary posts are
damaged, missing, sunken or moved.

Handling
Restore posts to their original condition.

Check whether boundary fences, signs or

Repair or replace with stronger materials.
gates are damaged.
Check whether the land is overgrown with
Mow the weeds.
weeds.
Check whether dirt, sand or garbage is
being dumped illegally on the land.

Remove the dirt, sand or garbage. Install

fences and signs along the boundary, and
notify the public.

Check whether the land is occupied

illegally.

Remove all illegal objects, negotiate with

the occupiers, and remove any possessions.

6 Construction site for other utilities

Whenever there is construction work such as sewer, gas, electricity, telephone or building
construction near water pipelines or that will expose pipes, patrol inspections must be
implemented to check whether there are any adverse effects on the pipeline, and every effort
must be made to prevent leaks before they happen. The most important point with
construction work by other utilities is to get information about the construction work as soon
as possible, to hold a sufficient number of meetings prior to the start of construction, and to
thoroughly check the positions of pipelines at the construction site. In order to carry these out
most effectively, it is best to keep pipeline drawings organized at all times, and to hold
information meetings with each of the utilities involved.

Figure 3.5 Damage due to construction work by other utilities

16

6.1 Details of tasks

6.1.1 Prior to the start of construction

Exchange agendas with the contractor, and verify details.

Make the contractor submit contact numbers and addresses in case of an emergency.
Require the contractor to do test excavations to verify the precise position of pipelines.
Require the contractor to mark pipe positions, openings and depths with paint on
roads.
Require the contractor to drill observation shafts in order to measure the amount of
pipe settling.
Check whether valves and fire hydrants will be available for use as usual. (Marked
with paint.)

6.1.2 During excavation

Check whether the contractor is confirming the pipe position by excavating to expose
the top of pipes before installing piles or sheet piles.
Check whether there is sufficient distance between the pipes and the piles or sheet
piles (50cm or more as a rule).
Check whether to use manual labourers for excavation when pipe will be exposed.
Check, whether gushing water or sand will flow out from gaps between the sheet piles.
Check whether the road surface behind the sheet pile is not settling.

6.1.3 When pipes are exposed

Check whether water is leaking from the pipes.

Paint all joints, and check whether any are disconnected.
Check whether restraining equipment or steel reinforcement is set perfectly to prevent
pipe fittings from disjointing.
Check whether the pipeline can cope with expansion and settling by using expansionflexible joints.
Check pipe suspension structures:
Are special beams used to secure suspension fittings?
Are steel sheets and iron bolts used for suspension fittings? (Wire rope need not be
used.)
Is a turnbuckle mounted to adjust the suspension fitting for expansion?
Is the spacing between suspension fittings too wide?
Nominal diameter

Space between suspension fittings

350mm max.

2.0m max.

400mm min.

1.5m max.

Are steel support beams installed under heavy appurtenances, such as gate and
butterfly valves?

17

Check the spacing between water pipes and other underground pipes:
Locations where water pipes run parallel to other underground pipes.
Nominal diameter

Space from other underground pipes

450mm max.

30cm min.

500mm min.

50cm min.

Locations where water pipes intersect other underground pipes.

Nominal diameter

Separation from other underground pipes

450mm max.

30cm min.

500mm min., without joints

30cm min.

500mm min., with joints

50cm min.

Locations with appurtenances such as gate and butterfly valves:

Separation from other underground pipes should be at least 50cm.
6.1.4 When backfilling

Check whether the backfilling earth is good quality earth.

Check whether the backfilling earth under and around the pipes is adequately
compacted by rolling compaction or other methods.
Check whether the sheet piles are pulled out after the backfilling is adequately
compacted.
Check whether the valve chamber is properly restored.
Check whether the iron cover on the valve chamber has been buried after backfilling.

18

Table 3.5 Survey chart for sluice and other valves

19

C Leakage control work

Leaving pipes leaking wastes clean water that has gone through intake and treatment
processes at great expense. This is not only an economic loss, but can also be the cause of
poor water supply quality and city water pollution as well as secondary disasters, such as
traffic accidents due to road cave-ins. These are some of the reasons why it is so important to
prevent leaks. The demand for water today is growing in nearly every city in the world, but
increasing water supplies entails significant problems related to developing water resources.
In some areas, moreover, the water resources themselves are critically insufficient. From this
standpoint, it is also crucially important that we prevent water leaks in order to make more
efficient use of existing water resources.
Leaks are broadly classified as either above-ground or underground leaks. Above-ground
leaks are leaks generated in the ground which then appear on the ground, as opposed to
underground leaks that are also generated in the ground, but never appear on the ground.
Leaks must be prevented before they occur, and those that already exist must be detected and
repaired as quickly as possible. Since above-ground leaks can be seen, they are easy to find
and can generally be repaired in a very short time. Underground leaks, on the other hand,
cannot be found without special surveys, so it takes a long time from the minute the leak is
discovered until it is actually repaired. The volume of water lost is therefore tremendous. A
leak left alone tends to increase on its own. This is why it is so important to detect and repair
underground leaks on an ongoing basis, and how efficiently underground leaks are detected is
critical to leakage control overall.
1 Analysis of distributed water volume
1.1 Purpose of analysis
The distributed water volume is the amount of water transmitted into water supply areas
through the main distribution pipes from the service reservoirs. The water volume is measured
and recorded by a flowmeter installed at the starting point of the main distribution pipe.
Distributed water volume analysis looks at how the distributed water volume is consumed by
specific items. When establishing leakage control policy, first of all it is important to analyse
the distributed water volume in the organization and grasp the current status of water use and
leakage, to analyse the effects of leakage control measures and to select the most effective
method.
In Japan, distributed water volume is analysed according to Table 3.6 by the directive of the
Ministry of Health and Welfare. The statistics in the table are 1992 figures for Osaka City.

20

Table 3.6 Distributed water volume analysis

Distributed water
volume
3
566,211,200m
(100.00%)

Authorized
water use
3
521,125,829m
(92.04%)

Accounted
water volume
3
491,298,393m
(86.77%)

Metered water volume

477,341,295m3(84.30%)
Sub-distribution volume
13,754,503m3(2.43%)
Others 202,595m3(0.04%)

Unaccounted
water volume
29,827,436m3
(5.27%)

Unauthorized
water use
3
45,085,371m
(7.96%)

Unmetered consumption
3
26,328,821m (4.65%)
Utility water use
3,498,615m3(0.62%)
Selected reduced price
water volume
3
3,788,512m (0.67%)
Amount of leakage,
unexplained water volume
3
41,296,859m (7.29%)

1.2 Terminology, definitions and explanations

Distributed water: This refers to the total volume of water flow (transit volume) at
the starting point of distributed pipelines. The starting point of distributed pipelines
refers to the point at which distributed pipelines branch off from the outlet of a
distribution reservoir, a distribution pump station, or from transmission pipelines. In
order to measure distributed water volume, a flowmeter must be installed at the
starting point.

Authorized water use: This refers to the water volume which provides income and
the water volume authorized for use in the water supply business.

Account water volume: This refers to the water volume that provides income from
water rates or from other public accounts.

Water volume charged for water rates: This refers to the water volume based on
water rate collection. Where a meter is installed on the service line (meterage
connection), it refers to the actual metered volume of water used, but where no meter
is installed on the service line (flat rate connection), it refers to the volume obtained by
multiplying the basic water consumption by the number of taps or users.

Sub-distribution volume: This refers to the water volume sub-distributed to other

water supply organizations, and the rate for the water volume is collected from them.

Others: This refers to the water volume that provides income from other public
accounts, such as water for public parks, water for public restrooms and fire-fighting
water.

The water volumes described above must be accurately obtained from reports received from
affiliated companies.

Unaccounted water: This refers to water volumes that do not provide income for
21

consumption.

Unmetered water volume: Even though consumption is authorized, this refers to

water volume that cannot be charged for due to the insensitivity of meters at individual
connections.

Meters in general use have an appropriate or proper flow rate range, depending on the type of
meter, because of their mechanisms. Outside that range we cannot expect an accurate flow
rate and the difference grows between the actual flow rate through the meter and the measured
flow rate. In such circumstances, the measured flow rate is usually lower than the actual flow
rate. This difference is the unmetered consumption, and is characteristic of each meter, so it
differs according to the type of meter, the pipe diameter, and the age of the meter.
Selecting the proper meter diameter according to actual flow rate is crucial, and the meter
must be installed according to standard installation procedures. Use of meters where either of
the above was not done correctly aggravates unmetered consumption.
Since it is impossible to actually measure unmetered consumption for every meter installed,
generally some meters are selected at random and their unmetered consumption is measured.

Utility water use: This refers to the water volume used in the maintenance activities
required for distribution facilities, such as water for leakage control work as well as
water for flushing distribution and service lines.

Unauthorized water volume: This refers to any water volume not authorized for use.

Selected reduced price water volume: This refers to the amount of water released
because of turbidity, repairs or other reasons, and targeted for reduced pricing by an
adjustment in water rate charging.

Leakage: This refers to the amount of water that leaks from service lines upstream
from the meter and from distribution pipelines downstream from the flowmeter.

Unexplained water volume: This refers to the remainder after subtracting the sum of
the above items from the distributed water volume. When the ratio of individual water
volume types to the distributed water volume is expressed as a percentage (%), we get
the following:
Authorized rate (%) = authorized water volume/distributed water volume x 100
Unauthorized rate (%) = unauthorized water volume/distributed water volume x 100
Account rate (%) = account water volume/distributed water volume x 100
Leak rate (%) = leakage/distributed water volume x 100

1.3 Errors for individual water volume type

The unexplained water volume is the accumulated measurement errors for individual water
volume types. Special attention must be given to the following points in order to reduce these
accumulative errors.

Measurement errors in distributed water volume: The metering error of

flowmeters becomes more difficult to measure as the scale of the distributed water
volume increases. It is possible to measure the metering error, for example, by
comparing the value calculated from variations in the water level of the service
22

reservoir to the value measured by the flowmeter in order to compensate for the
flowmeter error.

Calculation error for the water volume for flat rate connection: It is desirable to
shift flat rate connections to meterage connections by installing a meter. In Osaka City,
all service connections are meterage connections.

Recognized error in water volume for public use: Meters should be installed for
water used in public facilities, such as public parks and public restrooms. It is also
important to set a calculated standard to get a precise understanding of the amount of
water used for fire fighting. In Osaka City, flowmeters are being installed in all firefighting vehicles, and in all public parks and public restrooms.

Recognized error in unmetered water volume: There are multifarious use

conditions for service installations, so it is important to select and use the proper water
meter for each type of service installation. It is also necessary to manage and maintain
meters to facilitate meter reading and replacement. Moreover, it is important to bear in
mind that careless installation of meters is directly related to unmetered water volume
and failure soon after installation.

Recognized error in utility water use: With water used for business, such as flushing
turbid water and cleaning pipes, closely following water pipeline construction,
standards must be prepared for the calculation method as well as the confirmation
method for on-site water use volumes in order to obtain accurate data.

Recognized error in settled reduced price water volume: When damage or other
problems with a water meter make it impossible to measure the consumption, the use
conditions must be surveyed, and as accurate a water volume as possible must be
estimated.

Unexplained water volume: During meter inspections, bill collections and leakage
control work, every effort must be made to find and prevent illegal service
connections, such as service lines that are connected without permission as well as
unlawfully laid service lines that do not run through a meter.

2 Leakage control
2.1 Proposing implementation plans
2.1.1 Selecting work or implementation areas
The first step in an implementation plan is to select work or implementation areas on a
priority basis. In urbanized areas, underground leaks generally tend to occur most often in the
following locations:

Paved roadways;
Areas with sewer lines installed;
Places where the underground water level is high;
Places where the ground is mostly sand or gravel.

23

Areas with frequent above-ground leaks also tend to have frequent underground leaks.
Therefore, the following points must be considered by individual areas when selecting a work
or implementation site.

Number of leak repairs in the past;

When the pipes were laid;
Depth of the underground water level;
Current status of sewer line installations.

2.1.2 Establishing the work cycle

Even though an underground leak may be repaired once, new leaks can appear with the
passage of time, and small leaks will eventually expand over time. This phenomenon is
known as leak restoration. With implementation plans for leakage control, determining the
average work cycle is a critical part of the plan. Work areas with high account rates, areas
with excellent water supply conditions, and areas with high leakage control costs are served
more economically by longer work cycles. Work areas that tend to have insufficient flow or
that tend to have high rates of leak increases are more economically served by shorter work
cycles.

Figure 3.6 Leakage restoration

We generally see the following relationship when it comes to work cycles and the cost of
leakage control. As the work cycle gets longer, the cost of leakage control decreases because
the work length per year is less, but leakage increases over the period. Conversely, as the
work cycle gets shorter, the cost of leakage control increases because the work length per year
is longer, but leakage decreases over the period. Therefore, the most economical work cycle is
when the sum total of the cost of leakage control and the cost of leak losses is lowest.

24

Figure 3.7 Cost of leakage control and the cost of leak losses
The following is a calculation method for determining the most economical work cycle.
First, the relationship between the work cycle and the cost of leakage control is expressed as
follows:

X:
L:
n:
A:
A1:
A2:
a:

Cost of leakage control (yen) in one year when the work cycle is n (years).
Length of distribution pipes (km) targeted in the leakage control.
Work cycle (years).
Cost of leakage control per kilometre of pipe (yen/km).
Cost of leak surveys per kilometre of pipe (yen/km).
Cost of leak repairs per kilometre of pipe (yen/km).
Cost of repairs for the number of new leak locations generated in one year per
kilometre of pipe (yen/km).

Next, the relationship between the work cycle and the cost of leak losses is expressed as
follows:

Q:
S:

Cost of leak losses (yen) in one year when the work cycle is n.
Unit cost of leakage (yen/m3).
25

q:
r:

Leakage per kilometre of pipe that remains even after leak prevention work
(m3/day/km).
Newly generated leakage in one year per kilometre of pipe (m3/day/km).

Since the most economical work cycle is n when X+ Q is at its minimum:

The work cycle obtained from the above calculations comprises a full round to each
successive work area, but the use of the equations is strictly limited to leakage control work
targeting naturally increasing leakage.
Individual figures used in the equations may vary tremendously depending on conditions, so it
is difficult to rely on the accuracy of the calculated results. Because of this, setting the
average work cycle within four to five years, or two years particularly in critical districts, is
highly recommended.
Leaks cause costs (required expenditures) and effects (economic effects).
2.2 Work procedure for leakage control
The work procedures for leakage control are as follows:

Designing a work zone.

Investigating and servicing pipeline appurtenances.
Measuring the zone leakage prior to starting detection work.
Detecting leak locations.
Repairing leak locations.
Measuring the zone leakage after repair work has been completed.
Organizing after work has been completed.

2.2.1 Designing the work zone

A work zone is the work unit for leakage control, and an appropriate size for each work unit is
set based on pipeline drawings. The size of a work zone is determined by the distribution
pipeline network, the number of service line branches, the position of sluice valves, the
accuracy of the leakage measurement, and the work efficiency. Generally zones are set so that
one zone covers a 13 kilometre distribution pipeline. Installing sluice valves when required
is a good way to decrease the size of work zones.
2.2.2 Inspecting and servicing pipeline appurtenances
2.2.2.1 Verifying site details against the drawings
Inspect the current status of pipelines and appurtenances within a work zone through pipeline
drawings and ledgers for pipeline appurtenances. To verify actual site details against the
drawings, confirm the exact locations of pipelines, sluice valves, fire hydrants and other
appurtenances, and obtain actual measurements about distribution pipe length and other
details. If there is anything unclear, excavate to search for it.
26

2.2.2.2 Inspecting service installations

Inspect all service installations, conduct functional surveys on all curb stops at every house
connection, and service malfunctioning equipment.
2.2.2.3 Functional inspection of sluice valves and fire hydrants
Inspect sluice valve functions in order to block the work zone, and service so that the water
can be completely shut off. Fire hydrants should also be surveyed for leaks, and serviced.
Repair or replace unusable equipment.
2.2.2.4 Checking water shutoff work
Check sluice valve operating procedures for blocking the work zone to measure the zone
leakage. Be sure to notify water users, fire stations and others affected before the day that the
water is shut off.
2.2.3 Zone leakage measuring prior to starting detection work
The direct and indirect measuring methods are the two means available for measuring leakage.
2.2.3.1 Direct measuring method
The procedures for this method are as follows:
Use a hose to connect a fire hydrant outside the work zone to one inside the work
zone, and install a flowmeter and a water pressure gauge between the two hydrants.
Completely block the work zone with a sluice valve.
Completely close the curb stops for all service lines in the work zone.
After verifying that there is no water use, measure the water volume flowing into the
zone from outside the work zone with a flowmeter. This is the leak water volume.
The flow rate should be measured in 13 minute intervals, and the measuring time
should be at least 30 minutes without noticeable fluctuations in the flow rate.
One of the advantages of this method is that the measuring accuracy is extremely high
because all curb stops in the work zone are closed. The disadvantage is that closing and
opening all the curb stops requires a significant amount of time and labour.

27

Figure 3.8 Method for measuring leakage in a zone

2.2.3.2 Indirect measuring method
When the curb stops are not closed in the procedures above, the water volume that flows into
the zone from outside the work zone is the sum of the used water volume and the leakage.
Measured flow rate = leakage + used water volume
Here, if the flow rate is measured while absolutely no water is being used in the work zone,
then the measured flow rate is just the leakage. During the mid-night hours (1am to 4am),
when the volume of water used is low, these periods may be designated periods without water
use even though the time is short, and the measured flow rate at this time is also referred to as
the leakage: In the indirect measuring method, the minimum flow measured during these midnight hours is regarded as the leakage.
The work procedures for this type of measurement are as follows:
Use a hose to connect a fire hydrant outside the work zone to one inside the work
zone, and install a flowmeter and a water pressure gauge between the two hydrants.
Completely block the work zone with a sluice valve.
Measure the water volume flowing into the zone from outside the work zone with a
flowmeter. The minimum flow measured is the leakage. In general, the measuring
time should be at least one hour.
28

Figure 3.9 Periods with no water use

The advantages of this method are that the work involved in servicing and closing the curb
stops is eliminated, and that measurements can be taken without confusing users about water
shutoffs. The disadvantage is that the measurement may actually include water use, so this
procedure is not as accurate as the direct measuring method.
Since there is some long-term water use even during these mid-night hours because there are
large-volume users, such as those who have receiving tanks in the work zone, the accuracy of
this method can be improved somewhat by closing the curb stops of such users before taking
the measurement, with prior notice to the users.
Generally, when measuring the minimum night flow in small work zones (few service line
branches, low population in the work zone), there are many periods with absolutely no water
use, and long continuous periods without use, but as the work zone becomes larger, there is
less time with absolutely no water use, and continuous periods without use are extremely
short.
It must also be remembered that the frequency of periods with absolutely no water use, as
well as continuous periods without use, varies depending on the character of the work zone
(whether it is a residential or commercial area). A highly accurate meter must be used when
taking flow measurements in zones with short continuous periods with absolutely no water
use.

29

Figure 3.10 Opening and closing the curb stops of large-volume users
2.2.3.3 Leakage conversion for water pressure
The results obtained by measuring leakage are actually leakage in terms of water pressure at
the time of measurement. Since water pressure varies with the season and time of day,
estimating the actual leakage involves surveying the average water pressure in the area being
measured, and then converting the leakage corresponding to that pressure. Normally measured
leakage is collected, and is treated as a statistical volume, so if an appropriate standard water
pressure is set, the leakage is converted in terms of the standard water pressure, and is written
down with the leakage at the time of measurement. This information can then serve as data
that is both reproducible and universal.
In Osaka City, the standard water pressure is set at 2.0kg/cm2. The following equation is used
to convert leakage for water pressure:

Q0:
Q:
P0:
P:

Leakage at the time of measurement.

Converted leakage.
Water pressure at the time of measurement.
Standard water pressure.

The exponent r is one of the following:

r = 0.5: This figure is used when it is assumed that the leak hole is an orifice.
Experiments have indicated values very close to this for individual leaks.
r = 1.0: This figure is used when it is assumed that gaskets in the joint section or
cracks in the pipe are leaking into the surrounding soil.
30

The current status of the leak determines which of these two figures will be used.
2.2.4 Detecting leak locations
The detection of leak locations involves primarily placing a sound-listening stick in direct
contact with objects, such as sluice valves, fire hydrants, air valves, curb stops and meters.
Check for leaks by touching the other side of the listening stick to your ear to discern leak
noise from the complex range of noises generated above and under the ground. This basic
method has not changed in the years since leak detections were first instituted, and it is still
used today to detect leak locations. The detection does require a certain amount of training.
As far as actual leak noise is concerned, outflowing noise that scrapes against pipe walls when
water is flowing out from pipes, or impact noise that occurs when water strikes various soils
surrounding the pipe, are intricately formed and reach the ground level by propagating
through a medium, such as earth and sand. The frequency of the noise varies widely
depending on the conditions, such as peripheral soil, pavement types, piping materials and the
ground's ability to cut off water. Non-metallic pipes in particular are not as good at
propagating leak noise as metallic pipes, so such pipes do not facilitate detection of leak
locations with an acoustic leak detector.
In addition to the noises above, flowing water noise in pipes, traffic noise and other noises,
such as vibrations, that are similar to leak noise are constantly present and often hinder
listening. Depending on the circumstances, conducting detection at night may be more
effective in areas where traffic and urban noise hinder acoustic detection.
The detection of leaking water entails attentiveness and a desire to succeed.

31

Figure 3.11 Sound listening stick

Figure 3.12 Acoustic detection for leak locating with the listening stick

32

2.2.4.1. Characteristics of leak noise

Propagating distance of leak noise: The propagating distance of leak noise in

pipeline has tendencies as shown in Table 3.7.

Table 3.7 Propagating tendencies of leak noise

Pipes with long propagating distances

Pipes with short propagating distances

Small diameter pipes

Large diameter pipes

Cast iron pipes, steel pipes, asbestos cement

pipes, lead pipes, stainless steel pipes

Polyethylene pipes, plastic pipes

New pipes (pipes with no scaling or corrosion)

Welding joints, lead connecting joints

Old pipes (pipes with heavy scaling and

corrosion)
Joints that use rubber gaskets

Low-pitched leak noise

High-pitched leak noise

Acoustic characteristics of leak noise: Table 3.8 shows the general relationship of
leak noise categories that can be heard.

Table 3.8 The relationship of high- and low-pitch leak noise to various conditions

High-pitched noise

Low-pitched noise

Small leak holes

Large leak holes

Complex leak hole shapes

Simple leak hole shapes

Fast flow through the leak hole

Slow flow through the leak hole

Small diameter pipes

Large diameter pipes

Steel and stainless steel pipes

Cast iron, asbestos cement, plastic and

polyethylene pipes

Short distance

Long distance

High water pressure

Low water pressure

False leak noise: The problem with detecting leaks using the acoustic detection
method is that there are false sounds, such as noise and extraneous sounds that closely
resemble leak noise. In terms of how noise is generated, false leak noise is
continuously generated by a variety of noise sources, such as water flowing through
pipes, tap water use, circuit noise inducted from power cables, exciter frequency noise
constantly generated by electric transformers and fluorescent lights, motor noise and
wind noise if the wind speed is 4 metres per second or faster. When these types of
noises are propagated through the air and ground, there is a real danger that they will
be mistaken for leak noise. This is why it is so important to get a good understanding
beforehand of the characteristics of the noises that closely resemble leak noise:
The sound of flowing water in pipes. The scraping sound generated when
flowing water passes through pipes or passes around obstacles in the gate valve
is propagated through water and pipe walls as a vibrational sound. When a gate
valve is not fully opened, the scraping sound of flowing water can in no way
be distinguished from leak noise. These scraping sounds are a hindrance to
acoustic leak detection.
Circuit noise, such as power cables. Power cables laid underground,
transformers on poles, street lights and other such equipment generate low33

frequency noise through inductive current and exciter vibrations, which mean
that special care must be taken when listening anywhere near such facilities.
Water tap noise. Water tap noise is generated when large volumes of water
are in use. Special care must be taken here because it is quite easy to
mistake this sound for leak noise when acoustic leak detection is
conducted on pipelines. The sound of water tap use can be distinguished
by closing and opening the curb stop.
Flowing sewage and dripping noise in manholes. Flowing sewage and dripping
noise in manholes sound very much like leak noise, but the dripping sound
characteristic of surface water as well as a heavy reverberating noise can be
faintly heard. Special care must be taken here when conducting acoustic leak
detection.
Traffic noise. Traffic noise is transitory and the volume of the noise varies
irregularly, so this type of noise is quite easy to distinguish. However, the
scraping sound of tyres at least 60 metres away can easily be mistaken for leak
noise, so special care should be taken here in acoustic leak detection.
Wind shear noise. A low-frequency wind shear noise is generated if the wind is
blowing during acoustic leak detection, and this may well be mistaken for leak
noise. If the wind speed is 46 metres per second (can be felt on the skin),
wind shear noise becomes continuous, and sounds most like leak noise, so it is
the most difficult to distinguish. At wind speeds higher than those listed above,
leak noise cannot be heard at all.
Urban noise. Urban noise is a combination of various noises, such as wind,
building cooling and heating equipment as well as traffic, which forms in the
valleys created by tall buildings. The frequency components of this noise cover
a broad spectrum, and may hinder listening surveys because they include a
frequency component very close to that of leak noise.
Tremendous time and effort are required to detect leaks, so let's try to repair them as
quickly as possible.

34

2.2.5 Leakage flow rate

The leakage flow rate is measured with a beaker and ladle, and is assumed from the current
drain status of the drain pump (capacity, number of rotations, operating times). Significant
training is required to eliminate subjective individual differences in the measurements. If the
leakage measured in the zone leakage measurement prior to starting detection work is close to
the total leakage metered individually at the time of repair, then it can be supposed that all
leaks in the zone or in the pipeline have been repaired, and the leakage measurement after the
repair work has been completed can therefore be eliminated.
Table 3.9 Leakage measuring for 13mm service pipes
When there is drip
No. of drips per
minute

10

30

50

70

100

150

200

Leakage (ml/min)

1.3

2.3

7.0

11

16

23

31

43

When there is continuous flow

2.2.6 Measuring zone leakage after repair work has been completed
Zone leakage is measured again after detection and repairs on leak locations have been
completed in order to determine the effectiveness of work that has been done.
Here every effort should be made to prevent leaks, but setting zero as the goal for leakage in
actual works requires significant expenditures and labour, and so is not very economical.
There are times when a certain amount of leakage is unavoidable in terms of economics and
technology. Here we will talk about the concept of unavoidable leakage as a work target. It is
impossible to set a uniform figure for unavoidable leakage, but generally a standard is set for
the average leak density for all supply areas.
The work procedure is the same as the one for the zone leakage measurements prior to
starting work, and a zone passes if leakage is below the unavoidable leak level. If leakage
exceeds unavoidable leakage, then detect and repair operations are instituted again.
2.2.7 Organization after work has been completed
Work reports are prepared and pipeline drawings as well as appurtenance ledgers are revised
once the leakage control work has been completed. An example of the form used for work
reports is shown in Table 3.10.

35

Table 3.10 Report on implemented leakage control work

36

ANNEX III
CHANGE IN LEAKAGE CONTROL MEASURES IN OSAKA
MUNICIPAL WATER WORKS BUREAU
A Leakage control measures taken by Osaka Municipal Water Works Bureau
Figure 3.13 shows the change in leak rate in Osaka City. Before 1944, there was no correct
statistical data concerning leak rate, but the waste-water volume was 25% to 29% of supplied
water volume, meaning that no special measures were taken to control leakage. In 1945,
leakage control measures were taken for the first time because the estimated leak rate had
reached 70% due to war damage. In the early stages, the leak rate dropped rapidly with the
implementation of leakage control measures, but after that it decreased only gradually. At
present, the leak rate is about 7%. In this period, leakage control measures were changed
several times, thereby affecting the leak rate.
Table 3.11 shows the changes in leakage control measures. From 1945 to 1946, temporary
leakage control measures were taken for urgent pipe repairs in heavily damaged areas.
However, from 1947 the focus switched to systematic leakage control. From 1952, the work
area of systematic leakage control was expanded to the entire city and the work began to be
implemented cyclically.

Time
1945
1947
1952
1960
1965
1991

Table 3.11 Changes in leakage control measures

Measures
Leak Rate (%)
Temporary Leakage Control
70
Systematic Leakage Control (Specified Area)
51
Systematic- Leakage Control (Entire City)
31
Service line Improvements
24
Distribution Main Improvements
20
Discontinuance of Systematic Leakage Control
7

On the other hand, service line improvements were commenced in 1960 and distribution main
improvements were commenced in 19.65, as other preventative measures against leakage. The
combination of systematic leakage control measures and facility improvements were able to
reduce the leak rate to less than 10%. However the low leak rate caused low cost efficiency in
systematic leakage control. Accordingly, systematic leakage control was discontinued in 1991.
B Details of each control measure
1 Temporary leakage control
Table 3.12 shows the temporary measures for leakage control taken from 1945 to 1946. A
special unit was organized and exclusively charged with implementing these measures that
were effective when the leak rate was high. Immediately after the Hanshin Earthquake in
January 1995, temporary leakage control measures were taken in the early stages of the
restoration work. However, as the leak rate decreased to a certain level, the measures became
insufficient and other measures were employed.

Table 3.12 Temporary measures for leakage control

37

Closing curb stops of unused service lines

Closing sluice valves of unused distribution mains

3
4

Plugging broken lead pipes by crushing

Installation of temporary curb stops

2 Systematic leakage control

In 1947, the next measure taken was systematic leakage control. This measure comprised
block leakage measurement, leak detection and leak repair. Figure 3.14 shows the procedure
of systematic leakage control. At first, the objective area is divided into blocks using a utility
map and the leakage volume in a block is measured. If the leakage volume is smaller than the
allowable volume, the control work moves to the next block. If the leakage volume is larger
than the allowable volume, leak detection and repair are carried out until the leakage volume
is reduced to below the allowable volume.
Initially, this measure was implemented only in high leak rate areas. But later, extremely high
leak rate areas disappeared as systematic leakage control progressed and the objective area
was expanded to the entire city. At the same time, this measure began to be implemented
cyclically with a certain work cycle.
The allowable leakage volume was set by block leakage measurements because significant
expenditure and labour is required to detect and repair all existing leaks, including very small
leaks. As the leak rate decreased, the allowable leakage volume was changed over time, as
shown in Table 3.13.
Table 3.13 Allowable leakage for block leakage measurement
(at water pressure of 2kgf/cm2)
Paved Road
Unpaved Road
3
1947-1949
80m /day/km
50m3/day/km
40m3/day/km
1950-1951
20m3/day/km
20m3/day/km
1952-1964
5m3/day/km
3
1m /day/km
(24m3/day/km)
1965To improve work efficiency, newly developed instruments have been introduced into
systematic leakage control work. Leak detectors and iron pipe locators came into use in 1949.
Self-recording flowmeters were introduced in 1967. Until that time, for block leakage
measurements, all curb stops in the work block were closed and the block leakage volume
was measured directly. But from 1967, to eliminate the significant amount of time and labour
needed to close and open all the curb stops, the minimum night flow measurement method
was adopted and self-recording flowmeters were introduced. In 1986, leak noise correlators
were introduced for leak detection work.
3 Distribution main and service line improvements
In addition to the above leakage control measures, other preventative measures, namely
distribution main and service line improvement projects, were commenced. Distribution main
improvement was implemented in 1965 aiming to reduce leakage, excessive friction loss and
turbid water occurrence in unlined pipes. Pipe replacement, inner surface re-lining, hose
lining and inner pipe insertion methods were employed as improvements.
38

Service line improvements have been implemented since 1960 with the aim of reducing
leakage and maintaining sufficient flow capacity. Service installations are installed at
customers expense and customers are responsible for maintaining service installations.
However, in many cases leaks on service lines leading to meters are left as they are.
Accordingly, Osaka Municipal Waterworks Bureau is improving service lines leading to
meters at the bureau's expense in order to provide comprehensive maintenance of water
supply facilities.
To increase the effects of facility improvements, when a distribution main is improved,
service lines connecting to that distribution main are replaced at the same time. Figure 3.15
shows the change in distribution main length by joint type. Unlined grey cast-iron pipes with
lead joints were used until 1955 in Osaka City. To improve distribution mains, these unlined
lead-joint pipes are being actively replaced or permanently repaired because they corrode
easily and leak more than mechanical joint pipes with internal lining. As a result, the
proportion of lead-joint pipes declined from 63% in 1965 to 13% in 1994.
Figure 3.16 shows the change in service line length by piping materials. The lengths shown in
Figure 3.16 are only the under road section. Lead pipes were the main piping material up to
1956, but the length of lead piping decreased by 39% by 1994. Conversely, the length of PVC
pipes increased to 56% by 1994 with the progress of service line improvements. In addition to
replacement of aged pipes, the following measures were also taken as service line
improvements to facilitate the maintenance of service lines:
Changing service line locations from private land to public roads;
Simplification of complicated multi-parallel service lines;
Changing meter locations from the inside of houses to the outside;
C Discontinuance of systematic leakage control
As a result of the systematic leakage control measures and facility improvements, the leak rate
dropped steadily. However, when the leak rate fell below about 10%, the low leak rate
reduced the efficiency of systematic leakage control. The cost of leakage control has also
exceeded the cost of leak losses prevented by leakage control since 1988.
To make matters worse, decreases in the leak rate and increases in the cost of leakage control
resulted in a longer work cycle for systematic leakage control. If the work cycle gets longer,
some underground leaks appear on the ground surface and are repaired immediately before
the next leakage control work is implemented. This situation reduces the necessity and lowers
the efficiency of systematic leakage control measures. For these reasons, systematic leakage
control measures were discontinued in 1991.
D Future prospects for leakage control
The future prospects for leakage control by Osaka Municipal Waterworks Bureau are as
follows.
1 Distribution main and service line improvements
The first measure is to promote distribution main improvements and service line
improvements as preventative measures for leakage control. Unlined lead-joint pipes and lead
pipes still remain in the city, thus pipe improvements will continue to be implemented in the
future.

39

2 Inspection of third-party construction sites

The second measure is to inspect construction sites of other utilities such as gas, sewer,
electricity, telephone or building constructions, near water pipelines. On such construction
sites, the probability that pipes will be damaged is relatively high, but it is also easier to
inspect or repair pipe leaks because pavements and surrounding earth have been removed and
sometimes pipes are exposed.
3 Formation of a block distribution system
The third measure is to form a block distribution system in the pipe network. Block
distribution systems can facilitate pressure control as well as detect and repair leaks.
Distribution main improvements should be implemented in consideration of this measure.

40

Figure 3.13 Change in leak rate

41

Figure 3.14 Work Procedure for systematic leak control

42

Figure 3.15 Distribution main length by joint type

43

Figure 3.16 Service line length by piping material

44

Operation maintenance of water distribution network

Slide1

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Slide7

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1947- 49
1950- 51
1952- 64
1965- 91

Paved Road

Unpaved Road

80
40
20
1

50
20
5
--------

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U n its:m 3 / day/ km

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